Bengalis

This article is about the ethnic group. For the citizens of Bangladesh, seeBangladeshis.

Bengalis

বাঙ্গালী বাঙালি
Total population
c. 285 million
Regions with significant populations
Bangladesh	175,000,000
India	97,228,917(2011)
Pakistan	2,000,000
Saudi Arabia	1,309,004
United Arab Emirates	1,089,917
United Kingdom	451,000
Qatar	280,000
United States	213,372
Malaysia	221,000
Kuwait	200,000
Italy	135,000
Singapore	100,000
Bahrain	97,115
Canada	69,490
Australia	54,566
Nepal	26,582
Japan	17,463
South Korea	13,600
Indonesia	8,500
Ireland	8,000
Languages
Bengali
Religion
Majority Islam~70% Significant minority Hinduism:~28% Smaller minorities of: Buddhism:~1% Christianity:~1%
Related ethnic groups
Indo-Aryan peoples

Bengalis(Bengali:বাঙ্গালী, বাঙালি[baŋgali,baŋali]), also rendered asendonymBangalee,are anIndo-Aryanethnolinguistic grouporiginating from and culturally affiliated with theBengalregion of South Asia. The population is divided between the sovereign countryBangladeshand the Indian regions ofWest Bengal,Tripura,Barak Valley,Goalpara,Andaman and Nicobar Islands,and parts ofMeghalaya,Manipur andJharkhand.Most speakBengali,a language from theIndo-Aryanlanguage family. Sub-section 2 of Article 6 of theConstitution of Bangladeshstates, "The people of Bangladesh shall be known as Bengalis as a nation and as Bangladeshis as citizens."

Bengalis are thethird-largest ethnic groupin the world, after theHan ChineseandArabs.They are the largest ethnic group within theIndo-Europeansand the largest ethnic group in South Asia. Apart from Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura, Manipur, and Assam's Barak Valley, Bengali-majority populations also reside in India's union territory ofAndaman and Nicobar Islands,with significant populations in the Indian states ofArunachal Pradesh,Delhi,Odisha,Chhattisgarh,Jharkhand,Mizoram,NagalandandUttarakhandas well asNepal'sProvince No. 1.The global Bengalidiasporahave well-established communities in theMiddle East,Pakistan,Myanmar,theUnited Kingdom,theUnited States,Malaysia,Italy,Singapore,Maldives,Canada,Australia,JapanandSouth Korea.

Bengalis are a diverse group in terms of religious affiliations and practices. Approximately 70% are adherents ofIslamwith a largeHinduminority and sizeable communities of Christians and Buddhists.Bengali Muslims,who live mainly in Bangladesh, primarily belong to theSunnidenomination.Bengali Hindus,who live primarily in West Bengal, Tripura, Assam's Barak Valley, Jharkhand and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, generally followShaktismorVaishnavism,in addition to worshipping regional deities.There exist small numbers ofBengali Christians,a large number of whom are descendants ofPortuguese voyagers,as well asBengali Buddhists,the bulk of whom belong to the Bengali-speakingBaruagroup inChittagongandRakhine.

Bengalis have influenced and contributed to diverse fields, notably theartsand architecture,language,folklore,literature, politics, military, business, science and technology.

Etymology

Main article:Names of Bengal

The ancient political divisions of the Ganges delta.

The term Bengali is generally used to refer to someone whose linguistic, cultural or ancestral origins are fromBengal.TheIndo-AryanBengalis are ethnically differentiated from the non-Indo-Aryan tribes inhabiting Bengal. Theirethnonym,Bangali,along with the native name of theBengali languageandBengalregion,Bangla,are both derived fromBangālah,thePersianword for the region. Prior toMuslim expansion,there was no unitary territory by this name as the region was instead divided into numerous geopolitical divisions. The most prominent of these wereVaṅga(from whichBangālahis thought to ultimately derive from) in the south,Rāṛhain the west,PuṇḍravardhanaandVarendrain the north, andSamataṭaandHarikelain the east.

The historic land of Vaṅga (bôngôin Bengali), situated in present-dayBarisal,is considered by early historians of theAbrahamicandDharmictraditions to have originated from a man who had settled in the area though it is often dismissed aslegend.Early Abrahamic genealogists had suggested that this man was Bang, a son of Hind who was the son ofHam (son of Noah).In contrast, theMahabharata,Puranasand theHarivamshastate that Vaṅga was the founder of theVaṅga Kingdomand one of the adopted sons of King Vali. The land of Vaṅga later came to be known as Vaṅgāla (Bôngal) and its earliest reference is in the Nesari plates (805 CE) ofGovinda IIIwhich speak ofDharmapālaas its king. The records ofRajendra Chola Iof theChola dynasty,who invaded Bengal in the 11th century, speak ofGovindachandraas the ruler ofVaṅgāladeśa(a Sanskrit cognate to the wordBangladesh,which was historically a synonymous endonym of Bengal).16th-century historianAbu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarakmentions in hisʿAin-i-Akbarīthat the addition of the suffix"al"came from the fact that the ancient rajahs of the land raised mounds of earth 10 feet high and 20 in breadth in lowlands at the foot of the hills which were called "al".This is also mentioned inGhulam Husain Salim'sRiyāz us-Salāṭīn.

In 1352, Muslim noblemanShamsuddin Ilyas Shahunited the region into a single political entity known as theBengal Sultanate.Proclaiming himself asShāh-i-Bangālīyān,it was in this period that theBengali languagegained state patronage and corroborated literary development.Ilyas Shah had effectively unified the region into one country.

Parts of theCharyapada,a collection of ancient Buddhist hymns which mention the Bengalis, in display at theRajshahi CollegeLibrary.

History

Main articles:History of Bengal,History of Bangladesh,andHistory of West Bengal

Ancient history

Depiction ofGangaridaion a map by 11th-century polymathPtolemy.

Further information:Anga,Gangaridai,Magadha,Pundra,SuhmaandVanga

Archaeologists have discovered remnants of a 4,700-year-oldNeolithicandChalcolithiccivilisation such asDiharandPandu Rajar Dhibiin the greaterBengalregion, and believe the finds are one of the earliest signs of settlement in the region.However, evidence of much olderPalaeolithichuman habitations were found in the form of a stone implement and ahand axein the upper Gandeshwari, Middle Dwarakeswar, Upper Kangsabati, Upper Tarafeni and Middle Subarnarekha valleys of the Indian stateWest Bengal,andRangamatiandFenidistricts of Bangladesh.Evidence of 42,000 years old human habitation has been found at the foothills of theAjodhya Hillsin West Bengal.Hatpara on the west bank ofBhagirathi Riverhas evidence of human settlements dating back to around 15,000-20,000 years.

