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Badakhshan

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EmblemČorxüna,Marco Polo sheep,Snow leopard
Motto"Pōmīr pe sar tīr!"
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CalendarGregorian calendar
FoodŠīrčōy
InstrumentRabōb
RiverPanj
This article is about the region. For the province in Afghanistan, seeBadakhshan Province.For the autonomous region in Tajikistan, seeGorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region.
Map ofBadakhshan,divided betweenTajikistan-Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Regionin the north,Afghanistan-Badakhshan Provincein the south, with a smaller part inChina-Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous Countyin the east.
Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region,Tajikistan.
Badakhshan Province,Afghanistan.

Badakhshanis ahistorical regioncomprising parts of modern-day north-easternAfghanistan,easternTajikistan,andTaxkorgan Tajik Autonomous Countyin China.Badakhshan Provinceis one of the 34provinces of Afghanistan.Much of historic Badakhshan lies withinTajikistan'sGorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Regionin the southeastern part of the country. Themusic of Badakhshanis an important part of the region's cultural heritage.[1]

Name

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The name "Badakhshan" (Persian:بدخشان,Badaxšân;Pashto:بدخشان;Tajik:Бадахшон,Badakhshon;‹See Tfd›Russian:Бадахшан) is derived from theSasanianofficial titlebēdaxšorbadaxš,which may be from an earlier *pati-axša; the suffix -ānindicates that the country belonged, or had been assigned as a fief, to a person holding the rank of abadaxš.[2]

People

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Badakhshan has a diverse ethnolinguistic and religious community.TajiksandPamirisare in the majority while a tiny minority ofKyrgyzs,Uzbeks,Hazaras,andPashtunsare also found in some villages. There are also groups of speakers of severalPamir languagesof theEastern Iranian language group.[3]During the 20th century withinGorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Regionin Tajikistan, the speakers of Pamir languages formed their own separateethnic identityasPamiris.[when?]The Pamiri people were not officially recognized as a separate ethnic group in Tajikistan, but Tajikistan Pamiri movements and associations have been formed.[4]The main religions of Badakhshan areIsmaili IslamandSunni Islam;Nasir Khusrawpropagated Ismailism there in 11th century.[5]The people of this province have a rich cultural heritage and they have preserved unique ancient forms of music, poetry, and dance.[citation needed]

History

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Early history

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Badakhshan was an important trading center duringantiquity.The only then-known deposits oflapis lazuliwere mined there as early as the second half of the4th millennium BC.[6]Badakhshan was an important region, crossed by theSilk Road.[7]Its significance was its geo-economic role in thesilktrade and ancient commodities transactions between the East and West.[8]

Badakshanpatera,"Triumph ofBacchus",British Museum.(1st-4th century CE).[9]

Marco Polowrote thatBalas rubycould be found under the "Syghinan" (Shighnan) mountain in Badashan/Badakshan.[10]"Balas" is derived fromBalascia,the ancient name for Badakhshan, a region inCentral Asiain the upper valley of thePanj River,one of the principal tributaries of theOxus River.However, "Balascia" itself may be derived from theSanskritbālasūryaka,which translates as "crimson-coloured morning sun".[11]Mines in theGorno Badakhshanregion ofTajikistanconstituted for centuries the main source for red and pinkspinels.[12]

The excavations along the banks of theAmu Daryashow evidence of trade with the early civilizations of the Ancient Near East in the 4th-3rd millennia BC.[13]

Through theKhyber Pass,precious stones and rubies were transported to all corners of the Middle East for sale. Jewelry and clothing decorated with rubies from the 3rd millennium BC have been discovered in Southeast Asia, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Iran, Indo-China, and even in Western countries. At that time, the presence of Badakhshan laurel[clarification needed]in India (Mohenjo-Daro), Egypt (Necropolis of Thebes), and other places was proven. There was a specialcaravan routefrom Badakhshan to these civilizations, which introduced Badakhshan to the world in ancient times through these precious stones.

There is also evidence in Badakhshan from theStone Age.In the Stone Age, construction of new clay huts in Badakhshan began. Later, in the Neolithic period, the tribes of the Middle East, including the Badakhshans, used wooden gates with their heels running over stone holes.[clarification needed]Scientists also attribute the appearance of a window for smoke and light to theNeolithicperiod. Archaeologists call the Neolithic artifacts in Takharistan (Badakhshan) in the historical literature "Mountain Neolithic of Hissar culture". This civilization lasted from the 6th to the 3rd millennium BC.

