Beeswax
Beeswax(also known ascera alba) is a naturalwaxproduced byhoney beesof the genusApis.The wax is formed into scales by eight wax-producing glands in the abdominal segments ofworker bees,which discard it in or at the hive. The hive workers collect and use it to form cells for honey storage and larval and pupal protection within thebeehive.Chemically, beeswax consists mainly ofestersoffatty acidsand variouslong-chain alcohols.
Beeswax has been used since prehistory as the first plastic, as a lubricant and waterproofing agent, inlost wax castingof metals and glass, as apolishfor wood and leather, for makingcandles,as an ingredient in cosmetics and as an artistic medium inencaustic painting.
Beeswax is edible, having similarly negligibletoxicityto plant waxes, and is approved for food use in most countries and in theEuropean Unionunder theE numberE901. However, due to its inability to be broken down by the human digestive system, it has insignificant nutritional value.[1]
Production[edit]
Beeswax is formed byworker bees,which secrete it from eight wax-producing mirror glands on the inner sides of thesternites(theventralshield or plate of each segment of the body) on abdominal segments 4 to 7.[2]The sizes of these wax glands depend on the age of the worker, and after many daily flights, these glands gradually begin toatrophy.
The new wax is initially glass-clear and colorless, becomingopaqueafterchewingand being contaminated with pollen by the hive worker bees, becoming progressively yellower or browner by incorporation ofpollenoils andpropolis.The wax scales are about three millimetres (0.12 in) across and 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) thick, and about 1100 are needed to make a gram of wax.[3]Worker bees use the beeswax to buildhoneycombcells. For the wax-making bees to secrete wax, the ambient temperature in the hive must be 33 to 36 °C (91 to 97 °F).
The bookBeeswax Production, Harvesting, Processing and Productssuggests one kilogram (2.2 lb) of beeswax is sufficient to store 22 kg (49 lb) of honey.[4]: 41 Another study estimated that one kilogram (2.2 lb) of wax can store 24 to 30 kg (53 to 66 lb) of honey.[5][6]
Sugars from honey are metabolized into beeswax in wax-gland-associatedfat cells.[7]The amount ofhoneyused by bees to produce wax has not been accurately determined, but according to Whitcomb's 1946 experiment, 6.66 to 8.80 kg (14.7 to 19.4 lb) of honey yields one kilogram (2.2 lb) of wax.[4]: 35
Processing[edit]
Beeswax as a product for human use may come from cappings cut off the cells in the process of extraction, from old comb that is scrapped, or from unwantedburr combandbrace combremoved from a hive. Its color varies from nearly white to brownish, but most often is a shade of yellow, depending on purity, the region, and the type of flowers gathered by the bees. The wax from thebrood combof the honey bee hive tends to be darker than wax from the honeycomb because impurities accumulate more quickly in the brood comb. Due to the impurities, the wax must be rendered before further use. The leftovers are calledslumgum,and is derived from old breeding rubbish (pupa casings, cocoons, shed larva skins, etc.), bee droppings, propolis, and general rubbish.
The wax may be clarified further by heating in water. As with petroleum waxes, it may be softened by dilution with mineral oil or vegetable oil to make it more workable at room temperature.
Physical characteristics[edit]
| Wax content type | Percentage |
|---|---|
| Hydrocarbons | 14 |
| Monoesters | 35 |
| Diesters | 14 |
| Triesters | 3 |
| Hydroxy monoesters | 4 |
| Hydroxy polyesters | 8 |
| Acidesters | 1 |
| Acidpolyesters | 2 |
| Free fatty acids | 12 |
| Free fatty alcohols | 1 |
| Unidentified | 6 |
Beeswax is a fragrant solid at room temperature. The colors are light yellow, medium yellow, or dark brown and white. Beeswax is a toughwaxformed from a mixture of severalchemical compounds.