Artefacts suggest that theChandraketugarh,which flourished in present-dayNorth 24 Parganas,date as far back as 600 BC to 300 BC,andWari-Bateshwar civilisation,which flourished in present-dayNarsingdi,date as far back as 400 BC to 100 BC.Not far from the rivers, the port city of Wari-Bateshwar, and the riverside port city of the Chandraketugarh,are believed to have been engaged in foreign trade withAncient Rome,Southeast Asia and other regions.The people of this civilisation live in bricked homes, walked on wide roads, usedsilver coinsand iron weaponry among many other things. The two cities are considered to be the oldest cities inBengal.

It is thought that a man named Vanga settled in the area around 1000 BCE founding theVanga Kingdomin southern Bengal. TheAtharvavedaand the Hindu epicMahabharatamentions this kingdom, along with thePundra Kingdomin northern Bengal. The spread ofMauryan territoryand promotion ofBuddhismby its emperorAshokacultivated a growing Buddhist society among the people of present-day Bengal from the 2nd century BCE. Mauryan monuments as far as theGreat Stupa of Sanchiin Madhya Pradesh mentioned the people of this region as adherents of Buddhism. The Buddhists of the Bengal region built and used dozens of monasteries, and were recognised for their religious commitments as far asNagarjunakondainSouth India.

One of the earliest foreign references to Bengal is the mention of a land ruled by the king Xandrammes namedGangaridaiby theGreeksaround 100 BCE. The word is speculated to have come fromGangahrd('Land with theGangesin its heart') in reference to an area in Bengal.Later from the 3rd to the 6th centuriesCE,the kingdom of Magadha served as the seat of theGupta Empire.

Middle Ages

Atiśais recognised as one of the greatest figures of classical Buddhism, having inspired Buddhist thought fromTibettoSumatra.

See also:Pala Empire,Sena dynasty,andBengal Sultanate

One of the first recorded independent kings of Bengal wasShashanka,reigning around the early 7th century, who is generally thought to have originated fromMagadha,Bihar, just west of Bengal.After a period of anarchy, a native ruler calledGopalacame into power in 750 CE. He originated fromVarendrain northern Bengal,and founded the BuddhistPala Empire.Atiśa,a renowned Buddhist teacher from eastern Bengal, was instrumental in the revival of Buddhism inTibetand also held the position ofAbbotat theVikramashilamonastery inBihar.

The Pala Empire enjoyed relations with theSrivijaya Empire,theTibetan Empire,and theArabAbbasid Caliphate.Islamfirst appeared in Bengal during Pala rule, as a result of increased trade between Bengal and the Middle East.The people ofSamatata,in southeastern Bengal, during the 10th century were of various religious backgrounds.Tilopawas a prominent Buddhist from modern-dayChittagong,though Samatata was ruled by the BuddhistChandra dynasty.During this time, theArabgeographerAl-Masudiand author ofThe Meadows of Gold,travelled to the region where he noticed a Muslim community of inhabitants residing in the region.In addition to trade, Islam was also being introduced to the people of Bengal through the migration of Sufi missionaries prior to conquest. The earliest known Sufi missionaries were Syed Shah Surkhul Antia and his students, most notablyShah Sultan Rumi,in the 11th century. Rumi settled in present-dayNetrokona, Mymensinghwhere he influenced the local ruler and population to embrace Islam.

Ghazi Piris thought to have lived in theSundarbanssome time between the 12th to 13th century.

The Pala dynasty was followed by a shorter reign of theHinduSena Empire.Subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout the region.Bakhtiyar Khalji,aTurkicgeneral, defeatedLakshman Senof the Sena dynasty and conquered large parts of Bengal. Consequently, the region was ruled by dynasties ofsultansand feudal lords under theBengal Sultanatefor the next few hundred years. Many of the people of Bengal began accepting Islam through the influx of missionariesfollowing the initial conquest.Sultan BalkhiandShah Makhdum Rupossettled in the present-dayRajshahi Divisionin northern Bengal, preaching to the communities there. A community of 13 Muslim families headed byBurhanuddinalso existed in the northeastern Hindu city ofSrihatta (Sylhet),claiming their descendants to have arrived fromChittagong.By 1303, hundreds of Sufi preachers led byShah Jalal,who some biographers claim was a Turkistan-born Bengali,aided the Muslim rulers in Bengal toconquer Sylhet,turning the town into Jalal's headquarters for religious activities. Following the conquest, Jalal disseminated his followers across different parts of Bengal to spread Islam, and became a household name amongBengali Muslims.

16th-century Portuguese painting of "Bengalis".

The establishment of a single unitedBengal Sultanatein 1352 byShamsuddin Ilyas Shahfinally gave rise to the nameBangalafor the region, and the development ofBengali language.TheIlyas Shahi dynastyacknowledgedMuslim scholarship,and this transcended ethnic background.Usman Serajuddin,also known asAkhi Siraj Bengali,was a native ofGaurin western Bengal and became the Sultanate's court scholar during Ilyas Shah's reign.Alongside Persian and Arabic, the sovereign Sunni Muslim nation-state also enabled thelanguageof the Bengali people to gain patronage and support, contrary to previous states which exclusively favouredSanskrit,PaliandPersian.The born-Hindu SultanJalaluddin Muhammad Shahfunded the construction of Islamic institutions as far asMeccaandMadinain the Middle East. The people ofArabiacame to know these institutions asal-Madaris al-Bangaliyyah(Bengali madrasas).

Mughal era

Main article:Bengal Subah

Further information:Muslin trade in BengalandMughal Empire

The Bengali artillery at theBattle of Plasseyin 1757.

A painting byShaikh Muhammad Amir of Karrayadisplaying asyceof Bengal holding two carriage horses.

TheMughal Empireconquered Bengal in the 16th century, ending the independentSultanate of Bengaland defeating Bengal's rebellionBaro-Bhuiyanchieftains. Mughal generalMan Singhconquered parts of Bengal includingDhakaduring the time of EmperorAkbarand a fewRajputtribes from his army permanently settled around Dhaka and surrounding lands, integrating into Bengali society.Akbar's preaching of the syncreticDin-i Ilahi,was described as ablasphemyby theQadiof Bengal, which caused huge controversies in South Asia. In the 16th century, manyUlamaof the Bengali Muslim intelligentsia migrated to other parts of the subcontinent as teachers and instructors ofIslamic knowledgesuch as Ali Sher Bengali toAhmedabad,Shah ManjhantoSarangpur,Usman Bengali toSambhaland Yusuf Bengali toBurhanpur.

By the early 17th century,Islam Khan Ihad conquered all of Bengal and was integrated into a province known as theBengal Subah.It was the largestsubdivisionof theMughal Empire,as it also encompassed parts ofBiharandOdisha,between the 16th and 18th centuries.Described by some as the "Paradise of Nations"and the "Golden Age of Bengal",Bengalis enjoyed some of the highestliving standardsandreal wagesin the world at the time.Singlehandedly accounting for 40% ofDutch importsfrom Asia,eastern Bengal was globally prominent in industries such astextile manufacturingandshipbuilding,and was a major exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel,saltpetre,and agricultural and industrial produce in the world.

