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Baal

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For other uses, seeBaal (disambiguation).
Baʿal
Solid cast bronze of a votive figurine representing the god Baal discovered atTel Megiddo,dating to the mid-2nd millennium BC.
SymbolBull,ram,thunderbolt
Region
Genealogy
Parents
SiblingsHebat(in Syrian tradition),Anat
ConsortspossiblyAnatand/orAthtart[1][2]
OffspringPidray,Tallay,Arsay[3]
Equivalents
Greek equivalentZeus[4]
Mesopotamian equivalentHadad
Hurrian equivalentTeshub
Egyptian equivalentSet(due to being a foreign god inEgypt,since Set was the god of foreigners – otherwiseBaal Zephonequivalent with Hadad who is analogous to Ba’al, was also equated withHorus)[5]
Deities of theancient Near East
Ancient Egyptian
Arabian
Eblaite
Elamite
Hurrian&Hittite
Levantine
(CanaaniteandUgaritic)
Mesopotamian
Religions of the ancient Near East

Baal(/ˈbeɪ.əl,ˈbɑː.əl/),[6][a]orBaʻal,[b]was a title andhonorificmeaning 'owner' or 'lord' in theNorthwest Semitic languagesspoken in theLevantduringantiquity.From its use among people, it came to be applied to gods.[11]Scholars previously associated thetheonymwithsolar cultsand with a variety of unrelatedpatron deities,but inscriptions have shown that the name Ba'al was particularly associated with thestormandfertility godHadadand his local manifestations.[12]

TheHebrew Bibleincludes use of the term in reference to variousLevantine deities,often with application towards Hadad, who was decried as afalse god.That use was taken over intoChristianityandIslam,sometimes under the formBeelzebubindemonology.

TheUgariticgod Baal is the protagonist of one of the lengthiest surviving epics from theancient Near East,theBaal Cycle.

Name

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Epithets

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Ba'al's widely used epithet is "rider (or mounter[13]) of the clouds. "(rkb 'rptcfrkb b'rbtin Ps. 68:5; Ugaritickb 'rpt.) These are related to Zeus's "gatherer of the clouds" and Yahweh's "rider of the heavens."[14]Like English ride,rkbhas equine and sexual uses.[15]

Etymology

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The spelling of the English term "Baal" derives from theGreekBáal(Βάαλ) which appears in theNew Testament[16]andSeptuagint,[17]and from itsLatinizedformBaal,which appears in theVulgate.[17]These forms in turn derive from the vowel-less Northwest Semitic formBʿL(PhoenicianandPunic:𐤁𐤏𐤋).[18]The word'sbiblicalsenses as a Phoenician deity andfalse godsgenerally were extended during theProtestant Reformationto denote anyidols,iconsof thesaints,or theCatholic Churchgenerally.[19]In such contexts, it follows the anglicized pronunciation and usually omits any mark between its two As.[6]In close transliteration of the Semitic name, theayinis represented, asBaʿal.

In theNorthwest Semitic languages—Ugaritic,Phoenician,Hebrew,Amorite,andAramaic—the wordbaʿalsignified 'owner' and, by extension, 'lord',[17]a 'master', or 'husband'.[20][21] Cognates include theAkkadianBēlu(𒂗),[c]Amharicbal(ባል),[22]andArabicbaʿl(بعل).Báʿal(בַּעַל) andbaʿlstill serve as the words for 'husband' in modern Hebrew and Arabic respectively. They also appear in some contexts concerning the ownership of things or possession of traits.

The feminine form isbaʿalah(Hebrew:בַּעֲלָה;[23]Arabic:بَعْلَة), meaning 'mistress' in the sense of a female owner or lady of the house[23]and still serving as a rare word for 'wife'.[24]

Suggestions in early modern scholarship also included comparison with the Celtic godBelenus,however this is now widely rejected by contemporary scholars.[25]

Semitic religion

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See also:Religions of the ancient Near East,Ancient Semitic religion,Canaanite religion,andPunic religion

Generic

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See also:Bel,Zeus Belos,andother figures named Belus

LikeEninSumerian,theAkkadianbēluandNorthwest Semiticbaʿal(as well as its feminine formbaʿalah) was used as a title of various deities in theMesopotamianandSemitic pantheons.Only adefinitive article,genitiveorepithet,or context could establish which particular god was meant.[26]

