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Bārbad
باربد‎
Detailof Barbad playing thebarbatforKhosrow II.Imaginary painting by Muhammad-Mukim, 1664
Born
MervorJahrom
Died
Ctesiphon?
Years activefl. late 6th – early 7th century CE[1]
MovementSasanian music

Barbad(Persian:باربد;fl. late 6th – early 7th century CE) was a Persian musician-poet,music theoristand composer ofSasanian music.He served as chief minstrel-poet under the ShahanshahKhosrow II(r. 590–628). Abarbatplayer, he was the most distinguished Persian musician of his time and is regarded among the major figures in the history ofPersian music.

Despite scarce biographical information, Barbad'shistoricityis generally secure. He was highly regarded in the court of Khosrow, and interacted with other musicians, such asSarkash.Although he is traditionally credited with numerous innovations in Persian music theory and practice, the attributions remain tentative since they are ascribed centuries after his death. Practically all Barbad's music or poetry is lost, except a single poem fragment and the titles of a few compositions.

No Sasanian sources discuss Barbad, suggesting his reputation was preserved throughoral tradition,until at least the earliest written account by the poet Khaled ibn Fayyaz (d.c. 718). Barbad appears frequently in laterPersian literature,most famously inFerdowsi'sShahnameh.The content and abundance of such references demonstrate his unique influence, inspiring musicians such asIshaq al-Mawsili.Often described as the "founder of Persian music", Barbad remains a celebrated figure in modern-day Iran,AfghanistanandTajikistan.

Name

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Bahram Gur and Courtiers Entertained by Barbad the Musician(Barbad bottom right). From a manuscript ofFerdowsi'sShahnameh,second half 17th century.[2]

Posthumous sources refer to theSasanianmusician with little consistency. Persian sources record "Barbād" while Arabic scholars use Fahl(a)bad, Bahl(a)bad, Fahl(a)wad, Fahr(a)bad, Bahr(a)bad and Bārbad/ḏ.[3]Modern sources most often use "Barbad",[n 1]a spelling that Danish orientalistArthur Christensenfirst asserted to be correct.[3]However, the German orientalistTheodor Nöldekesuggested that spellings from Arabic commentators such as "Fahl(a)bad" were really anarabicizationof his actual name, probably Pahrbad/Pahlbad. Nöldeke furthered that "Bārbad" was a mistake in the interpretation of ambiguousPahlavicharacters.[3]TheIranologistAhmad Tafazzoliagreed with Nöldeke, citing a Sasaniansealwhich includes the name "Pahrbad/Pahlbad" and the earliest mention of the Sasanian musician, which uses a spelling— "Bahrbad/Bahlbad" —that suggests the name had been arabicized.[3]

Background

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Themusic of Iran/Persiastretches to at least the depictions ofarched harpsfrom 3300–3100 BCE,[4]though not until the period of the Sasanian Empire in 224–651 CE is substantial information available.[5]This influx of Sasanian records suggests a prominent musical culture in the Empire,[6]especially in the areas dominated byZoroastrianism.[5]Many SasanianShahanshahswere ardent supporters of music, including the founder of the empireArdashir IandBahram V.[5]Khosrow II(r. 590–628) was the most outstandingpatron,his reign being regarded as agolden ageof Persian music.[5]Musicians in Khosrow's service include Āzādvar-e Changi,[n 2]Bāmshād,the harpistNagisa(Nakisa),Ramtin,Sarkash (also Sargis or Sarkas)[n 3]and Barbad,[9]who was by-far the most famous.[8]These musicians were usually active asminstrels,which were performers who worked as both court poets and musicians;[10]in the Sasanian Empire there was little distinction between poetry and music.[11]

Though manyMiddle Persian(Pahlavi) texts of the Sasanian Empire survive, only one—Khusraw qubadan va ridak—includes commentary on music, though neither it or any other Sasanian sources discuss Barbad.[12]Barbad's reputation must have been transmitted throughoral tradition,[13]until at least the earliest source: an Arabic poem by Khaled ibn Fayyaz (d.c. 718).[14][n 4]In later ancient Arabic and Persian sources Barbad is the most discussed Sasanian musician, though he is rarely included in writings dedicated solely to music.[15]A rare exception to this is a brief mention in Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Muhammad Nishābūrī's music treatiseRasaleh-i musiqi-i.[16]Ancient sources in general give little biographical information and most of what is available is shrouded in mythological anecdotes.[17]Tales from the poetFerdowsi'sShahnameh,written during the late 10th century, include the most celebrated accounts of Barbad.[18]Other important sources included Ferdowsi's contemporary, the poetal-Tha'alibiin hisGhurar al-saya,as well asKhosrow and ShirinandHaft Peykarfrom the poetNezami Ganjavi'sKhamsa of Nizamifrom the late 12th century.[19][5]Despite this plethora of stories depicting him in a legendary context, scholars generally consider Barbad a whollyhistorical person.[5][20]