Mughal Bengal eventually became a quasi-independent monarchy state ruled by theNawabs of Bengalin 1717. Already observing the proto-industrialization, it made direct significant contribution to the firstIndustrial Revolution(substantiallytextile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution).

A Bengali woman inDhakaclad in fineBengali muslin,18th century.

Bengal became the basis of theAnglo-Mughal War.After the weakening of the Mughal Empire with the death ofEmperor Aurangzebin 1707, Bengal was ruled independently by three dynasties of Nawabs until 1757, when the region was annexed by theEast India Companyafter theBattle of Plassey.

British colonisation

Main article:Bengal Presidency

Further information:Company rule in IndiaandBritish Raj

W.C. Bonnerjee,co-founder and first president ofIndian National Congress.

In Bengal, effective political and military power was transferred from theAfshar regimeto theBritish East India Companyaround 1757–65.Company rule in Indiabegan under theBengal Presidency.Calcuttawas named the capital ofBritish Indiain 1772. The presidency was run by a military-civil administration, including theBengal Army,and had the world's sixth earliest railway network. GreatBengal faminesstruck several times during colonial rule, notably theGreat Bengal famine of 1770andBengal famine of 1943,each killing millions of Bengalis.

Under British rule, Bengal experienced deindustrialisation.Discontent with the situation, numerous rebellions and revolts were attempted by the Bengali people. TheIndian Rebellion of 1857was initiated on the outskirts of Calcutta, and spread to Dhaka, Jalpaiguri and Agartala, in solidarity with revolts inNorth India.HavildarRajab Alicommanded the rebels inChittagongas far asSylhetandManipur.The failure of the rebellion led to the abolishment of the Mughal court completely and direct rule by theBritish Raj.

Many Bengali labourers were taken as coolies to the British colonies in the Caribbean during the 1830s. Workers from Bengal were chosen because they could easily assimilate to the climate ofBritish Guyana,which was similar to that of Bengal.

Swami Vivekanandais considered a key figure in the introduction ofVedantaandYogain Europe and America,and is credited with raising interfaith awareness, and bringingHinduismto the status of a world religion during the 1800s.On the other hand,Ram Mohan Royled a socio-Hindu reformist movement known asBrahmoismwhich called for the abolishment ofsati(widow sacrifice),child marriage,polytheismandidol worship.In 1804, he wrote the Persian bookTuḥfat al-Muwaḥḥidīn(A Gift to the Monotheists) and spent the next two decades attacking theKulin Brahminbastions of Bengal.

Independence movement

From Top left to right:Subhas Chandra Bose,Bipin Chandra Pal,Chittaranjan DasandSurya Sen.

From Top left to right:Sheikh Mujibur Rahman,Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy,A. K. Fazlul HuqandKhwaja Salimullah.

See also:Independence fighters from Bengal

Bengal played a major role in theIndian independence movement,in whichrevolutionary groupssuch asAnushilan SamitiandJugantarwere dominant. Many of the early proponents of the independence struggle, and subsequent leaders in the movement were Bengalis such asShamsher Gazi,Chowdhury Abu Torab Khan,Hada Miah and Mada Miah,thePagal Panthisled byKarim ShahandTipu Shah,Haji ShariatullahandDudu Miyanof theFaraizi movement,Titumir,Ali Muhammad Shibli,Alimuddin Ahmad,Prafulla Chaki,Surendranath Banerjee,Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani,Bagha Jatin,Khudiram Bose,Sarojini Naidu,Aurobindo Ghosh,Rashbehari Bose,andSachindranath Sanyal.

Leaders such asSubhas Chandra Bosedid not subscribe to the view that non-violent civil disobedience was the best way to achieve independence, and were instrumental in armed resistance against the British. Bose was the co-founder and leader of the Japanese-alignedIndian National Army(distinct from theBritish Indian Army) which fought against Allied forces in theBurma campaign.He was also the head of state of a parallel regime, theAzad Hind.A number of Bengalis died during the independence movement and many were imprisoned in the notoriousCellular Jailin theAndaman Islands.

Partitions of Bengal

Main articles:1905 Partition of Bengaland1947 Partition of Bengal

Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani,the co-founder and inaugural president of theAwami League.

Thefirst partition in 1905divided the Bengal region inBritish Indiainto two provinces for administrative and development purposes. However, the partition stokedHindu nationalism.This in turn led to the formation of theAll India Muslim Leaguein Dhaka in 1906 to represent the growing aspirations of theMuslimpopulation. The partition was annulled in 1912 after protests by theIndian National CongressandHindu Mahasabha.

The breakdown of Hindu-Muslim unity in India drove the Muslim League to adopt theLahore Resolutionin 1943, calling the creation of "independent states" in eastern and northwestern British India. The resolution paved the way for thePartition of British Indiabased on theRadcliffe Linein 1947, despite attempts to form aUnited Bengalstate that was opposed by many people.

Bangladesh Liberation War

Main article:Bangladesh Liberation War

The rise ofself-determinationandBengali nationalismmovements inEast Bengal,led bySheikh Mujibur Rahman.This eventually culminated in the 1971Bangladesh Liberation Waragainst the Pakistani military junta. The war caused millions of East Bengali refugees to take shelter in neighbouring India, especially the Indian state ofWest Bengal,with Calcutta, the capital of West Bengal, becoming the capital-in-exile of theProvisional Government of Bangladesh.TheMukti Bahiniguerrilla forces waged a nine-month war against the Pakistani military. The conflict ended after the Indian Armed Forces intervened on the side of Bangladeshi forces in the final two weeks of the war, which ended with thesurrender of East Pakistanand the liberation of Dhaka on 16 December 1971. Thus, the newly independentPeople's Republic of Bangladeshwas born from what was previously the East Pakistan province of Pakistan.

Geographic distribution

See also:Bangladeshi diaspora

Approximate distribution of native Bengali speakers (assuming a rounded total of 280 million) worldwide.

Bangladesh(61.3%)

India(37.2%)

Other Countries (1.5%)

I'tisam-ud-Dinwas the first educated Bengali and South Asian to have travelled to Europe.

Bengalis constitute the largest ethnic group in Bangladesh, at approximately 98% of the nation's inhabitants.TheCensus of Indiadoes not recogniseracialor ethnic groups within India,theCIA Factbookestimated that there are 100 million Bengalis in India constituting 7% of the country's total population. In addition toWest Bengal,Bengalis form the demographic majority inAssam'sBarak ValleyandLower regionas well as parts ofManipur.The state ofTripuraas well as theAndaman and Nicobar Islandsunion territory,which lies in theBay of Bengal,are also home to a Bengali-majority population, most of whom are descendants of Hindus from East Bengal (now Bangladesh) that migrated there following the 1947Partition of India.Bengali migration to the latter archipelago was also boosted by subsequent state-fundedColonisation Schemesby theGovernment of India.

Large numbers of Bengalis have settled and established themselves inBanglatown.