Hadad

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Main article:Hadad

Baʿal was also used as a proper name by the third millennium BC, when he appears in a list of deities atAbu Salabikh.[17]Most modern scholarship asserts that this Baʿal—usually distinguished as "The Lord" (הבעל,Ha Baʿal)—was identical with thestormandfertility godHadad;[17][27][20]it also appears in the formBaʿal Haddu.[21][28]Scholars propose that, as the cult of Hadad increased in importance, his true name came to be seen as too holy for any but the high priest to speak aloud and the alias "Lord" ( "Baʿal" ) was used instead, as "Bel"was used forMardukamong the Babylonians and "Adonai"forYahwehamong the Israelites. A minority propose that Baʿal was a nativeCanaanitedeity whose cult was identified with or absorbed aspects ofAdad's.[17]Regardless of their original relationship, by the 1st millennium BCE, the two were distinct: Hadad was worshiped by theAramaeansand Baʿal by thePhoeniciansand otherCanaanites.[17]

Baʿal

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See also:Baal Cycle
Statue ofBaal with Thunderboltfrom Ugarit.Musée du Louvre.
Bronze figurine of a Baal, 14th–12th century BC, found at Ras Shamra (ancientUgarit) near the Phoenician coast.Musée du Louvre.

Baʿal is well-attested in surviving inscriptions and was popular intheophoric namesthroughout theLevant[29]but he is usually mentioned along with other gods, "his own field of action being seldom defined".[30]Nonetheless, Ugaritic records show him as aweather god,with particular power overlightning,wind,rain,andfertility.[30][d]The dry summers of the area were explained as Baʿal's time in theunderworldand his return in autumn was said to cause the storms which revived the land.[30]Thus, the worship of Baʿal inCanaan—where he eventually supplantedElas the leader of the gods and patron of kingship—was connected to the regions' dependence on rainfall for its agriculture, unlikeEgyptandMesopotamia,which focused on irrigation from their major rivers. Anxiety about the availability of water for crops and trees increased the importance of his cult, which focused attention on his role as a rain god.[20]He was also called upon during battle, showing that he was thought to intervene actively in the world of man,[30]unlike the more aloof El. The Lebanese city ofBaalbeckwas named after Baal.[33]Alternatively, Ba' al is a divine co-regent with El, where El was the executive whilst Ba' al was the sustainer of the cosmos.[34]

The Baʿal of Ugarit was the epithet of Hadad but as the time passed, the epithet became the god's name while Hadad became the epithet.[35]Baʿal was usually said to be the son ofDagan,but appears as one of the sons of El inUgariticsources.[29][21][e]Both Baʿal and El wereassociated with the bullin Ugaritic texts, as it symbolized both strength and fertility.[36]He held special enmity against snakes, both on their own and as representatives ofYammu(lit."Sea" ), the Canaanitesea god and river god.[37]He fought theTannin(Tunnanu), the "Twisted Serpent" (Bṭn ʿqltn), "Lotanthe Fugitive Serpent "(Ltn Bṭn Brḥ,the biblicalLeviathan),[37]and the "Mighty One with Seven Heads"(Šlyṭ D.šbʿt Rašm).[38][f]Baʿal's conflict with Yammu is now generally regarded as the prototype of the vision recorded in the7th chapterof thebiblicalBook of Daniel.[40]As vanquisher of the sea, Baʿal was regarded by the Canaanites and Phoenicians as thepatronofsailorsand sea-going merchants.[37]As vanquisher ofMot,the Canaanitedeath god,he was known as Baʿal Rāpiʾuma (Bʿl Rpu) and regarded as the leader of theRephaim(Rpum), the ancestral spirits, particularly those of ruling dynasties.[37]