TheBronze Agein Badakhshan, from the 3rd millennium BC to the 9th-8th centuries BC, was the most important historical stage of development and evolution. The development of productive forces and significant changes in the social system took place during this period. People learned the production and use of minerals, learned how to melt metals to make iron stronger, and began to produce weapons and household items. On this basis, handicrafts developed, and new and large camps were built. Other production activities, such as agriculture, animal husbandry, handicrafts, the emergence of horses and carts, road construction, etc., accelerated the division of society into classes. The construction of shields, sickles, axes, pickaxes, and shovels flourished during this period of bronze.

The great ruby road appeared on the maps of merchants during this period and became known as theSilk Road,which later became a major trade route and served the peoples of different nations until the 17–18th century. Badakhshan was at that time a land calledAiryanem Vaejah,and “Varena” in theAvestarefers to a part of Badakhshan in theKhatlonconflict. Badakhshan gained its status among the world civilizations with these two types of precious stones, both in the time of theElamites,in the time of the Maud, and in the time of theAchaemenidswhen the roads of communication were so long that the "Road of the King" was 2400 km long, and was used to transport rubies from Badakhshan, turquoise fromKhorezm,andjadefromLake Baikal.The mineralogistA. E. Fersmanwrote that one stone was known throughout the long history of culture – the bright bluelapis lazuliof Afghanistan (Badakhshan), which was transported by caravan routes to Egypt, China, Rome, and Byzantium. Some scholars claim that the "mountain valley"mentioned by the Greeks was Badakhshan.[citation needed]

Early modern history

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Sultan Muḥammad Vays offers Babur a healthy horse to replace his ailing one.

The region was ruled over by themirs of Badakhshan.Sultan Muhammadof Badakhshan was the last of a series of kings who traced their descent toAlexander the Great.He was killed byAbu Sa'id Mirza,the ruler ofTimurid Empire,who took possession of Badakhshan, which after his death fell to his son,Sultan Mahmud Mirza,who had three sons, Baysinghar Mirza, Ali Mirza, and Khan Mirza. When Mahmud died,Amir Khusroe Khan,one of his nobles, blinded Baysinghar Mirza, killed the second prince, and ruled as a usurper. He submitted to the Mughal EmperorBaburin 1504 CE. When Babur tookKandaharin 1506 CE fromShah Beg Arghun,he sent Khan Mirza as governor to Badakhshan. A son was born to Khan Mirza by the name ofMirza Sulaimanin 1514 CE.

After the death of Khan Mirza, Badakhshan was governed for Babur by PrinceHumayun,Sultan Wais Khan(Mirza Sulaiman's father-in-law), PrinceHindal Mirza,and Mirza Sulaiman, who held Badakhshan till October 8, 1541, when he had to surrender himself and his son, Mirza Ibrahim, to PrinceKamran Mirza.They were released by Humayun in 1545, and again took possession of Badakhshan. When Humayun had takenKabul,he made war upon and defeated Mirza Sulaiman who once in possession of his country, had refused to submit; but when the return of Prince Kamran Mirza fromSindhobliged Emperor Humayun to go to Kabul, he reinstated Mirza Sulaiman, who held Badakhshan till 1575. Bent on making conquests, he invadedBalkhin 1560, but had to return. His son, Mirza Ibrahim, was killed in battle.

WhenAkbarbecame Mughal Emperor, his stepbrotherMirza Muhammad Hakim's mother had been killed by Shah Abul Ma'ali. Mirza Sulaiman went to Kabul, and had Abul Ma'ali hanged; he then had his own daughter married to Mirza Muhammad Hakim, and appointed Umed Ali, a Badakhshan noble, as Mirza Muhammad Hakim's agent in 1563. But Mirza Muhammad Hakim did not go on well with Mirza Sulaiman, who returned next year to Kabul with hostile intentions; but Mirza Muhammad Hakim fled Fayzabad and asked Akbar for assistance, so that Mirza Sulaiman, though he had takenJalalabad,had to return to Badakhshan. He returned to Kabul in 1566, when Akbar's troops had left that country, but retreated on being promised tribute.