Bengali ethnic descent and emigrant communities are found primarily in other parts ofthe subcontinent,the Middle East and the Western World. Substantial populations descended from Bengali immigrants exist inSaudi Arabia,Pakistanand the United Kingdom where they form established communities of over 1 million people. The majority of the overseas Bengali diaspora are Muslims as the act of seafaring was traditionally prohibited in Hinduism; a taboo known askala pani(black/dirty water).

The introduction ofIslamto the Bengali people has generated a connection to theArabian Peninsula,as Muslims are required to visit the land once in their lifetime to complete theHajjpilgrimage. Several Bengali sultans funded Islamic institutions in theHejaz,which popularly became known by theArabsasBengali madrasas.As a result of the British conquest of Bengal, some Bengalis decided to emigrate to Arabia.Notable examples include Mawlana Murad, an instructor ofIslamic sciencesbased inMeccain the early 1800s,andNajib Ali Choudhury,a participant of theBattle of Shamli.Notable people of Bengali-origin in the Middle East include the renowned author and journalistAhmad Abd al-Ghafur AttarofSaudi ArabiaandQur'antranslatorZohurul HoquefromOman.The family ofPrincess Sarvath al-Hassan,wife of Jordanian princeHassan bin Talal,are descended from theSuhrawardy familyofMidnapore.

Earliest records of Bengalis in the European continent date back to the reign of KingGeorge IIIof England during the 16th century. One such example isI'tisam-ud-Din,a Bengali Muslim cleric fromNadiain western Bengal, who arrived to Europe in 1765 with his servant Muhammad Muqim as a diplomat for theMughal Empire.Another example during this period is ofJames Achilles Kirkpatrick'shookah-bardar(hookahservant/preparer) who was said to have robbed and cheated Kirkpatrick, making his way to England and stylising himself as thePrince of Sylhet.The man, presumably fromSylhetin eastern Bengal, was waited upon by thePrime Minister of Great BritainWilliam Pitt the Younger,and then dined with theDuke of Yorkbefore presenting himself in front of the King.Today, theBritish Bangladeshisare a naturalised community in the United Kingdom, running 90% of allSouth Asian cuisinerestaurants and having established numerousethnic enclavesacross the country – most prominent of which isBanglatowninEast London.

Language

Main article:Bengali language

An important and unifying characteristic of Bengalis is that most of them use Bengali as their native tongue, which belongs to theIndo-Aryanlanguage family.With about 226 million native and about 300 million total speakers worldwide, Bengali is one of themost spoken languages,ranked sixth in the world,and is also used alingua francaamong other ethnic groups and tribes living within and around the Bengal region. Bengali is generally written using theBengali scriptand evolved circa 1000–1200 CE fromMagadhi Prakrit,thus bearing similarities to ancient languages such asPali.Its closest modern relatives are otherEastern Indo-Aryanlanguages such asAssamese,Odiaand theBihari languages.Though Bengali may have a historic legacy of borrowing vocabulary from languages such asPersianandSanskrit,modern borrowings primarily come from the English language.

Regional dialects form one of the determiners to the social stratification of Bengalis.

Various forms of the language are in use today and provide an important force for Bengali cohesion. These distinct forms can be sorted into three categories. The first isClassical Bengali(সাধু ভাষাŚadhu Bhaśa), which was a historical form restricted to literary usage up until the late British period. The second isStandard Bengali(চলিত ভাষাČôlitô Bhaśaorশুদ্ধ ভাষাŚuddho Bhaśa), which is the modern literary form, and is based upon the dialects of the divided Nadia region (partitioned betweenNadiaandKushtia). It is used today in writing and in formal speaking, for example, prepared speeches, some radio broadcasts, and non-entertainment content. The third and largest category by speakers would beColloquial Bengali(আঞ্চলিক ভাষাAñčôlik Bhaśaorকথ্য ভাষাKôththô Bhaśa). These refer to informal spoken language that varies by dialect from region to region.

Social stratification

Bengali people may be broadly classified into sub-groups predominantly based on dialect but also other aspects of culture:

• Bangals:This is a term used predominantly in IndianWest Bengalto refer to East Bengalis – i.e.Bangladeshisas well as those whose ancestors originate from Eastern Bengal. The East Bengali dialects are known asBangali.This group constitutes the majority of ethnic Bengalis. They originate from the mainland Bangladeshi regions ofDhaka,Mymensingh,Comilla,Sylhet,BarisalandChittagong.
  • Among Bangals, there are four subgroups that maintain distinct identities in addition to having a (Eastern) Bengali identity.Chittagonians are natives of the Chittagong region (Chittagong DistrictandCox's Bazar District) of Bangladesh and speakChittagonian.The people of Cox's Bazar are closely related to theRohingyasof theRakhine StateinMyanmar.Sylhetisoriginate from theSylhet Divisionof Bangladesh and they speakSylheti.Noakhaillaspeakers can be found in greaterNoakhaliregion and southernTripura.TheDhakaiya Kuttisare a small urbanBengali Muslimcommunity residing inOld Dhakacity that noticeably differ from the rest of the people ofDhaka Divisionby culture.
• Ghotis:This is the term favoured by the natives ofWest Bengalto distinguish themselves from other Bengalis.
  • The people ofPurulia,and greaterManbhum,reside in far-western Bengal and have some regional differences with the mainland Ghotis via dialect and culture. Other Ghoti communities include theGhosisandLodhas.
• The region ofNorth Bengal,which hostsVarendriandRangpurispeakers, is divided between both West Bengal and Bangladesh, and they are normally categorised into the former two main groups depending on which side of the border they reside in even though they are culturally similar to each other regardless of international borders. The categorisation of North Bengalis into Ghoti or Bangal is contested. Rangpuri speakers can also be found in parts ofLower Assam,whilst theShershahabadiacommunity extend into Bihar. Other northern Bengali communities include theKhottaandNashya Shaikh.

Bengalis Hindus are socially stratified into four castes, calledchôturbôrṇô.The caste system derived from Hindu system ofbôrṇô(type, order, colour or class) andjāti(clan, tribe, community or sub-community), which divides people into four colours: White, Red, Yellow and Black. White people areBrahmôṇ,who are destined to be priests, teachers and preachers; Red people areKkhôtriyô,who are destined to be kings, governors, warriors and soldiers; Yellow people areBôiśśô,who are born to be cattle herders, ploughmen, artisans and merchants; and Black people areShūdrô,who are born to be labourers and servants to the people oftwice-borncaste.People from all caste denominations exist among Bengali Hindus.Ram Mohan Roy,who was born Hindu, founded theBrahmo Samajwhich attempted to abolish the practices of casteism,satiandchild marriageamong Hindus.

Religion

Main articles:Demographics of Bangladesh,West Bengal § Demographics,Tripura § Demographics,andAndaman and Nicobar Islands § Demographics

See also:Religion in Bangladesh,Hinduism in West Bengal,Bengali Buddhists,andChristianity in West Bengal

Eid al-Adhaprayer atBaytul Mukarram Mosque,National Mosque ofBangladesh.