From Canaan, worship of Baʿal spread to Egypt by theMiddle Kingdomand throughout theMediterraneanfollowing the waves ofPhoenician colonizationin the early 1st millennium BCE.[29]He was described with diverse epithets and, before Ugarit was rediscovered, it was supposed that these referred to distinct local gods. However, as explained byDay,the texts at Ugarit revealed that they were considered "local manifestations of this particular deity, analogous to the local manifestations of theVirgin Maryin theRoman Catholic Church".[27]In those inscriptions, he is frequently described as "Victorious Baʿal" (AliynorẢlỈyn Baʿal),[21][17]"Mightiest one" (AliyorʿAly)[21][g]or "Mightiest of the Heroes" (Aliy Qrdm), "The Powerful One" (Dmrn), and in his role as patron of the city "Baʿal of Ugarit" (Baʿal Ugarit).[46]AsBaʿal Zaphon(Baʿal Ṣapunu), he was particularly associated with his palace atopJebel Aqra(the ancient Mount Ṣapānu and classical Mons Casius).[46]He is also mentioned as "Winged Baʿal" (Bʿl Knp) and "Baʿal of the Arrows" (Bʿl Ḥẓ).[21]PhoenicianandAramaicinscriptions describe "Baʿal of theMace"(Bʿl Krntryš), "Baʿal of the Lebanon" (Bʿl Lbnn), "Baʿal of Sidon" (Bʿl Ṣdn),Bʿl Ṣmd,"Baʿal of the Heavens"(Baʿal ShamemorShamayin),[47]Baʿal ʾAddir (Bʿl ʾdr),Baʿal Hammon(Baʿal Ḥamon),Bʿl Mgnm.[29]

Baʿal Hammon

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Main article:Baʿal Hammon

Baʿal Hammonwas worshipped in theTyriancolonyofCarthageas theirsupreme god.It is believed that this position developed in the 5th century BCE following the severing of its ties toTyrefollowing the 480 BCEBattle of Himera.[48]Like Hadad, Baʿal Hammon was afertility god.[49]Inscriptions aboutPunic deitiestend to be rather uninformative, though, and he has been variously identified as amoon god[citation needed]and asDagan,thegrain god.[50]Rather than the bull, Baʿal Hammon was associated with theramand depicted with his horns. The archaeological record seems to bear out accusations in Roman sources that the Carthaginiansburned their children as human sacrificesto him.[51]He was worshipped as Baʿal Karnaim ( "Lord of the Two Horns" ), particularly at an open-air sanctuary at Jebel Bu Kornein ( "Two-Horn Hill" ) across the bay from Carthage. His consort was the goddessTanit.[52]

The epithet Hammon is obscure. Most often, it is connected with the NW Semiticḥammān( "brazier") and associated with a role as asun god.[53]Renanand Gibson linked it to Hammon (modern Umm el-‘Amed betweenTyreinLebanonandAcreinIsrael)[54]andCrossandLipińskito Haman or Khamōn, the classicalMount Amanusand modern Nur Mountains, which separate northernSyriafrom southeasternCilicia.[55][56]

Judaism

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Slaughter of the Prophets of Baal,1860 woodcut byJulius Schnorr von Karolsfeld

Baʿal (בַּעַל) appears about 90 times in theHebrew Biblein reference to various gods.[17]The priests of the Canaanite Baʿal are mentioned numerous times, most prominently in theFirst Book of Kings.Many scholars believe that this describesJezebel's attempt to introduce the worship of the Baʿal ofTyre,Melqart,[57]to theIsraelitecapitalSamariain the 9th century BCE.[58]Against this,Dayargues that Jezebel's Baʿal was more probablyBaʿal Shamem,the Lord of the Heavens, a title most often applied to Hadad, who is also often titled just Ba‘al.[59]

1 Kings18 records an account of a contest between theprophetElijahand Jezebel's priests. Both sides offered asacrificeto their respective gods: Ba'al failed to light his followers' sacrifice whileYahweh's heavenly fire burnt Elijah's altar to ashes, even after it had been soaked with water. The observers then followed Elijah's instructions to slay the priests of Baʿal,[60]after which it began to rain, showing Yahweh's mastery over the weather.