Life and career

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Early life

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An illustration from a manuscript of Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, depicting Barbad (top left) hidden in the trees playing for Khosrow (bottom right).[21]
An illustration from a manuscript ofFerdowsi'sShahnameh,depicting Barbad (top left) hidden in the trees playing for Khosrow (bottom right).[21]

There are contradictory ancient accounts as to the location of Barbad's birthplace. Older sources record the city ofMervin northeasternKhorasan,[22][n 5]while later works giveJahrom,[n 6]a small city south ofShirazinPars.[17]Tafazzoli postulated that the writers who recorded Jahrom were referencing a line of Ferdowsi'sShahnamehthat says Barbad traveled from Jarom to the capital inCtesiphonwhen Khosrow was murdered;[17]the modern historianMehrdad Kiarecords only Merv.[22]

Ferdowsi and al-Tha'alibi both relay a story that Barbad was a gifted young musician who sought a place as a court minstrel under Khosrow II but the jealous chief court minstrel Sarkash[n 3]supposedly prevented this.[23]As such, Barbad hid in the royal garden by dressing in all green.[22]When Khosrow walked by Barbad sang three songs with his lute:Dād-āfrīd( "created by god" ),Peykār-e gord( "battle of the hero" or "splendor ofFarkar") andSabz dar sabz( "green in the green" ).[23]Khosrow was immediately impressed and ordered that Barbad be appointed chief minstrel,[23][24][n 7]a position known as theshah-i ramishgaran.[10][n 8]In Nizami'sKhosrow and Shirin,Khosrow II is said to have had a dream where his grandfatherKhosrow Iprophesied that he would have a "have a minstrel called Barbad whose art could make even poison taste delicious".[26]

Stories with Khosrow

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Since his appointment at court, Barbad was Khosrow's favorite musician, and many stories exist about this prestige.[7]His relationship with Khosrow was reportedly such that other members of the court would seek his assistance in mediating conflicts between them and the Shahanshah.[27]A story in Nizami'sKhosrow and Shirin,tells of Khosrow andShirinas previously together, but forced to separate for political reasons; Khosrow marries someone else, but is soon reminded of Shirin.[28]The two later met and arranged for the Nagisa to sing of Shirin's love for Khosrow, while Barbad sung of Khosrow's love for Shirin.[25]The duet reconciled the couple and was recorded by Nizami in 263couplets.[25]The idea of setting music to poetry in order to represent the emotions of characters was unprecedented in Persian music.[25]According to the 10th-century historianIbn al-Faqih al-Hamadani'sKitab al-buldan,[29]Khosrow's wife Shirin asked Barbad to remind Khosrow of his promise to build her a castle. To do so, he sung a song and was rewarded with an estate nearIsfahanfor him and his family.[27]According to theSeljukscholarNizam al-Mulk,Barbad visited a courtier who had been imprisoned by Khosrow and upon being scolded by the Shahanshah, a "witty remark" was enough to resolve the situation.[27]

Barbad (left) playing music forKhosrow II

In the literary scholarAbu al-Faraj al-Isfahani'sKitab al-Aghani,a jealous rival musician once untuned the strings of Barbad's lute during a royal banquet. Upon returning to perform, Barbad began to play; royal rules forbade the tuning instruments in the Shahanshah's presence, but Barbad's skill was such that he could adapt to the untuned strings and play the pieces regardless.[30]Al-Isfahani attributed this story toIshaq al-Mawsili(776–856)—a renowned minstrel underHarun al-Rashid—who purportedly relayed the story to friends.[29]

Among the most popular legends about Barbad involves Khosrow's beloved horseShabdiz.In this story, Khosrow declared that when Shabdiz died, anyone who announced the news would be executed.[24]Upon Shabdiz's death, no members of the court wished to risk conveying the news.[27]To resolve the issue, Barbad sang a sad song, and Khosrow, understanding the purpose of the song, stated "Shabdiz is dead"; Barbad responded "Yes and it is your majesty who announced it", thereby preventing any possibility of death.[24] This story was relayed earliest by the poet Khaled ibn Fayyaz (d.c. 718),[n 4]with later accounts by al-Tha'alibi and the 13th-century writerZakariya al-Qazwini.[27]Many similar ancient stories originated in Iran, Turkey andCentral Asiathat pertain to musicians using music to express the death of a ruler's horse, as to avoid the ruler's wrath against the announcer.[31]Various pieces for theKhwarazmdutar,KyrgyzkomuzandKazakhdombrarelay equivalent stories.[31]Tafazzoli asserts that the story demonstrates Barbad's unique influence on Khosrow,[27]while musicologistLloyd Millersuggest that this and similar stories suggest that music and musicians in general exerted a significant influence on their political leaders.[32]