Religions among Bengalis
Religions			Percent
Islam			70%
Hinduism			28%
others			2%

The largest religions practised inBengalareIslam and Hinduism.Among all Bengalis, more than two-thirds are Muslims. The vast majority follow theSunnidenomination though there are also a small minority ofShias.The Bengali Muslims form a 90.4% majority in Bangladesh,and a 30% minority among the ethnic Bengalis in the entirety of India.In West Bengal, Bengali Muslims form a 66.88% majority inMurshidabad district,the former seat of the ShiaNawabs of Bengal,a 51.27% majority inMalda,which contains the erstwhile capitals of the SunniBengal Sultanate,and they also number over 5,487,759 in the24 Parganas.

Durga PujainKolkata,West Bengal, India

Just less than a third of all Bengalis are Hindus (predominantly, theShaktasandVaishnavists),and as per as 2011 census report, they form a 70.54% majority inWest Bengal,50% plurality in Southern Assam'sBarak Valleyregion,60% majority in the India's North Eastern state ofTripura,30% plurality inAndaman and Nicobar Islands,9% significance population in India's Eastern state ofJharkhandand 8.54% minority inBangladesh.In Bangladesh, Hindus are mostly concentrated inSylhet Divisionwhere they constitute 17.8% of the population, and are mostly populated inDhaka Divisionwhere they number over 2.5 million. Hindus form a 56.41% majority inDacope Upazila,a 51.69% majority inKotalipara Upazilaand a 51.22% majority inSullah Upazila.In terms of population, Bangladesh is the third largest Hindu populated country of the world, just after India andNepal.The total Hindu population in Bangladesh exceeds the population of many Muslim majority countries likeYemen,Jordan,Tajikistan,Syria,Tunisia,Oman,and others.Also the total Hindu population in Bangladesh is roughly equal to the total population of Greece and Belgium.Bengali Hindus also worship regional deities.

Other religious groups includeBuddhists(comprising around 1% of the population in Bangladesh) andBengali Christians.A large number of the Bengali Christians are descendants ofPortuguese voyagers.The bulk of Bengali Buddhists belong to the Bengali-speakingBaruaswho reside inChittagongandRakhine.

Culture

Further information:Culture of Bengal,Culture of Bangladesh,andCulture of West Bengal

Festivals

Main articles:List of festivals in BangladeshandList of festivals in West Bengal

Durga Puja,the most notable Hindu festival forBengali Hindus.

Harvesting preparation in Bangladesh.

Bengalis have a rich cultural diversity in celebrating festivals throughout the year, suggesting the phrase -''Baro Mashe Tero Parbon''.Along with major festivals, every month in theBengali calendarhas rituals for the well-being and prosperity for the family members, often called asbrotos(vow).

Durga Pujais the most significant festival ofBengali Hindus,celebrated annually, worshiping Hindu goddess Durga. In 2021,Durga Puja in Kolkatahas been inscribed on the list of 'Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity' byUNESCO.Kali Pujais another significant festival, celebrated with great fervour in the Hindu month ofKartit.WorshipingLakkhmi Pujahas a unique tradition in every Bengali households.Shakta Rashis the most celebrated festival and uniquely observed inNabadwip.Bengali Muslimshave Islamic holidaysEid al-AdhaandEid al-Fitr.Relatives, friends, and neighbours visit and exchange food and sweets in those occasions.

Pohela Boishakhis a celebration of the new year and arrival of summer in theBengali calendarand is celebrated in April. Most of households and business establishments worshipLakshmi-Ganeshin this particular day for their success and prosperity.It features a funfair, music and dance displays on stages, with people dressed in colourful traditional clothes, parading through the streets.Festivals likePahela Falgun(spring) are also celebrated regardless of their faith. The Bengalis ofDhakacelebrateShakrain,an annual kite festival. TheNabannais a Bengali celebration akin to theharvest festivalsin the Western world.Language Movement Dayis observed in Bangladesh and India. In 1999,UNESCOdeclared 21 February asInternational Mother Language Day,in tribute to the Language Movement and the ethnolinguistic rights of people around the world.Kolkata Book Fairis the world's largest non-trade and the most attended book fair, where people from different countries gather together.

Fashion and arts

Visual art and architecture

Main articles:Bangladeshi artandArts of West Bengal

Traditional way of weavingJamdani.

The recorded history of art in Bengal can be traced to the 3rd century BCE, whenterracottasculptures were made in the region. The architecture of theBengal Sultanatesaw a distinct style of domed mosques with complex niche pillars that had no minarets.Ivory,potteryandbrasswere also widely used in Bengali art.

Attire and clothing

A Bengali man sporting a simple blacksherwani.

Bengali attire is shares similarities with North Indian attire. In rural areas, older women wear theshariwhile the younger generation wear theselwar kamiz,both with simple designs. In urban areas, theselwar kamizis more popular, and has distinct fashionable designs. Traditionally Bengali men wore thejama,though the costumes such as thepanjabiwithselwarorpyjamahave become more popular within the past three centuries. The popularity of thefotua,a shorter upper garment, is undeniable among Bengalis in casual environments. Thelungiandgamchaare a common combination for rural Bengali men.Islamic clothingis also very common in the region. During special occasions, Bengali women commonly wear eithersharis,selwar kamizesorabayas,covering their hair withhijabororna;and men wear apanjabi,also covering their hair with atupi,toqi,pagriorrumal.

Mughal Bengal's most celebrated artistic tradition was the weaving ofJamdanimotifson fine muslin, which is now classified by UNESCO as anintangible cultural heritage.Jamdani motifs were similar to Iranian textile art (buta motifs) and Western textile art (paisley). The Jamdani weavers in Dhaka received imperial patronage.

The traditional attire of Bengali Hindus isdhotiandkurtafor men, andsareefor women.

Performing arts

See also:Cinema of West Bengal,Music of West Bengal,Music of Bangladesh,Gaudiya Nritya,andTheatre in Bangladesh

Artistes fromPurulia districtofWest Bengalperforms Chhau dance

Satyajit Ray,eminent film director who has made Bengali films popular all over the world

Bengal has an extremely rich heritage of performing arts dating back to antiquity. It includes narrative forms, songs and dances, performance with scroll paintings, puppet theatre and the processional forms like theJatraandcinema.Performing of plays andJatraswere mentioned inCharyapada,written in between the 8th and 12th centuries.Chhau danceis a unique martial, tribal and folk art of Bengal. Wearing an earthy and theatricalChhau mask,the dance is performed to highlight the folklore and episodes fromShaktism,Ramayana–Mahabharataand other abstract themes.In 2010 theChhau dancewas inscribed in theUNESCO'sRepresentative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Bengali film is a glorious part of the history of world cinema.Hiralal Sen,who is considered a stalwart ofVictorian eracinema, sowed the first seeds of Bengali cinema.In 1898, Sen founded the first film production company, namedRoyal Bioscope Companyin Bengal, and possibly the first in India.Along withNemai Ghosh,Tapan Sinhaand others, the golden age of Bengali cinema begins with the hands ofSatyajit Ray,Mrinal SenandRittwik Ghatak.Chinnamulwas recognised as the firstneo-realistfilm in India that deals with thepartition of India.Ray's first cinemaPather Panchali(1955) achieved the highest-ranking Indian film on any Sight & Sound poll at number 6 in the 1992 Critics' Poll.It also topped theBritish Film Institute's user poll ofTop 10 Indian Filmsof all time in 2002.In the same year,Titash Ekti Nadir Naam,directed byRitwik Ghatakwith the joint production of India andBangladesh,got the honour ofbest Bangladeshi filmsin the audience and critics' polls conducted by theBritish Film Institute.