Beeswax has a relatively lowmelting pointrange of 62 to 64 °C (144 to 147 °F). If beeswax is heated above 85 °C (185 °F) discoloration occurs. The flash point of beeswax is 204.4 °C (399.9 °F).[8]
When natural beeswax is cold,[clarification needed]it is brittle, and its fracture is dry and granular. Atroom temperature(conventionally taken as about 20 °C (68 °F)), it is tenacious and it softens further at humanbody temperature(37 °C (99 °F)).
Chemical composition[edit]
An approximatechemical formulafor beeswax is C15H31COOC30H61.[10]Its main constituents arepalmitate,palmitoleate,andoleateestersof long-chain (30–32 carbons)aliphaticalcohols,with the ratio oftriacontanyl palmitateCH3(CH2)29O-CO-(CH2)14CH3tocerotic acidCH3(CH2)24COOH, the two principal constituents, being 6:1[citation needed].Beeswax can be classified generally into European and Oriental types. Thesaponification valueis lower (3–5) for European beeswax, and higher (8–9) for Oriental types.[citation needed]The analytical characterization can be done by high-temperaturegas chromatography.[9][11]
Beeswax adulteration[edit]
Beeswax faces challenges in the market due to the presence of various suppliers, making it difficult to distinguish authentic from fake variants. Adulterated beeswax often contains paraffin and other toxic additives, posing potential health risks and lacking the genuine honey-scented aroma of pure beeswax.[12]
The fake counterparts, typically in pellet form, feel smooth, sticky, and greasy, reflecting the presence of added paraffin. To identify fake beeswax, consumers are advised to pay attention to color, scent, feel, and texture.
Genuine beeswax, sourced organically from beekeepers, is known for its varying hues, strong honey fragrance, and a hard yet pliable feel.
Production[edit]
| Country | Tonnes |
|---|---|
 India |
23,716 |
 Ethiopia |
5,339 |
 Argentina |
4,970 |
 Turkey |
3,765 |
 South Korea |
3,758 |
| World | 62,116 |
|
Source: FAOSTAT[13]
| |
In 2020, world production of beeswax was 62,116tonnes,led by India with 38% of the total.[13]
Uses[edit]
Candle-making has long involved the use of beeswax, which burns readily and cleanly, and this material was traditionally prescribed for the making of thePaschal candleor "Easter candle". Beeswax candles are purported to be superior to other wax candles, because they burn brighter and longer, do not bend, and burn cleaner.[14]It is further recommended for the making of other candles used in theliturgyof theRoman Catholic Church.[15]Beeswax is also the candle constituent of choice in theEastern Orthodox Church.[16][17]
Refined beeswax plays a prominent role in art materials both as a binder inencaustic paintand as a stabilizer inoil paintto add body.[18]
Beeswax is an ingredient in surgicalbone wax,which is used during surgery to control bleeding from bone surfaces;shoe polishandfurniture polishcan both use beeswax as a component, dissolved in turpentine or sometimes blended withlinseed oilortung oil;modeling waxes can also use beeswax as a component; pure beeswax can also be used as an organicsurfboard wax.[19]Beeswax blended with pinerosinis used forwa xing,and can serve as an adhesive to attach reed plates to the structure inside asqueezebox.It can also be used to makeCutler's resin,an adhesive used to glue handles onto cutlery knives. It is used in Eastern Europe in egg decoration; it is used for writing, viaresist dyeing,onbatikeggs (as inpysanky) and for making beaded eggs. Beeswax is used bypercussioniststo make a surface ontambourinesfor thumb rolls. It can also be used as a metal injection moulding binder component along with other polymeric binder materials.[20]
Beeswax was formerly used in the manufacture of phonograph cylinders. It may still be used to seal formal legal orroyal decreeand academic parchments such as placing an awarding stampimprimaturof the university upon completion of postgraduate degrees.