Mirza Shah Rukh (d. 1607-8), grandson of Sulaiman Mirza, and ruler of Badakhshan. MarriedAkbar's daughter,Shakr al-Nisa Begum,and became ruler ofMalwaafter fleeing to theMughal Empire.[14]

Mirza Sulaiman's wife wasKhurram Begum,of theKipchaktribe. She was clever, and had her husband so much in her power that he did nothing without her advice. Her enemy wasMuhtarim Khanum,the widow of Prince Kamran Mirza. Mirza Sulaiman wanted to marry her; but Khurram Begum got her married, against her will, to Mirza Ibrahim, by whom she had a son,Mirza Shahrukh.When Mirza Ibrahim fell in the war with Balkh, Khurram Begum wanted to send the Khanum to her father, Shah Muhammad ofKashgar;but she refused to go. As soon as Shahrukh had grown up, his mother and some Badakhshi nobles excited him to rebel against his grandfather Mirza Sulaiman. This he did, alternately rebelling and again making peace. Khurram Begum then died. Shahrukh took away those parts of Badakhshan which his father had held, and found so many adherents, that Mirza Sulaiman, pretending to go on a pilgrimage toMakkah,left Badakhshan for Kabul, and crossing theInduswent to India in 1575 CE.Khan Jahan,governor of thePunjab,received orders from Emperor Akbar to invade Badakhshan, but was suddenly ordered to go toBengalinstead, as Mun'im Khan had died and Mirza Sulaiman did not care for the governorship of Bengal, which Akbar had offered him.

Mirza Sulaiman then went toIsmail IIofSafavidIran.When the death of that monarch deprived him of the assistance which he had just received, he went to Muzaffar Husain Mirza at Kandahar, and then to Mirza Muhammad Hakim at Kabul. Not succeeding in raising disturbances in Kabul, he made for the frontier of Badakhshan, and luckily finding some adherents, he managed to get from his grandson the territory between Taiqan and theHindu Kush.Soon after Muhtarim Khanum died.[clarification needed]Being again pressed by Shahrukh, Mirza Sulaiman applied for help toAbdullah Khan II,king ofTuran,who had long wished to annex Badakhshan. He invaded and took the country in 1584; Shahrukh fled to the Mughal Empire, and Mirza Sulaiman to Kabul. As he could not recover Badakhshan for himself, and was rendered destitute by the death of Mirza Muhammad Hakim, he followed the example of his grandson, and repaired to the court of Akbar who made him a commander of six thousand. He lived out his life at Akbar's court inLahorewhere he died in 1589 CE.

Like neighboringBalkh Subah,Badakshan was shortly conquered in 1641 by Mughalpadshah(emperor)Shah Jahan,who turned it also into a short-livedsubah(imperial top-level province), only to be lost again in 1647.

Later emirates and khanates

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The old capital of Badakhshan was located inKishim District.[15]In the 18th century the capital of Badakhshan was the town ofKhamchan,located three miles west of Fayzabad and situated on both sides of theKokcha River.[16]After the conquest of Badakhshan byAhmad Shah Durraniin the later half of the 18th century, the capital was relocated to Fayzabad, then known as Jauzun. In the 19th century the capital was moved toJurm,[15]until if finally was relocated back to Fayzabad.

In 1756 Badakhshan emir made the ChineseQingdynasty recognize the Elder of Badakhshan (the "gray bearded" ) atAltias sovereign inKashgarand levied taxes on the city and parts of the province ofXin gian g.
Muslim commoners from Badakhshan.Huang Qing Zhigong Tu,1769.[17]

In 1750,Mir Sultan Shah,ruler of Badakhshan, rebelled againstKhizri Beg,governor ofBalkh.After consulting Ahmad Shah Durrani, Khizri Beg marched against Sultan Shah and theWazirShah Waliaided the invading column. The pickets of Badakhshan, chief ofTaloqan,fled from their postal approach[clarification needed]of enemy. Men of Badakhshan, disgusted with their chief because of his partiality toKalmakandKashgharforeigners, waited onWazirShah Wali and hailed him as deliverer. Sultan Shah, finding resistance hopeless, fled toAilu Basitin the hills betweenChiabandPasakoh.TheWazirShah Wali returned with force toKabulleaving his country in charge of an Afghan governor. Sultan Shah returned, slew the governor and regained his country. He was attacked by another rival,Turrah Baz Khan,who, supported by Khizri Beg, advanced on Faizabad and besieged it. Sultan Shah was taken prisoner. The Kunduz chief, unwilling to lose an opportunity, seized Turrah Baz Khan and sent both captives toKunduzand annexed Badakhshan.[18]

In 1751 Sultan Shah was restored to liberty and his country. He punished marauders of theSakitribe who had ransacked Chiab,Takhta Band,Khalpanin Badakhshan. He slew a large portion and 700 horses were taken. Place was marked by 200 heads of raiders onKotalofKhoja Jarghatuand Saki gave no more trouble during Sultan Shah's lifetime. This Chief built a fortress atMashadin which he settled 600 families. He had a rest house built for travelers atDaryun.[18]In 1756 he made the Chinese recognizeAkskalof Badakhshan atAltiinXin gian gand levied taxes from Badakhshan families in city.[18]