Death

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Like his birthplace, there are conflicting accounts surrounding the final years of Barbad's life. According to Ferdowsi, upon the murder of Khosrow byKavad II,Barbad rushed from Jahrom to the capital of Ctesiphon.[33]After arriving he sangelegies,[33]cut off his fingers and burned his instruments out of respect.[33][10]Al-Tha'alibi's account holds that Sarkash,[n 3]who had remained at the court since being ousted from the chief minstrel position, poisoned Barbad.[33]The 9th-century geographerIbn Khordadbeh'sKitāb al-lahw wa-l-malahi,however, records the opposite, stating that Barbad poisoned Sarkash but was spared from Khosrow's punishment by way of a "witty remark".[33]The 9th-century scholarIbn Qutaybah's‘Uyūn al-Akhbārand the 10th-century poetIbn Abd Rabbih'sal-ʿIqd al-Farīdstate that Barbad was killed by a different musician, variously recorded as Yošt, Rabūst, Rošk and Zīwešt.[33]

Music and poetry

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1539 illustration, Barbad in the middle with abarbat,attributed toMirza Ali[fa].[34][35]

Barbad was active as a musician-poet,[36]lutenist,music theoristand composer.[1]His compositions includedpanegyrics,elegiesandverses.[37]These were performed by himself at festivals such asNowruzandMehregan,as well as state banquets and victory celebrations.[37]While none of the compositions are extant, the names have survived for some, and they suggest a wide variety in the topics he musically engaged with.[7]The ethnomusicologistHormoz Farhathas tentatively sorted them into different groupings: epic forms based on historical events,kin-iIraj(lit. 'the Vengeance of Iraj'),kin-isiavash(lit. 'the Vengeance of Siavash'), andTaxt-iArdashir(lit. 'the Throne of Ardashir'); songs connected to the Sasanian royal court,Bagh-i shirin(lit. 'the garden of Shirin'),Bagh-i Shahryar(lit. 'the Sovereign's Garden'), andhaft Ganj(lit. 'the seven treasures'); and "compositions of a descriptive nature",roshan charagh(lit. 'bright lights').[7]According to both scholars Ibn al-Faqih and the 13th-century geographerYaqut al-Hamawi,Barbad wroteBag-e nakjiran(lit. 'garden of the game') for workers who had recently finished the gardens ofQasr-e Shirin.[37]

A single poem by Barbad survives, though in a quoted state from theKitab al-lahw wa al-malahiby Ibn Khordadbeh.[14]The work is a 3-hemistichpanegyric in Middle Persian, but with anArabic script;[37]none of its music is extant.[14]The poem is as follows:

Ceasar resembles the moon and Khaqan the sun,
[but] my lord is like the rich clouds,
whenever he wants he hides the moon or the sun.

— Barbad, in theKitab al-lahw wa al-malahiby Ibn Khordadbeh[38]

Christensen suggested in 1936 that the textKhvarshēdh ī rōshan(lit. 'The shining sun') is from a poem that was written and performed by Barbad himself or another musician-poet of his time.[5]The text is found in a group ofManichaeanmanuscripts inTurpan,Xin gian g,China and is written in Middle Persian, which Barbad would have used.[5]It has four 11-syllable lines and its title recalls the Sasanian melodyArāyishn ī khvarshēdh(lit. 'The beauty of the sun').[5]

The shining sun, the beaming full moon
Resplendent and beaming behind the trunk of a tree;
The eager birds strut about it full of joy,
The doves and the colorful peacocks strut about.