Purified and bleached beeswax is used in the production of food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. The three main types of beeswax products are yellow, white, and beeswax absolute. Yellow beeswax is the crude product obtained from the honeycomb, white beeswax is bleached or filtered yellow beeswax, and beeswaxabsoluteis yellow beeswax treated with alcohol. In food preparation, it is used as a coating forcheese;by sealing out the air, protection is given against spoilage (mold growth). Beeswax may also be used as a food additiveE901,in small quantities acting as aglazing agent,which serves to prevent water loss, or used to provide surface protection for some fruits. Soft gelatin capsules and tablet coatings may also use E901. Beeswax is also a common ingredient of natural chewing gum. The wax monoesters in beeswax are poorly hydrolysed in the guts of humans and othermammals,so they have insignificant nutritional value.[1]Some birds, such ashoneyguides,can digest beeswax.[21]Beeswax is the main diet ofwax mothlarvae.[22]
The use of beeswax in skin care and cosmetics has been increasing. A German study found beeswax to be superior to similar barrier creams (usually mineral oil-based creams such aspetroleum jelly), when used according to its protocol.[23] Beeswax is used inlip balm,lip gloss,hand creams,salves, and moisturizers; and in cosmetics such aseye shadow,blush, andeye liner.Beeswax is also an important ingredient inmoustache waxandhair pomades,which make hair look sleek and shiny.
In oil spill control, beeswax is processed to createPetroleum Remediation Product(PRP). It is used to absorb oil or petroleum-based pollutants from water.[24]
Historical uses[edit]
Beeswax was among the first plastics to be used, alongside other natural polymers such asgutta-percha,horn,tortoiseshell,andshellac.For thousands of years, beeswax has had a wide variety of applications; it has been found in the tombs of Egypt, in wrecked Viking ships, and in Roman ruins. Beeswax never goes bad and can be heated and reused. Historically, it has been used:
- As candles - the oldest intact beeswax candles north of the Alps were found in theAlamannicgraveyard ofOberflacht, Germany,dating to 6th/7th century AD
- In the manufacture of cosmetics
- As a modelling material in thelost-wax castingprocess, orcire perdue[25]
- Forwax tabletsused for a variety of writing purposes
- Inencaustic paintingssuch as theFayum mummy portraits[26]
- Inbow making
- To strengthen and preservesewingthread, cordage, shoe laces, etc.
- As a component ofsealing wax
- To strengthen and to forestall splitting and cracking of wind instrument reeds
- To form the mouthpieces of adidgeridoo,and the frets on thePhilippinekutiyapi– a type of boatlute
- As a sealant orlubricantforbulletsin cap and ballfirearms
- To stabilize the military explosiveTorpex– before being replaced by a petroleum-based product
- In producing Javanesebatik[27]
- As an ancient form of dental tooth filling[28][29]
- As the joint filler in the slate bed of pool and billiard tables.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^abBeeswax absorption and toxicity.Large amounts of such waxes in the diet pose theoretical toxicological problems for mammals.
- ^Sanford, M.T.; Dietz, A. (1976)."The fine structure of the wax gland of the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.)"(PDF).Apidologie.7(3): 197–207.doi:10.1051/apido:19760301.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2019-04-30.
- ^Brown, R, H. (1981)Beeswax(2nd edition) Bee Books New and Old, Burrowbridge, Somerset UK.ISBN0-905652-15-0
- ^abBeeswax Production, Harvesting, Processing and Products, Coggshall and Morse.Wicwas Press. 1984-06-01.ISBN978-1878075062.
- ^Les Crowder (2012-08-31).Top-Bar Beekeeping: Organic Practices for Honeybee Health.Chelsea Green Publishing.ISBN978-1603584616.
- ^Top-bar beekeeping in AmericaArchived2014-07-29 at theWayback Machine.
- ^Collision, Clarence (31 March 2015)."A Closer Look: Beeswax, Wax Glands".Bee Culture.beeculture. pp. 12–27.Retrieved2020-06-16.
- ^"MSDS for beeswax"..No reportedautoignition temperaturehas been reported
- ^abTulloch, A. P. (1980)."Beeswax—Composition and Analysis".Bee World.61(2): 47–62.doi:10.1080/0005772X.1980.11097776.
- ^Umney, Nick; Shayne Rivers (2003).Conservation of Furniture.Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 164.