In 1759 another enemy appeared led by Kabad Khan. The Kataghans attacked Fayzabad, and took and put to death Sultan Shah and Turrah Baz Khan.Mir Muhammad Shah,son of Sultan Shah, escaped and retired to Tang i Nau from whence later he attacked Faizabad, put to death his youngest brother Nasarullah Khan Chief of that place under the government of Kabul, and took the Kingdom. His father's old enemyKabad Khan,whom the patronage of Timur Shah Durrani (successor of Ahmad Shah Durrani) had elevated to the Chiefship of Kunduz, sent a force against Muhammad Shah underKubadcha.They wintered atSang i Mohrand were joined by Kabad Khan in person. Muhammad Shah submitted and was detained at Kunduz for two years. After that fortune turned against Kabad Khan. Throwing off his allegiance to Kabul when Timur Shah Durrani was marching againstSindhand Kashmir, Mizrab Bi, grandson of Muhammad Bi (the old Chief of Kunduz) united with the Chief of Kubab to attack Kabad Khan, seized him and gave him to Mir Muhammad Shah, who put him to death to avenge his father Mir Muhammad Shah. He returned to Badakhshan to find throne occupied by Bahadur Shah, son of a former Chief who had taken Faizabad during the captivity of Mir Muhammad Shah in Kunduz. Bahadur Shah was deposed and the rightful owner recovered the throne. Fortune frowned again on Mir Muhammad Shah. Bahadur Shah obtained aid of theMir of Shighnanand took Fayzabad. Mir Muhammad Shah fled to Chiab. In two years, Bahadur Shah was put to death by an agent of the Shighnan Chief named Bahadur, who took the throne. Muhammad Shah repeatedly attempted to expel him. But aid was refused him by the Shighnan Chief andKurghan Tappa.He regained the throne on the assassination of Bahadur by his servant. The late usurper's ministers were all killed.

Immediately Mir Muhammad Shah was engaged in hostilities with Jalal ud din Chief of Shighnan, who rebelled and held out in the fort till Mir Muhammad Shah invested[clarification needed]it and he submitted. By clemency of the victor he was reinstated as Chief of Fayzabad. In same year Shah Abul Faiz, son of Shah Shuja ofRagh,rebelled against Mir Muhammad Shah and was vanquished. The territory of Mir Muhammad Shah was divided as follows:Iskashimwas given toMir Khan;Rushanto Shah Wali andWardujto Mahmud Khan, brother ofMir Ahmad Beg Kataghan.Mir Muhammad Shah also built a new fort namedSarai Bahadur.[18]

Khodai Nazar Beg Kataghan,brother ofDarab Bi,expelled his five nephews from Kunduz andAliwardi Beg,Chief ofKurghan Tappaon pretence of avenging their wrongs attacked Khodai Nazar Beg and drove him from Kunduz. His avarice caused him to occupy the country himself. Darab Bi's sons wandered to Badakhshan and Balkh Aliwardi Beg did not long enjoy fruits of treachery.[18]In 1795,Emir HaidarofEmirate of Bukharainvaded Balkh and Kunduz annexed them and took Aliwardi Beg toBukharaas prisoner.[18]

Badakhshan delegates ( rút đạt khắc sơn ) in Peking in 1761.Vạn quốc tới triều đồ

In 1812,Mir Sultan Shah IIsucceeded as mir of Badakhshan after his father Mir Muhammad Shah's death in 1810. He remained friendly with his neighbors and the country prospered. He recovered arrears of taxes from Chinese settlers and levied payment in advance. In 1814 he invadedChitraland took thousands of prisoners, whom he sold in Balkh, Bukhara,FarghanaandKhiva.He died in 1815, leaving five sons of whomMir Yar Begsucceeded him as ruler.[18]