— Khvarshēdh ī rōshan(lit. 'The shining sun'),attri.unknown Sasanian musician, possibly Barbad[5]

Barbad is traditionally regarded as the inventor of numerous aspects of Persian music theory and practice. Al-Tha'alibi first credited him with creating an organizedmodalsystem ofseven "Royal modes" (al-ṭoruq al-molukiya)[fa],[39]known variously asxosrovani(Persian:سرود خسروانى),[7]Haft Ḵosravāni,[39]orkhosravani.[9][8]This attribution is later repeated by scholars such asal-Masudi[37]andQutb al-Din al-Shirazi.[5]From these royal modes, Barbad created30 "derivative modes" (lahn)[fa],and 360melodies(dastan).[9][8][n 9]The structure of seven, 30 and 360 variations corresponds to the number of days, weeks and months of theZoroastrian calendar.[5][n 10]Farhat notes that the exact reason for this is not known,[40]though according to the 14th-century poetHamdallah Mustawfi'sTarikh-i guzida,Barbad sang one of the 360 melodies each day for the Shahanshah.[37]Al-Tha'alibi recorded that the seven royal modes were still in use during his lifetime,[39]from 961 to 1039.[41]Further information on the nature of these subjects, theories or compositions has not survived.[7]In her analysis of the historical and literary sources concerning Barbad, musicologist Firoozeh Khazrai stated that "until a new independent source on the subject comes to light, many of these attributions should be regarded as authorial inventions".[20]She noted that many of the attributions to Barbad date centuries after his death and the 30 modes in particular are first connected to Barbad by Nizami, who lived in the 12th century.[13]In addition, in hisdivan(collection of poems), the 11th-century poetManuchehrinames a few of the modes that Nizami mentioned but does not associate them with Barbad, even though he references the Sasanian musician elsewhere.[42]

Reputation

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Relief of Barbad in theSangtarashan caveofJahrom,Iran

Barbad's lute was the four-stringedbarbat.[43][44]It had been popular in his time, but no traces of the instrument survive and it was eventually substituted for theoud.[45]The musicologistsJean Duringand Zia Mirabdolbaghi note that despite the instrument's gradual disuse, "the termbarbatsurvived for centuries, through classical poetry, as a symbol of the golden age of the Persian musical tradition, served by artists such as Bārbad. "[45]Later sources regularly praise Barbad and some offer him theepitaphas the "founder of Persian music".[5]He is regarded as the most significant musician of his time,[7]being among the major figures in the history ofIranian/Persian music.[46]InSharh bar Kitāb al-adwar,the 14th-century writeral-Sharif al-Jurjani—whom the work is attributed to—says:

"Among the ancient musicians, there were those who never played the same melody twice in presence of the king. Such was Barbad, who lived during the time of [Khosrow II]. He took care to study his audience well. He paid attention to the disposition of his listeners' souls, and then he would improvise words and a melody suited to the occasion and corresponding perfectly to each person's desire. His fame spread throughout the world, and [Khosrow] boasted about the fact that neither the kings of the past, nor those of his time, possessed such an artist."

— al-Jurjani(attri.),Sharh bar Kitāb al-adwar[9][n 11]

The preponderance and frequent transmission of stories involving Barbad attest to his popularity long after his death.[47][29]In modern-day Iran, Afghanistan andTajikistan,Barbad continues to be a celebrated figure.[47]In 1989 and 1990 the cultural establishment of theTajikgovernment encouraged their people to find pride in Barbad's achievements; the panegyrics given for Barbad are part of a larger effort by the Tajik government to pass off the "achievements of pre-Islamic Iranian civilization" as Tajik ones.[48]The largest musical hall ofDushanbe,Tajikistan, is named "Kokhi Borbad" after Barbad.[47]

Musicologist Firoozeh Khazrai sums up Barbad's legacy as such:

"From the sources and nature of the things attributed to Barbad, we can conclude that Barbad survived in an oral popular culture that immortalized him by continually retelling old stories about him, and the legendary power of his music, and by spinning out new ones. While all these stories mythologize Barbad without telling us any solid information about the actual nature of his music, they underscore the unparalleled authority of the minstrel and the powerful grip he and his music continued to exercise on the imagination of the people in the post-Sasanian era."

— Firoozeh Khazrai[29]