- ^Limsathayourat, N.; Melchert, H.-U. (1984)."High-temperature capillary GLC of hydrocarbons, fatty-acid derivatives, cholesterol esters, wax esters and triglycerides in beeswax analysis".Fresenius' Zeitschrift für analytische Chemie[Fresenius’ Journal of Analytical Chemistry].318(6): 410–413.doi:10.1007/BF00533223.
- ^European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (May 2020)."Risk assessment of beeswax adulterated with paraffin and/or stearin/stearic acid when used in apiculture and as food (honeycomb)".EFSA Supporting Publications.17(5).doi:10.2903/sp.efsa.2020.EN-1859.
- ^ab"Beeswax production in 2020, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)".UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2022.Retrieved23 July2022.
- ^Norman, Gary (2010).Honey Bee Hobbyist: The Care and Keeping of Bees.California, US: BowTie Press. p. 160.ISBN978-1-933958-94-1.
- ^'Altar Candles ",1913 Catholic Encyclopedia
- ^[1],Use of Candles in the Orthodox Church
- ^Uwe Wolfmeier, Hans Schmidt, Franz-Leo Heinrichs, Georg Michalczyk, Wolfgang Payer, Wolfram Dietsche, Klaus Boehlke, Gerd Hohner, Josef Wildgruber "Waxes" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2002.doi:10.1002/14356007.a28_103.
- ^Mayer, Ralph; Sheehan, Steven (1991).The artist's handbook of materials and techniques(Fifth edition, revised and updated ed.). New York.ISBN978-0670837014.OCLC22178945.
{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^'Raw Beeswax Uses "Archived2013-11-06 at theWayback Machine,MoreNature
- ^'Metal Injection Molding Process (MIM) "Archived2012-05-10 at theWayback Machine,2012 EngPedia
- ^Downs, Colleen T; van Dyk, Robyn J; Iji, Paul (September 2002). "Wax digestion by the lesser honeyguide Indicator minor".Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.133(1): 125–134.doi:10.1016/s1095-6433(02)00130-7.PMID12160878.
- ^Dadd, R.H. (December 1966). "Beeswax in the nutrition of the wax moth, Galleria mellonella (L.)".Journal of Insect Physiology.12(12): 1479–1492.doi:10.1016/0022-1910(66)90038-2.
- ^
Peter J. Frosch; Detlef Peiler; Veit Grunert; Beate Grunenberg (July 2003). "Wirksamkeit von Hautschutzprodukten im Vergleich zu Hautpflegeprodukten bei Zahntechnikern – eine kontrollierte Feldstudie. Efficacy of barrier creams in comparison to skincare products in dental laboratory technicians – a controlled trial".Journal der Deutschen Dermatologischen Gesellschaft(in German).1(7): 547–557.doi:10.1046/j.1439-0353.2003.03701.x.PMID16295040.S2CID70532469.
Conclusions: The results demonstrate that the use of after-work moisturizers is highly beneficial and under the chosen study conditions even superior to barrier creams applied at work. This approach is more practical for many professions and may effectively reduce the frequency of irritant contact dermatitis.
- ^"Petroleum Remediation Product".spacefoundation.org.November 3, 2017.RetrievedJanuary 6,2020.
- ^Congdon, L. O. K. (1985). "Water-Casting Concave-Convex Wax Models for Cire Perdue Bronze Mirrors".American Journal of Archaeology.89(3): 511–515.doi:10.2307/504365.JSTOR504365.S2CID193028590.
- ^Egyptology onlineArchived2007-08-08 at theWayback Machine
- ^Ormeling, F. J. 1956.The Timor problem: a geographical interpretation of an underdeveloped island.Groningen and The Hague: J. B. Wolters and Martinus Nijhoff.
- ^"Oldest tooth filling may have been found – Light Years – CNN Blogs".Lightyears.blogs.cnn. Archived fromthe originalon 2019-12-15.Retrieved2013-07-05.
- ^"Don't Use Your Teeth".Archived fromthe originalon 2013-12-14.Retrieved2013-12-13.
External links[edit]
- The chemistry of beesJoel Loveridge, School of Chemistry,University of Bristol,accessed November 2005