Meanwhile, Kunduz was still under Emirate of Bukhara and the wandering sons of Darab Bi Kataghan decided to attack and retake the city, which they did in 1810. The Amir of Kunduz was nowMir Muhammad Murad Beg,one of the brothers. Mir Yar Beg was now worried about the rising popularity and power of Mir Muhammad Murad Beg in the region. Eventually, in 1820, the two would face off atDarah Aimin which Mir Muhammad Murad Beg would be the victor. In 1822 four brothers under the service of Mir Muhammad Murad Beg rebelled, led byKokan Beg.Mir Muhammad Murad Beg and Kokan Beg often fought with each other over territory inconclusively while battling against rebels in their own respective territories for years. Kokan Beg would be assassinated by his ally inKashkar(lower Chitral) by being pushed down a precipice. Mir Muhammad Murad Beg, taking advantage of this situation, took Badakhshan by occupying Fayzabad. But despite invading Badakhshan Mir Muhammad Murad Beg had little to no control over it. In fact Badakhshan was now contested by again by Mir Yar Beg, Sikandar Shah, Shahzada Mahmud, Abdul Ghazi Khan and Shah Suliman Beg, who were in exile atTashqurghan(Kholm) under the protection ofMir Wali.Fayzabad had a small population under spiritual preceptorMian Fazal Azim,SahibzadaofSirhind.Jirm,Zardeo,Mashad,Daraaimand Fayzabad were successively occupied by these chiefs. Fayzabad fell to Mir Yar Beg, who rebuilt his fort and lived in the city. The old dynasty thus was restored.[18]

Between Afghanistan, Britain and Russia

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In 1839 the occupation of Afghanistan by the British drove AmirDost Muhammad Khaninto exile. He visitedKhulamand Kunduz and was well received. They could not aid him against British and Dost Muhammad proceeded to the Emirate of Bukhara, then governed byAmir Nasrullah Khanwho was addicted to thesociety of boys.Sher Ali KhanThe son Dost[clarification needed]Muhammad Khan was then a beardless youth and Nasrullah Khan coveted him. The Afghan pride of Sher Ali was however inflamed and he informed his father and brothers of the insulting desire of Nasrullah Khan. Dost Muhammad Khan then decided to leave the Emirate of Bukhara but found himself a prisoner, and with difficulty escaped with his sons to Balkh.

Also in 1839, Mir Muhammad Murad Beg again attackedRustakin Badakhshan and appointed an officer of his own inFarkhar.Two months later he also attacked Mashad. But he failed to obtain a footing in Badakhshan, which remained in possession of its hereditary Mirs.[18]

In 1844, Mir Yar Beg was poisoned byMir Ahmad Shahat the instigation ofSulaiman Begand died on his return toFayzabad.The instigator of the murder had been fascinated by the extraordinary beauty of the wife of Mir Yar Beg, and was impelled by his passion for the lady to accomplish the death of her husband. On his death Sulaiman Beg took possession of Fayzabad and married his widow. Mir Ahmad Shah discovered that the murder of Yar Beg was instigated by Sulaiman Beg with the object of possessing his wife, and advancing against him, expelled him from Faizabad,A of which he took possession himself. He then wrote toMir Atalik Beg,Chief of Kunduz, requesting his aid againstYusuf Ali KhanandMir Shahto drive them out of Rustak. The letter did not reach its destination but fell by some means into hands of Mir Shah who forwarded it to Sulaiman Shah and invited him to a consultation at Rustak. The chiefs then united and marched against Mir Ahmad Shah, who was expelled to Kunduz. A new distribution was made of country.Mir Shahoccupied Fayzabad as supreme ruler of Badakhshan. Shah Sulaiman Beg receivedDara Aim;Nasrullah Khan got Kashmir and Mashad. Rustak and Chiab were allotted to Yusuf Ali Khan. Jirm to Sikandar Shah, and Zardeo Sarghalan was given toShahzadaMahmud.[18]

From 1840 to 1859 CE, Afghanistan and the Emirate of Bukhara struggled for Balkh and Badakhshan, with Afghanistan prevailing.Mir Shah,chief of Badakhshan and his feudatory of Rustak went to wait onMohammad Azam Khan(son of Dost Muhammad Khan) with presents and an offer of submission. Mir Shah betrothed his niece (daughter of his brother Nizam-ud-din Khan) to Muhammad Azam Khan. A treaty was made with the Muhammad Azam Khan as follows:

Ruler of Badakhshan, children and successors, agree to remain firm in allegiance to Amir of Kabul and officers in Balkh not to join foreign enemy against Amir of Kabul. Ruler of Badakhshan to furnish suitable contingent in difficulty and to aid Amir of Kabul and to give annual presents.