Gastronomy

Main article:Bengali cuisine

Paanandsupariare a typical meal concluder.

A glass ofBorhani

A plate ofDhakaiyabiryani.

Shorshe Pabda (Pabo catfish in Mustard paste)

Bengali cuisineis the culinary style of the Bengali people. It has the only traditionally developed multi-course tradition from South Asia that is analogous in structure to the modern service à la russe style ofFrench cuisine,with food served course-wise rather than all at once. The dishes of Bengal are often centuries old and reflect the rich history of trade in Bengal through spices, herbs, and foods. With an emphasis on fish and vegetables served with rice as a staple diet, Bengali cuisine is known for its subtle flavours, and its huge spread of confectioneries and milk-based desserts. One will find the following items in most dishes;mustard oil,fish,panch phoron,lamb,onion, rice,cardamom,yogurtandspices.The food is often served in plates which have a distinct flowery pattern often in blue or pink. Common beverages includeshorbot,borhani,ghol,matha,lachhi,falooda,Rooh Afza,natural juices likeAkher rosh,Khejur rosh,Aamrosh,Dudh cha,Taler rosh,Masala cha,as well asbasil seedortukma-based drinks.

Bangladeshi and West Bengali cuisines have many similarities, but also many unique traditions at the same time. These kitchens have been influenced by the history of the respective regions. The kitchens can be further divided into the urban and rural kitchens. Urban kitchens in Bangladesh consist of native dishes with foreign Mughal influence, for example theHaji biryaniand Chevron Biryani ofOld Dhaka.

Traditional Bengali Dishes:

Shorshe ilish,Biryani,Mezban,Khichuri,Macher Patodi,Chingri Malai Curry,Mishti Doi,etc. are some of the traditional dishes of the Bengali's.

Literature

Main articles:Bengali literatureandBengali Renaissance

Gitanjaliintro featuring its author Rabindranath Tagore

Bengali literaturedenotes the body of writings in the Bengali language, which has developed over the course of roughly 13 centuries. The earliest extant work in Bengali literature can be found within theCharyapada,a collection of Buddhist mystic hymns dating back to the 10th and 11th centuries. They were discovered in the Royal Court Library ofNepalbyHara Prasad Shastriin 1907. The timeline of Bengali literature is divided into three periods − ancient (650–1200), medieval (1200–1800) and modern (after 1800). Medieval Bengali literature consists of various poetic genres, including Islamic epics by the likes ofAbdul HakimandSyed Sultan,secular texts by Muslim poets likeAlaoland Vaishnava texts by the followers ofKrishna Chaitanya.Bengali writers began exploring different themes through narratives and epics such as religion, culture, cosmology, love and history. Royal courts such as that of theBengal Sultanateand theKingdom of Mrauk Ugave patronage to numerous Bengali writers such asShah Muhammad Saghir,Daulat QaziandDawlat Wazir Bahram Khan.

PoetKazi Nazrul Islam

TheBengali Renaissancerefers to a socio-religious reform movement during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, centered around the city ofCalcuttaand predominantly led by upper-casteBengali Hindusunder the patronage of theBritish Rajwho had created a reformed religion known as theBrahmo Samaj.HistorianNitish Senguptadescribes the Bengal renaissance as having begun withRaja Ram Mohan Roy(1775–1833) and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureateRabindranath Tagore(1861–1941).

Though the Bengal Renaissance was predominantly representative to the Hindu community due to their relationship with British colonisers,there were, nevertheless, examples of modern Muslim littérateurs in this period.Mir Mosharraf Hossain(1847–1911) was the first major writer in the modern era to emerge from the Bengali Muslim society, and one of the finest prose writers in the Bengali language. Hismagnum opusBishad Shindhuis a popular classic among Bengali readership.Kazi Nazrul Islam(1899–1976), notable for his activism and anti-British literature, was described as the Rebel Poet and is now recognised as the National poet of Bangladesh.Begum Rokeya(1880–1932) was the leading female Bengali author of this period, best known for writingSultana's Dreamwhich was subsequently translated into numerous languages.

Marriage

The application ofmehndionto one's hand hosts a ceremony of itself during Bengali wedding seasons.

A Bengali groomsupplicatingduring his wedding.

A marriage among Bengalis often consists of multiple events rather than just one wedding.Arranged marriagesare arguably the most common form of marriage among Bengalis and are considered traditional in society.Marriage is seen as a union between two families rather than just two people,and they play a large part in developing and maintainingsocial tiesbetween families and villages. The two families are facilitated byGhotoks (mutual matchmakers), and the first event is known as thePaka Dekha/Dekhadekhiwhere all those involved are familiarised with each other over a meal at the bride's home. The first main event is thePaan-Chini/Chini-Paan,hosted by the bride's family. Gifts are received from the groom's family and the marriage date is fixed in this event.Anaddatakes place between the families as they consume a traditional Bengali banquet of food,paan,tea andmishti.The next event is themehndi(henna) evening also known as thegaye holud(turmeric on the body). In Bengali Muslim weddings, this is normally followed by the main event, thewalima,hosting thousands of guests. Anaqd(vow) takes place, where a contract of marriage (Kabin nama) and is signed. Aqaziorimamis usually present here and would also recite theQur'anand makeduafor the couple. The groom is required to paymohor(dowry) to the bride. For Bengali Hindu weddings, a Hindu priest is present, and the groom and bride follow Hindu customs culminating in the groom putting sindoor (vermillion) on the head of the bride to indicate that she is now a married woman. ThePhirajatra/Phirakhaowaconsists of the return of the bride with her husband to her home, which then becomes referred to asNaiyor,andpayeshand milk are served. Other post-marriage ceremonies include theBou Bhatwhich takes place in the groom's home.

BengaliAiburo Bhaat Thaliin Kolkata, West Bengal.

Arranged marriagesare arguably the most common form of marriage among Bengalis and are considered traditional in society.Though polygamy is rarity among Bengalis today, it was historically prevalent among both Muslims and Hindus prior toBritish colonisationand was a sign of prosperity.

Science and technology

Main article:Science and technology in Bangladesh

See also:List of Indian Bengali scientists

Qazi Azizul Haque

Meghnad Saha,J C Bose,J C Ghosh,Snehamoy Dutt,S N Bose,D M Bose,N R Sen,J N Mukherjee,N C Nag.