Other references to the priests of Baʿal describe their burning ofincenseinprayer[61]and their offering ofsacrificewhile adorned in specialvestments.[62]

Yahweh

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Main articles:YahwehandNames of God in Judaism

The titlebaʿalwas a synonym in some contexts of theHebrewadon( "Lord" ) andadonai( "My Lord" ) still used as aliases of the Lord of IsraelYahweh.According to some scholars, theearly Hebrewsdid use the names Baʿal ( "Lord" ) and Baʿali ( "My Lord" ) in reference to the Lord of Israel, just as Baʿal farther north designated the Lord ofUgaritor Lebanon.[58][11]This occurred both directly and as the divine element of some Hebrewtheophoric names.However, according to others it is not certain that the name Baal was definitely applied to Yahweh in early Israelite history. The component Baal in proper names is mostly applied to worshippers of Baal, or descendants of the worshippers of Baal.[63]Names including the element Baʿal presumably in reference to Yahweh[64][11]include thejudgeGideon(also known as Jerubaʿal,lit."The Lord Strives" ),Saul's sonEshbaʿal( "The Lord is Great" ), andDavid's son Beeliada ( "The Lord Knows" ). The nameBealiah( "The Lord isJah";"Yahweh is Baʿal ")[12]combined the two.[65][66]However John Day states that as far as the names Eshba’al, Meriba’al, and Beeliada (that is Baaliada), are concerned it is not certain whether they simply allude to the Canaanite god Ba’al, or are intended to equate Yahweh with Ba’al, or have no connection to Ba’al.[67]

It was the program ofJezebel,in the 9th century BCE, to introduce into Israel's capital city of Samaria her Phoenician worship of Baal as opposed to the worship ofYahwehthat made the name anathema to the Israelites.[58]

At first the name Baal was used by theJewsfor their God without discrimination, but as the struggle between the two religions developed, the name Baal was given up by the Israelites as a thing of shame, and even names like Jerubbaal were changed to Jerubbosheth: Hebrewboshethmeans "shame".[68]

Eshbaʿal becameIsh-bosheth[citation needed]and Meribaʿal becameMephibosheth,[69][original research?]but other possibilities also occurred. Gideon's name Jerubaʿal was mentioned intact but glossed as a mockery of the Canaanite god, implying that he strove in vain.[70][original research?]Direct use of Baʿali continued at least as late as the time of theprophetHosea,who reproached the Israelites for doing so.[71]

Brad E. Kelle has suggested that references to cultic sexual practices in the worship of Baal, in Hosea 2, are evidence of an historical situation in which Israelites were either giving up Yahweh worship for Baal, or blending the two. Hosea's references to sexual acts being metaphors for Israelite "apostasy".[72]

Brian P. Irwin argues that "Baal" in northern Israelite traditions is a form of Yahweh that was rejected as foreign by the prophets. In southern Israelite traditions, "Baal" was a god that was worshipped in Jerusalem. His worshippers saw him as compatible or identical with Yahweh and honored him with human sacrifices and fragrant meal offerings. Eventually, theChronicler(s)disapproved of both "Baals" whilst theDeuteronomistsused "Baals" for any god they disapproved of.[73]

Likewise, Mark S. Smith believes Yahweh was more likely to be inspired by Baal rather than El, since both are stormy divine warriors and lack the pacifistic traits of El according to the Ugaritic texts and Hebrew Bible.[74]

Baʿal Berith

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Main article:Baʿal Berith

Baʿal Berith( "Lord of theCovenant") was a god worshipped by theIsraeliteswhen they "went astray" after the death ofGideonaccording to theHebrew Scriptures.[75]The same source relates that Gideon's sonAbimelechwent to his mother's kin atShechemand received 70shekelsofsilver"from the House of Baʿal Berith" to assist in killing his 70 brothers from Gideon's other wives.[76]An earlier passage had made Shechem the scene ofJoshua's covenant between all thetribes of Israeland "ElYahweh,ourgodofIsrael"[77]and a later one describes it as the location of the "House of El Berith".[78]It is thus unclear whether the false worship of the "Baʿalim" being decried[75]is the worship of a new idol or rites andteachingsplacing Yahweh as a mere local god within a larger pantheon. The Hebrew Scriptures record the worship of Baʿal threateningIsraelfrom the time of theJudgesuntil themonarchy.[79]However, during the period of Judges such worship seems to have been an occasional deviation from a deeper and more constant worship of Yahweh:

Throughout all the stories of Judges the popular faith in YHWH runs as a powerful current. This faith raises the judges, and inspires poets, prophets, and Nazirites.... Worship of Baals and Ashtoreths has been schematically interspersed between these chapters, but no trace of a vital, popular belief in any foreign gods can be detected in the stories themselves. Baal prophets appeared in Israel centuries later; but during the age of the judges when Israel is supposed to have been most deeply affected by the religion of Canaan, there are no Baal priests or prophets, nor any other intimation of a vital effect of polytheism in Israel’s life.[80]

TheDeuteronomist[81]and the present form ofJeremiah[82]seem to phrase the struggle asmonolatryormonotheismagainstpolytheism.Yahweh is frequently identified in the Hebrew scriptures withEl Elyon,however, this was after a conflation with El in a process of religioussyncretism.[83]’El(Hebrew:אל) became a generic term meaning "god", as opposed to the name of a worshipped deity, and epithets such asEl Shaddaicame to be applied to Yahweh alone, while Baal's nature as a storm and weather god became assimilated into Yahweh's own identification with the storm.[84]In the next stage the Yahwistic religion separated itself from its Canaanite heritage, first by rejecting Baal-worship in the 9th century, then through the 8th to 6th centuries with prophetic condemnation of Baal, sun-worship, worship on the "high places", practices pertaining to the dead, and other matters.[85]

Paris, 1825
"Beelzebub" in the 1863 edition ofJacques Collin de Plancy'sDictionnaire Infernal.

Beelzebub

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Main article:Beelzebub

Baʿal Zebub (Hebrew:בעל זבוב,lit."FlyLord ")[86][87][h]occurs in the first chapter of theSecond Book of Kingsas the name of thePhilistinegod ofEkron.In it,Ahaziah,king of Israel,is said to have consulted the priests of Baʿal Zebub as to whether he would survive the injuries from his recent fall. TheprophetElijah,incensed at this impiety, then foretold that he would die quickly, raining heavenly fire on the soldiers sent to punish him for doing so.[89]Jewishscholars have interpreted the title of "Lord of the Flies" as the Hebrew way of calling Baʿal apile of dungand his followersvermin,[90][91]although others argue for a link to power over causing and curingpestilenceand thus suitable for Ahaziah's question.[92]TheSeptuagintrenders the name asBaälzeboúb(βααλζεβούβ) and as "Baʿal of Flies" (βααλ μυιαν,Baäl muian).Symmachus the Ebioniterendered it asBeëlzeboúl(Βεελζεβούλ), possibly reflecting its original sense.[93][i]This has been proposed to have beenB‘l Zbl,Ugariticfor "Prince Baal".[94][j][k][l]

Classical sources

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Outside of Jewish and Christian contexts, the various forms of Baʿal were indifferently rendered in classical sources asBelus(Greek:Βῆλος,Bē̂los). An example isJosephus,who states thatJezebel"built a temple to thegodof theTyrians,which they call Belus ";[57]this describes the Baʿal of Tyre,Melqart.Herrmann identifies the Demarus/Demarous figure mentioned byPhilo Bybliusas Baʿal.[37]

Baʿal Hammon,however, was identified with theGreekCronosand theRomanSaturnas theZabulSaturn.[97]He was probably never equated with Melqart, although this assertion appears in older scholarship.

Christianity

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Beelzebub or Beelzebul was identified by thewritersof theNew TestamentasSatan,"prince"(i.e.,king) of thedemons.[m][n]

John Milton's 1667epicParadise Lostdescribes thefallen angelscollecting around Satan, stating that, though their heavenly names had been "blotted out and ras'd", they would acquire new ones "wandring ore the Earth" as false gods.BaalimandAshtarothare given as the collective names of the male and female demons (respectively) who came from between the "bordering flood of oldEuphrates"and" the Brook that parts Egypt from Syrian ground ".[98]

Baaland derived epithets likeBaalistwere used as slurs during theEnglish Reformationfor thesaintsand their devotees.[citation needed]

Islam

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TheQuranmentions that Prophet Elias (Elijah) warned his people against Baʿal worship.[99]