But Mir Shah had trouble governing his region. Family quarrels over territory kept him busy till his death in 1862. He was succeeded by his sonMir Jahandar Shah.He too would get involved in various intrigues in the region as well as issues of succession in his neighborhood, taking one side or the other. In 1865, Mir Jahandar Shah sent his ambassador Syed Muhammad to the British Commissioner inPeshawarto establish friendly relations. However, peace did not last long, as Dost Muhammad Khan died and his sons began to fight for the throne. Eventually Mir Jahandar Shah was forced to take the side of Sher Ali Khan and Muhammad Azam Khan (who was now married to Mir Jahandar Shah's daughter as well). ButMohammad Afzal Khansecured Kabul, forcing Sher Ali Khan to retreat toHerat.Mir Jahandar Shah handed over his allies to Mohammad Afzal Khan. This angered Sher Ali Khan and his deputy inAkhcha,Faiz Muhammad Khan, who went into battle atGulauganagainst Mir Jahandar Shah and defeated him. After the flight of Mir Jahandar Shah the country was divided. Mir Jahandar Shah sought refuge in Kabul, where he was restored a year afterwards to his ancestral throne by the influence of Abdur Rahman Khan, son of the Mohammad Afzal Khan, and by his popularity. His rival Mahmud Shah left without a struggle in October 1868. Mir Jahandar Shah of Badakhshan never asked forgiveness for the hostilities to Amir Sher Ali Khan with Azam Khan and failed to wait on Governor of Balkh atTakhtapul.

Sher Ali in October 1869 invited Mizrad Shah, Muhammad Shah and Ibrahim, deposed chiefs of Badakhshan and restored them. Mir Jahandar Shah fled to Kulab. In December 1869, Mir Jahandar Shah left the camp of Emir of Bukhara inKulaband attacked Badakhshan and burned fort Zang Kila.[18]

After being annexed by Afghanistan, Badakhshan was joined withQataghanto create theBadakhshan-Qataghan districtinAfghan Turkestan Province.

Eventually theGreat Gamebegan, with the Russians instigating the Emirate of Bukhara to claim certain territories of Afghanistan and the British recognizing Afghanistan's claim to the disputed territories. Badakhshan's boundaries were decided by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873, which expressly acknowledged "Badakhshan with its dependent districtWakhan"as" fully belonging to the Amir of Kabul ", and limited it to the left or southern bank of theAmu Darya(also called the Oxus).[19]On the west, Badakhshan was bounded by a line which crosses theTurkestanplains southwards from the junction of theKunduzand Amu Darya rivers until it touches the eastern water-divide of theKhulm River(Tashqurghan River), and then runs southeast, crossingKunduz,until it strikes theHindu Kush.The southern boundary was carried along the crest of the Hindu Kush as far as theKhawak Pass,leading from Badakhshan into thePanjshir valley.Beyond this it was indefinite.

It was known that theKafirsoccupied the crest of the Hindu Kush eastwards of the Khawak, but how far they extended north of the main watershed was not ascertainable. The southern limits of Badakhshan became definite again at theDorah Pass.The Dorah connectsZebakandIshkashimat the elbow, or bend, of the Oxus with the Lutku valley leading to Chitral. From the Dorah eastwards the crest of the Hindu Kush again became the boundary until it effects a junction with theMuztaghandSarikolranges, which shut off China from Russia and India. Skirting round the head of theTagdumbash Pamir,it finally merged into thePamir Mountainsboundary, and turned westwards, following the course of the Oxus, to the junction of that river and theKhanabad(Kunduz).[19]

So far as the northern boundary followed the Oxus stream, under the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush, it was only separated by the length of these slopes (some 8 or 10 miles) from the southern boundary along the crest. Thus Badakhshan reached out an arm into the Pamirs eastwards - bottle-shaped - narrow at the neck (represented by the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush), and swelling out eastwards so as to include a part of the great and little Pamirs.[19]

Before the boundary settlement of 1873 the small states of Rushan andShugnanextended to the left bank of the Oxus, and the province ofDarwaz,on the other hand, extended to the right bank. Then, however, the Darwaz extension northwards was exchanged for theRussian Pamirextension westwards, and the river throughout became the boundary between Russian and Afghan territory; the political boundaries of those provinces and those of Wakhan were no longer coincident with their geographical limits.[19]

Chitral, Yarkand and Ferghana became shelters for refugees in 1887 and 1883 from Badakhshan who fled from the campaigns ofAbdul Rahman.[20]

The following were the chief provincial subdivisions of Badakhshan, omitting Rushan and Shugnan: on the west Rustak, Kataghan, Ghori, Narin and Anderab; on the north Darwaz, Ragh and Shiwa; on the east Charan, Ishkashim, Zebak and Wakhan; and in the center, Faizabad, Farkhar, Minjan and Kishm. There were others, but nothing certain is known about these minor subdivisions.[19]Consequently, most western part of modernGorno-Badakhshanbecame part ofEmirate of Bukhara,while most of it became part of Fergana Province ofRussian Turkestan.This arrangement was lasted till 1920.