Khondkar Siddique-e-Rabbani

The contribution of Bengalis to modern science is pathbreaking in the world's context.Qazi Azizul Haquewas an inventor who is credited for devising the mathematical basis behind afingerprint classification systemthat continued to be used up until the 1990s for criminal investigations.Abdus Suttar Khaninvented more than forty different alloys for commercial application in space shuttles, jet engines, train engines and industrial gas turbines. In 2006,Abul Hussaminvented theSono arsenic filterand subsequently became the recipient of the 2007Grainger challengePrize forSustainability.Another biomedical scientist,Parvez Haris,was listed among the top 1% of 100,000 scientists in the world byStanford University.

Fazlur Rahman Khanwas a structural engineer responsible for making many important advancements in high rise designs.He was the designer ofWillis Tower,the tallest building in the world until 1998. Khan's seminal work of developing tall building structural systems are still used today as the starting point when considering design options for tall buildings.In 2023, the billion-dollarStable Diffusiondeep learningtext-to-image modelwas developed byStability AIfounded byEmad Mostaque.

Jagadish Chandra Bosewas apolymath:aphysicist,biologist,botanist,archaeologist,and writer of science fictionwho pioneered the investigation of radio andmicrowaveoptics,made significant contributions toplant science,and laid the foundations of experimental science inthe subcontinent.He is considered one of thefathersof radio science,and is also considered the father ofBengali science fiction.He first practicalised the wireless radio transmission butGuglielmo Marconigot recognition for it due to European proximity. Bose also described for the first time that "plants can respond",by demonstrating with hiscrescographand recording the impulse caused by bromination of plant tissue.

Satyendra Nath Bosewas aphysicist,specialising inmathematical physics.He is best known for his work onquantum mechanicsin the early 1920s, providing the foundation forBose–Einstein statisticsand the theory of theBose–Einstein condensate.He is honoured as the namesake of theboson.He made first calculations to initiateStatistical Mechanics.He first hypothesised aphysically tangibleidea ofphoton.Bose's contemporary wasMeghnad Saha,an astrophysicist and politician who contributed to the theorisation ofthermal ionization.TheSaha ionization equation,which was named after him, is used to describe chemical and physical conditions in stars.His work allowed astronomers to accurately relate thespectral classesofstarsto their actual temperatures.

Economics and poverty alleviation

Amartya Sen,winner of the 1998Nobel Prize in Economics

Muhammad Yunus,winner of the 2006Nobel Peace Prize

Abhijit Banerjee,winner of the 2019Nobel Prize in Economics

Several Bengali economists and entrepreneurs have made pioneering contributions in economic theories and practices supporting poverty alleviation.Amartya Senis an economist and philosopher, who has made contributions towelfare economics,social choice theory,economicandsocial justice,economic theories offamines,decision theory,development economics,public health,and measures ofwell-beingof countries. He was awarded theNobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciencesin 1998 and India'sBharat Ratnain 1999 for his work in welfare economics.Muhammad Yunusis a social entrepreneur, banker, economist and civil society leader who was awarded theNobel Peace Prizefor founding theGrameen Bankand pioneering the concepts ofmicrocreditandmicrofinance.Abhijit Banerjeeis an economist who shared the2019 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic ScienceswithEsther DufloandMichael Kremer"for their experimental approach to alleviating global poverty".

Sport and games

Main articles:Sport in BangladeshandSports in West Bengal

Alathi khelaevent taking place inTangail.

ANouka Baichcompetition taking place in the monsoon season.

Traditional Bengali sports consisted of various martial arts and variousracingsports, though the British-introduced sports ofcricketandfootballare now most popular amongst Bengalis.

Lathi khela(stick-fighting) was historically a method of duelling as a way to protect or take land and others' possessions. TheZamindars of Bengalwould hirelathials (trained stick-fighters) as a form of security and a means to forcefully collect tax from tenants.Nationwidelathi khelacompetitions used to take place annually inKushtiaup until 1989, though its practice is now diminishing and being restricted to certain festivals and celebrations.Chamdiis a variant oflathi khelapopular inNorth Bengal.Kushti(wrestling) is also another popular fighting sport and it has developed regional forms such asboli khela,which was introduced in 1889 by Zamindar Qadir Bakhsh ofChittagong.A merchant known as Abdul Jabbar Saodagar adapted the sport in 1907 with the intention of cultivating a sport that would prepare Bengalis in fighting against British colonials.In 1972, a popularcontactteam sportcalledKabadiwas made thenational sportofBangladesh.It is a regulated version of the ruralHadudusport which had no fixed rules. The Amateur Kabaddi Federation of Bangladesh was formed in 1973.Butthan,a 20th-century Bengali martial arts invented by GrandmasterMak Yuree,is now practised in different parts of the world under the International Butthan Federation.

Mohammed Salim,the first South Asian footballer to play for a foreign club. Due to playing in bare feet, he is having them bandaged byJimmy McMenemyin 1936.

TheNouka Baichis a Bengali boat racing competition which takes place during and after the rainy season when much of the land goes under water. The long canoes were referred to askhel nao(meaning playing boats) and the use ofcymbalsto accompany the singing was common. Different types of boats are used in different parts of Bengal.Horse racingwas patronised most notably by theDighapatia RajasinNatore,and theirChalanbeel Horse Raceshave continued to take place annually for centuries.

CricketerShakib Al Hasanis currently crowned the world's bestall-rounderin all formats forODI cricket,and one of the greatest of all times.

Football is the most popular sports among Bengalis.Bengal is the home to Asia's oldest football league,Calcutta Football Leagueand the fourth oldest cup tournament in the world,Durand Cup.East BengalandMohun Baganare the biggest clubs in the region and subsequently India, and amongst the biggest in Asia. East Bengal and Mohun Bagan participate inKolkata Derby,which is the biggest sports derby in Asia. Mohun Bagan, founded in 1889, is the oldest native football club of Bengal. The club is primarily supported by theGhotis,who are the native inhabitants ofWest Bengal.East Bengal, on the contrary, was founded on 1 August 1920 and is a club Primarily supported by the ethnic eastern Bengalis. Mohun Bagan's first major victory was in 1911, when the team defeated an English club known as the Yorkshire Regiment to win theIFA Shield.In 2003, East Bengal became the first Indian club to win a major international trophy in the form ofASEAN Club Championship.While Mohun Bagan currently holds the most amount of national titles (6 in total), East Bengal is the stronger side in the Kolkata derby, having won 138 out of a total of 391 matches in which these two teams participited. East Bengal also takes the crown for having won themost major trophies in India(109 compared to the 105 of Mohun Bagan).Mohammed SalimofCalcuttabecame the firstSouth Asianto play for a European football club in 1936.In his two appearances forCeltic F.C.,he played the entire matches barefoot and scored several goals.In 2015,Hamza Choudhurybecame the first Bengali to play in thePremier Leagueand is predicted to be the firstBritish Asianto play for theEngland national football team.