And Indeed, Elijah was among themessengers,(123) When he said to his people: "Will you notfearAllah? (124) Do you call upon Ba'l and leave the best of creators - (125) Allah, your Lord and the Lord of your first forefathers? "(126) And they denied him, so indeed, they will be brought [forpunishment], (127) Except the chosen servants of Allah. (128) And we left for him [favorable mention] among later generations: (129) Peace be upon Ilyāseen*. (130) Indeed, We thus reward the doers of good. (131) Indeed, he was of Our believing servants. (132).[100]QuranSurah 37,verses 123-132[100]

According toTabari,baalis a term used by Arabs to denote everything which is alordover anything.[101]

Al-Thaʿlabīoffers a more detailed description about Baal; accordingly it was an idol of gold, twenty cubits tall, and had four faces.[99]

The trilateral root, (bā, ayn, lam)baʿloccurs seven times in the Qur’an with its common Semitic usage of “owner, husband,” particularly husband.[102]For example,Sarah,wife ofAbrahamrefers to her husband using the term.[103][104]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^TheAmerican pronunciationis usually the same[7][8]but some speakers prefer variants closer to the original sound, such as/bɑːˈɑːl/or/ˈbɑːl/.[8][9]
  2. ^Ugaritic:𐎁𐎓𐎍,romanized:baʿlu;[10]Phoenician:𐤁𐤏𐤋,romanized:baʿl;Biblical Hebrew:בעל,romanized:baʿal,pronounced[baʕal].
  3. ^Thiscuneiformis identical to the⟨𒂗⟩which is taken as EN inSumeriantexts. There, it has the meaning 'high priest' or 'lord' and appears in the names of the godsEnkiandEnlil.
  4. ^In surviving accounts, Baʿal's power over fertility extends only over vegetation. Older scholarship claimed Baʿal controlled human fertility as well, but did so on the basis of misinterpretation or of inscriptions now regarded as dubious.[31]Similarly, 19th-century scholarship treating Baal as apersonificationof thesunseems to have been badly taken. Theastrotheologyof Near Eastern deities was anIron Agedevelopment long postdating theorigin of religionand, following its development,Beland Baʿal were associated with the planetJupiter.[32]The sun was worshipped in Canaan as either the goddessShapashor the godShamash.
  5. ^Herrmann argues against seeing these separate lineages literally, instead proposing that they describe Baʿal's roles. As a god, he is understood as a child of El, "father of gods", while his fertility aspects connect him to thegrain godDagan.[29]
  6. ^The account ispatchyand obscure here. Some scholars take some or all of the terms to refer toLitanand in other passagesʿAnattakes credit for destroying the monsters on Baʿal's behalf. Herrmann takes "Šalyaṭu" as a proper name[37]rather than translating it as the "powerful one" or "tyrant".[39]
  7. ^This name appears twice in theLegend of Keretdiscovered atUgarit.Before this discovery,Nyberghad restored it to the Hebrew texts ofDeuteronomy,[41]1 & 2 Samuel,[42][43]Isaiah,[44]andHosea.[45]Following its verification, additional instances have been claimed in thePsalmsand inJob.[20]
  8. ^"The etymology of Beelzebul has proceeded in several directions. The variant reading Beelzebub (Syriac translators and Jerome) reflects a long-standing tradition of equating Beelzebul with the Philistine deity of the city of Ekron mentioned in 2 Kgs 1:2, 3, 6, 16. Baalzebub (Heb ba˓al zĕbûb) seems to mean “lord of flies” (HALAT, 250, but cf. LXXB baal muian theon akkarōn, “Baal-Fly, god of Akkaron”; Ant 9:2, 1 theon muian). "[88]
  9. ^Arndt & al. reverse this, saying Symmachus transcribedBaälzeboúbfor a more commonBeëlzeboúl.[86]
  10. ^"It is more probable that b‘l zbl, which can mean “lord of the (heavenly) dwelling” in Ugaritic, was changed to b‘l zbb to make the divine name an opprobrius epithet. The reading Beelzebul in Mt. 10:25 would then reflect the right form of the name, a wordplay on “master of the house” (Gk oikodespótēs). "[95]
  11. ^"An alternative suggested by many is to connect zĕbûl with a noun meaning '(exalted) abode.'"[88]
  12. ^"In contemporary Semitic speech it may have been understood as ‘the master of the house’; if so, this phrase could be used in a double sense in Mt. 10:25b."[96]
  13. ^"In NT Gk. beelzeboul, beezeboul (Beelzebub in TR and AV) is the prince of the demons (Mt. 12:24, 27; Mk. 3:22; Lk. 11:15, 18f.), identified with Satan (Mt. 12:26; Mk. 3:23, 26; Lk. 11:18)."[96]
  14. ^"Besides, Matt 12:24; Mark 3:22; Luke 11:15 use the apposition ἄρχων τῶν δαιμονίων ‘head of the →Demons’."[92]