In 1890 Qataghan-Badakhshan District was separated from Afghan Turkestan andQataghan-Badakhshan Provincewas created. Administration of the province was assigned to theNorthern BureauinKabul.[21]In 1895, thePanj Riverwas defined as part of the border between Afghan and Russian Badakhshan. This border persisted despite changes in governments.

20th century

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Friendship Bridge between Tajikistan, and Afghanistan, over thePanj riverinKhwahanandShuro-obod.

In 1902, theBukharan(Western) Pamir came under the Russian military administration. In November 1918 the last Czarist Russian troops recognized Bolshevik rule, but in December 1919 the anti-Bolshevik RussianPeasant Army of Ferganatook over. From April 1920, the vacuum of power was filled by an attempt to establish Bukharan rule until June 1920, when the Bukharans were expelled by local forces, Bolshevik rule was restored: the StalinistSoviet Unionseized the Bukharan part ofGorno-Badakshan.[citation needed]

It was merged with the Russian (since 1895) part in 1924 to become the Gorno-Badakhshan autonomousoblast(province) within theTajik SSRin 1929. Between April 1992 - 1993, a Pamiri-BadakshoniAutonomous Republicwas declared within independent post-SovietTajikistan,on 6 November 1994, becoming theKohistan-Badakhshan Autonomous Province,alias Gorno-BadakhshanAutonomous Provinceor Mountainous Badakhshon Autonomous Veloyat.[citation needed]

In 1963, Badakhshan included the districts ofBaghlan,Pul-i-Khumri,Dushi,Dahan-i-Ghori,Kanabad,Andarab,Kunduz,Hazrat-i-Imam,andTaloqan.In 1963 Qataghan-Badakhshan Province was abolished and its territory was divided into four separate provinces: Badakhshan,Baghlan,KunduzandTakhar.[22]

Tajik Badakhshan witnessed fierce fighting during theTajikistani Civil Warin the 1990s.[23]At the height ofTalibanstrength during theAfghan Civil Warcirca 2000,Afghan Badakhashanwas a stronghold for theNorthern Alliance.

Geography

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The mountain districts comprise all of the southern districts of Badakhshan and the northern hills and valleys ofNuristan(formerKafiristan).Its terrain is analogous to that of the rest of theHindu Kushto the west. The Hindu Kush represents the southern edge of a great central upheaval or plateau. It breaks up into long spurs southwards, among which are hidden the valleys of Nuristan, almost isolated from each other by the rugged and snow-capped altitudes which divide them. To the north the plateau gradually slopes away towards theOxus,falling from an average altitude of 15,000 feet to 4,000 feet aboutFayzabad,in central Badakhshan, and trailing off to ~100 feet atKunduz,in Kataghan, where it merges into the flat plains bordering the Oxus river.[19]

TheKokcha Rivertraverses Badakhshan from southeast to northwest, and, with theKunduz River,drains all the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush west of theDorah Pass.Some of its sources are nearZebak,close to the great bend of the Oxus northwards, so that it cuts off all the mountainous area included within that bend from the rest of Badakhshan. Its chief affluent is the Minjan, whichSir George Robertsonfound to be a considerable stream where it approaches the Hindu Kush close under the Dorab. Like the Kunduz, it probably drains the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush by deep lateral valleys, more or less parallel to the crest, reaching westwards towards theKhawak Pass.From the Oxus (1,000 feet) to Faizabad (4,000 feet) and Zebak (8,500 feet) the course of the Kokcha offers a high road across Badakhshan; between Zebak andIshkashim,at the Oxus bend, there is but an insignificant pass of 9,500 feet; and from Ishkashim by thePanj River,through thePamirs,is the continuation of what must once have been a much-traversedtrade routeconnecting AfghanTurkestanwithKashgarof China. It is undoubtedly one of the great continental high-roads of Asia. North of the Kokcha, within the Oxus bend, is the mountainous district ofDarwaz,of which the physiography belongs rather to the Pamir type than to that of the Hindu Kush.[19]

A very remarkable meridional range extends for 100 miles northwards from the Hindu Kush (it is across this range that the route from Zebak to Ishkashim lies), which determines the great bend of the Oxus river northwards from Ishkashim, and narrows the valley of that river into the formation of a trough as far as the next bend westwards at Kala Wamar. The western slopes of this range drain to the Oxus either northwestwards, by the Kokcha and the Ragh, or else they twist their streams into the Shiwa, which runs due north across Darwaz. Here again the main routes which traverse the country follow the rivers closely. The valleys are narrow, but fertile and populous. The mountains are rugged and difficult; but there is much world-famous beauty of scenery, and almost phenomenal agricultural wealth in the valleys ofBukharaandFerghanato be found in the recesses of Badakhshan.[19]