References

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Notes

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  1. ^Virtually all sources in this article use the form "Barbad" —albeit sometimes differing in use of thetransliterateddiacriticmarking over the "a" (e.g. "Bārbad" )—seeCurtis (2003,pp. 137–138),Kia (2016,p. 151),Miller (2012,p. 6) andTafazzoli (1988,§ para. 1) for instance.
  2. ^Āzādvar-e Changi is also known as simply Āzād.[7]
  3. ^abcThere is much contradiction in modern sources over the musiciansNagisa(Nakisa) and Sarkash (also Sargis or Sarkas). Some sources, such asDuring (1991a,p. 39) andFarhat (2004,p. 3) present them as separate individuals, listing them both as among the musicians of Khosrow's court. Other sources, such asLawergren (2001,§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE" ) andFarhat (2001,§1 "History" ) suggest the two are the same person: "harpist Sarkash (also called Nakisā)",[5]and "Nakisa or Sarkash".[8]Matters are made more confusing by the fact thatHormoz Farhatpresented the two musicians differently.
  4. ^abSeeKhazrai (2016,p. 168) for an English translation of Fayyaz's poem
  5. ^Older sources that giveMervas Barbad's birthplace includeIbn Khordadbeh'sKitāb al-lahw wa-l-malahi,Hamdallah Mustawfi'sNuzhat al-Qulub,al-Tha'alibi'sGhurar al-saya,as well as accounts byal-JahizandIstakhri.[17]
  6. ^Later sources that giveJahromas Barbad's birthplace include theFarhang-e Jahangiriby Jamal al-Din Hosayn Enju Shirazi and an account byFakhr al-Din al-Razi.[17]
  7. ^The purported story on Barbad's accession to the chief court minstrel post exists in slightly different variants depending on its source. SeeKhazrai (2016,p. 169–170) for a discussion on the differences between the accounts of Ferdowsi and al-Tha'alibi. See modern retellings from unspecified sources inCurtis (2003,pp. 137–138),Kia (2016,p. 151),Miller (2012,p. 6) andTafazzoli (1988,§ para. 3)
  8. ^The minstrel title alone may be referred to asrāmeshgar,gosān,orkhunyāgar.[25]"Poet-minstrel" iskhunyagaran.[12]
  9. ^SeeFarmer (1926)for a list of all the purported 30 modes.
  10. ^ScholarBo Lawergrennotes that having 360 to match the days of a year ignores the fiveintercalarydays.[5]
  11. ^Recorded byRodolphe d'Erlanger(1938).[9]

Citations

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  1. ^abGrove2001.
  2. ^Brooklyn Museum.
  3. ^abcdTafazzoli 1988,§ para. 1.
  4. ^Lawergren 2001,§1 "Introduction", §2 "3rd millennium BCE".
  5. ^abcdefghijklmnoLawergren 2001,§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE".
  6. ^Farhat 2012,"Historic Retrospective".
  7. ^abcdefgFarhat 2004,p. 3.
  8. ^abcdFarhat 2001,§1 "History".
  9. ^abcdeDuring 1991a,p. 39.
  10. ^abcCurtis 2003,p. 138.
  11. ^During 1991b,p. 154.
  12. ^abKhazrai 2016,p. 165.
  13. ^abKhazrai 2016,pp. 170–171.
  14. ^abcKhazrai 2016,p. 166.
  15. ^Lucas 2019,p. 59.
  16. ^Lucas 2019,pp. 59, 244.
  17. ^abcdeTafazzoli 1988,§ para. 2.
  18. ^Khazrai 2016,p. 169.
  19. ^Tafazzoli 1988,§ para. 1–7.
  20. ^abKhazrai 2016,p. 171.
  21. ^Kia 2016,p. 152.
  22. ^abcKia 2016,p. 151.
  23. ^abcTafazzoli 1988,§ para. 3.
  24. ^abcMiller 2012,p. 6.
  25. ^abcdKhazrai 2016,p. 164.
  26. ^Curtis 2003,p. 142.
  27. ^abcdefTafazzoli 1988,§ para. 4.
  28. ^Curtis 2003,pp. 143–144.
  29. ^abcdKhazrai 2016,p. 167.
  30. ^Tafazzoli 1988,§ para. 5.
  31. ^abBlum 2001b,§2 "Musicians".
  32. ^Miller 2012,p. 19.
  33. ^abcdefTafazzoli 1988,§ para. 7.
  34. ^Curtis 2003,p. 137.
  35. ^Blum 2001a,p. 834.
  36. ^Khazrai 2016,p. 163.
  37. ^abcdefTafazzoli 1988,§ para. 6.
  38. ^Tafazzoli 1974,p. 338.
  39. ^abcYoussefzadeh 2012.
  40. ^Farhat 2001,§5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE".
  41. ^Orfali 2009,p. 273.
  42. ^Khazrai 2016,p. 170.
  43. ^Blum 2001b,§4 "Instruments".
  44. ^Farhat 2012,"Instruments".
  45. ^abDuring & Mirabdolbaghi 1991a,p. 106.
  46. ^Nettl 2012.
  47. ^abcKia 2016,p. 153.
  48. ^Manz 1998,p. 137.
  49. ^LA County Museum of Art.

Sources

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Books
Articles
Web

Further reading

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Wikimedia Commons has media related toBarbad.

"Barbad and Nakisā",a song inspired by Barbad performed by theTanburplayer Nur ʿAli Elāhi onEncyclopædia Iranica

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