References

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Citations

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  1. ^M. Smith,‘Athtart in Late Bronze Age Syrian Texts[in:] D. T. Sugimoto (ed),Transformation of a Goddess. Ishtar – Astarte – Aphrodite,2014, p. 48-49; 60-61
  2. ^T. J. Lewis,ʿAthtartu’s Incantations and the Use of Divine Names as Weapons,Journal of Near Eastern Studies71, 2011, p. 208
  3. ^S. A. Wiggins,Pidray, Tallay and Arsay in the Baal Cycle,Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages2(29), 2003, p. 86-93
  4. ^"Baal (ancient deity)".Encyclopedia Britannica(online ed.). 29 March 2024.
  5. ^Kramer 1984,p. 266.
  6. ^ab"Baal".Oxford English Dictionary(Online ed.).Oxford University Press.Retrieved2019-12-26.(Subscription orparticipating institution membershiprequired.)
  7. ^"Baal".LexicoUK English Dictionary.Oxford University Press.Archived fromthe originalon 2019-12-26.
  8. ^ab"Baal".Merriam-Webster Dictionary.Merriam-Webster.Retrieved2019-12-26.
  9. ^Webb, Steven K. (2012)."Baal".Webb's Easy Bible Names Pronunciation Guide.
  10. ^De Moor & al. (1987),p.1.
  11. ^abcSmith (1878),pp. 175–176.
  12. ^abAYBD(1992),"Baal (Deity)".
  13. ^Dahood, "Psalms II" 1966 p = 136 § = 68https://archive.org/details/psaml20000unse/page/n5/mode/2up
  14. ^JANES 5 1973 Weinfeld "Rider of the Clouds"
  15. ^Weninger, Stefan (2011-12-23).The Semitic Languages.Berlin [u.a..]: Walter de Gruyter.ISBN978-3-11-025158-6.
  16. ^Romans 11:4
  17. ^abcdefghiHerrmann (1999a),p. 132.
  18. ^Huss (1985),p.561.
  19. ^Oxford English Dictionary(1885), "Baalist,n."
  20. ^abcdPope (2007).
  21. ^abcdefDULAT(2015),"bʕl (II)".
  22. ^Kane (1990),p.861.
  23. ^abStrong (1890),H1172.
  24. ^Wehr & al. (1976),p. 67.
  25. ^Belin,in Gilles Ménage,Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue françoise,1750. Ménage constructs a derivation of both the "Chaldean" Bel and the Celtic Belin from a supposed word for 'ball, sphere', whence 'head', and 'chief, lord'
  26. ^Halpern (2009),p. 64.
  27. ^abDay (2000),p. 68.
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  38. ^Uehlinger (1999),p. 512.
  39. ^DULAT(2015),"šlyṭ".
  40. ^Collins (1984),p. 77.
  41. ^Deut. 33:12.
  42. ^1 Sam. 2:10.
  43. ^2 Sam. 23:1.
  44. ^Isa. 59:18&63:7.
  45. ^Hos. 7:16.
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  56. ^Lipiński (1994),p. 207.
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  59. ^Day (2000),p. 75.
  60. ^1 Kings 18
  61. ^2 Kings 23:5.
  62. ^2 Kings 10:22
  63. ^Herrmann (1999a),p. 136.
  64. ^Ayles (1904),p.103.
  65. ^1 Chron. 12:5.
  66. ^Easton (1893),"Beali′ah".
  67. ^Day (2000),p. 72.
  68. ^ZPBD(1963).
  69. ^1 Chron. 9:40.
  70. ^Judges 6:32.
  71. ^Hosea 2:16
  72. ^Kelle (2005),p. 137.
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