See also

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References

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  1. ^The Music of Tajik Badakhshan,Jan van Belle, The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2003.
  2. ^W. Eilers, "BADAḴŠĀN iii. The nameArchived2016-03-04 at theWayback Machine",Encyclopædia Iranica,December 15, 1988.
  3. ^G. MorgenstierneIranicaLinkArchived2008-05-17 at theWayback Machine
  4. ^Suhrobsho Davlatshoev (2006)."The Formation and Consolidation of Pamiri Ethnic Identity in Tajikistan. Dissertation"(PDF).School of Social Sciences of Middle East Technical University, Turkey (M.S. thesis). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2007-09-26.Retrieved2006-08-25.
  5. ^Foltz, Richard (2019).A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East.Bloomsbury Collections. p. 90.
  6. ^Georgina Herrmann (1968)."Lapis Lazuli: The Early Phases of Its Trade".Iraq.30(1). British Institute for the Study of Iraq: 21–57.doi:10.2307/4199836.JSTOR4199836.S2CID130955760– via JStor.
  7. ^An ancient route through the clouds: Once part of the legendary Silk Road, Central Asia’s Pamir Mountains might be the world’s last true adventure.,Pascal Mannaerts, BBC, 3rd October 2016
  8. ^The Migration of Silk Production from China to Europe and its Subsequent Development,Claudio Zannier, Chapter 17, p.289 inTextiles and Clothing along the Silk Roads: Thematic Collection of Cultural Exchanges along the Silk Roads,2022, by UNESCO and China National Silk Museum. Zhao Feng, Marie Louise Nosch, eds.ISBN978-92-3-100539-8,413 pages
  9. ^The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity, John Boardman, Princeton University Press 1993, p. 96
  10. ^ The Travels of Marco Polovia Wikisource
  11. ^Biswas, A.K. (2001). "Minerals and their Exploitation in Ancient and Pre-modern India". In Ramachandra Rao, P.; Goswami, N.G. (eds.).Metallurgy in India: a retrospective.New Delhi: India International Publisher. pp. 1–22.ASINB002A9M6QU.
  12. ^Pardieu, V.; Farkhodova, T. (Summer 2019)."Spinel from Tajikistan".InColor:30–33.Retrieved28 April2021.
  13. ^Ancient Iranian Nomads in Western Central Asia,A. Abetekov and H. Yusupov.ISBN978-92-3-102846-5,pp. 33-34 inHistory of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250Volume II. János Harmatta, B.N. Puri, G.F. Etemadi eds. UNESCO Publishing, 1996.ISBN92-3-102846-4
  14. ^"Portrait of Mirza Shah Rukh".rct.uk.
  15. ^abChristine Noelle.State and Tribe in Nineteenth-Century Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan (1826–1863).Surrey: Curzon Press, 1997. p. 62
  16. ^Ludwig W. Adamec.Historical and political gazetteer of Afghanistan Vol. 1. Badakhshan Province and northeastern Afghanistan.Graz:Akad. Druck- und Verl.-Anst., 1972. p. 99.
  17. ^Rút đạt khắc sơn dân tộc Hồi
  18. ^abcdefghijk"Rough Chronological History Of Badakhshan, Etc".The Asiatic quarterly review, Volume 10.1895.Retrieved17 March2011.
  19. ^abcdefghOne or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Holdich, Thomas(1911). "Badakshan".InChisholm, Hugh(ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 182–183.
  20. ^Paul Bergne (15 June 2007).The Birth of Tajikistan: National Identity and the Origins of the Republic.I.B.Tauris. pp. 90–.ISBN978-1-84511-283-7.
  21. ^Fayz Muḥammad Katib. Siraj al-tawarıkh. V. III. Afghanistan Digital Library. <"1 book".Archivedfrom the original on 2011-09-27.Retrieved2011-10-15.>
  22. ^Ludwig W. Adamec.Historical and political gazetteer of Afghanistan Vol. 1. Badakhshan Province and northeastern Afghanistan.Graz:Akad. Druck- und Verl.-Anst., 1972. p. 26.
  23. ^Pannier, Bruce (9 October 2018)."Tajikistan's Unconquerable Gorno-Badakhshan Region".Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
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