Bengalis are very competitive when it comes to board and home games such asPachisiand its modern counterpartLudo,as well asLatim,Carrom Board,Chor-Pulish,KanamachiandChess.Rani Hamidis one of the most successful chess players in the world, winning championships in Asia and Europe multiple times.Ramnath Biswaswas a revolutionary soldier who embarked on three world tours on a bicycle in the 19th century.

See also

• Bengali nationalism
• List of Bangladeshis
• List of Bengalis
• List of people from West Bengal
• States of India by Bengali speakers

References

Bibliography

• Eaton, Richard M. (1993).The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760.University of California.ISBN978-0-520-20507-9.Retrieved13 July2017.
• Sengupta, Nitish (2002).History of the Bengali-Speaking People.UBS Publishers.ISBN978-81-7476-355-6.
• Uberoi, Anuradha (6 January 2020),Chennai Brew- Some Voices Some Communities&"These Communities Call Chennai 'home'".The Hindu.ISBN978-93-5351-676-5.

Further reading

• Sarkar, Prabhat Ranjan(1988).Bangla O Bangali.Ananda Marga Publications. p. 441.ISBN978-81-7252-297-1.
• Sengupta, Nitish(2001).History of the Bengali-speaking People.UBS Publishers' Distributors. p. 554.ISBN978-81-7476-355-6.
• Ray, R. (1994).History of the Bengali People.Orient BlackSwan. p. 656.ISBN978-0-86311-378-9.
• Ray, Niharranjan (1994).History of the Bengali people: ancient period.University of Michigan:Orient Longmans. p. 613.ISBN978-0-86311-378-9.
• Ray, N (2013).History of the Bengali People from Earliest Times to the Fall of the Sena Dynasty.Orient Blackswan Private Limited. p. 613.ISBN978-81-250-5053-7.
• Das, S.N. (1 December 2005).The Bengalis: The People, Their History and Culture.Indigo Books. p. 1900.ISBN978-81-292-0066-2.
• Sengupta, Nitish (2011).Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib.Penguin UK. p. 656.ISBN978-81-8475-530-5.
• Nasrin, Mithun B; Van Der Wurff, W.A.M (2015).Colloquial Bengali.Routledge. p. 288.ISBN978-1-317-30613-9.Archivedfrom the original on 18 November 2022.Retrieved16 October2020.
• Sengupta, Debjani (2016).The Partition of Bengal: Fragile Borders and New Identities.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-107-06170-5.
• Chakrabarti, Kunal; Chakrabarti, Shubhra (1 February 2000).Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis (Historical Dictionaries of Peoples and Cultures).Scarecrow Press. p. 604.ISBN978-0-8108-5334-8.
• Chatterjee, Pranab (2009).A Story of Ambivalent Modernization in Bangladesh and West Bengal: The Rise and Fall of Bengali Elitism in South Asia.Peter Lang. p. 294.ISBN978-1-4331-0820-4.
• Singh, Kumar Suresh (2008).People of India: West Bengal, Volume 43, Part 1.University of Virginia:Anthropological Survey of India. p. 1397.ISBN978-81-7046-300-9.Archivedfrom the original on 18 November 2022.Retrieved8 August2020.
• Milne, William Stanley (1913).A Practical Bengali Grammar.Asian Educational Services. p. 561.ISBN978-81-206-0877-1.
• Alexander, Claire; Chatterji, Joya (10 December 2015).The Bengal Diaspora: Rethinking Muslim migration.Routledge. p. 304.ISBN978-0-415-53073-6.
• Chakraborty, Mridula Nath (26 March 2014).Being Bengali: At Home and in the World.Routledge. p. 254.ISBN978-0-415-62588-3.
• Sanyal, Shukla (16 October 2014).Revolutionary Pamphlets, Propaganda and Political Culture in Colonial Bengal.Cambridge University Press.p. 219.ISBN978-1-107-06546-8.
• Dasgupta, Subrata (2009).The Bengal Renaissance: Identity and Creativity from Rammohun Roy to Rabindranath Tagore.Permanent Black. p. 286.ISBN978-81-7824-279-8.
• Cardona, George (26 July 2007).The Indo-Aryan Languages.Routledge. p. 627.ISBN978-1-135-79711-9.</ref>
• Glynn, Sarah (30 November 2014).Class, Ethnicity and Religion in the Bengali East End: A Political History.Manchester University.p. 304.ISBN978-0-7190-9595-5.
• Ahmed, Salahuddin (2004).Bangladesh: Past and Present.Aph Publishing Corporations. p. 365.ISBN978-81-7648-469-5.
• Deodhari, Shanti (2007).Banglar Bow (Bengali Bride).AuthorHouse. p. 80.ISBN978-1-4670-1188-4.
• Gupta, Swarupa (2009).Notions of Nationhood in Bengal: Perspectives on Samaj, C. 1867-1905.BRILL. p. 408.ISBN978-90-04-17614-0.Archivedfrom the original on 18 November 2022.Retrieved16 August2019.
• Roy, Manisha (2010).Bengali Women.University of Chicago Press.p. 232.ISBN978-0-226-23044-3.Archivedfrom the original on 18 November 2022.Retrieved16 August2019.
• Basak, Sita (2006).Bengali Culture And Society Through Its Riddles.Neha Publishers & Distributors.ISBN978-81-212-0891-8.
• Raghavan, Srinath (2013).1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh.Harvard University Press.p. 368.ISBN978-0-674-72864-6.
• Inden, Ronald B; Nicholas, Ralph W. (2005).Kinship in Bengali culture.Orient Blackswan. p. 158.ISBN978-81-8028-018-4.
• Nicholas, Ralph W. (2003).Fruits of Worship: Practical Religion in Bengal.Orient Blackswan. p. 248.ISBN978-81-8028-006-1.
• Das, S.N. (2002).The Bengalis: The People, Their History, and Culture. Religion and Bengali culture. volume 4.Cosmo Publications. p. 321.ISBN978-81-7755-392-5.Archivedfrom the original on 18 November 2022.Retrieved16 October2020.
• Schendel, Willem van (2004).The Bengal Borderland: Beyond State and Nation in South Asia.Anthem Press. p. 440.ISBN978-1-84331-144-7.
• Mukherjee, Janam (2015).Hungry Bengal: War, Famine, Riots and the End of Empire.Harper Collins India. p. 344.ISBN978-93-5177-582-9.
• Guhathakurta, Meghna; Schendel, Willem van (2013).The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics.Duke University Press.p. 568.ISBN978-0-8223-5318-8.
• Sengupta, Nitish (19 November 2012).Bengal Divided: The Unmaking of a Nation (1905-1971).Penguin India. p. 272.ISBN978-0-14-341955-6.
• Sen, Joy; Basu, Arindam (September 2015).Chandraketugarh – rediscovering a missing link in Indian history(PDF).SandHI.ISBN978-93-80813-37-0.
• Chattopadhyay, Rupendra Kumar; Acharya, Dipsikha; Majumder, Shubha; Sain, Malay Kumar; Biswas, Pampa; Mondal, Bijan (2013)."Excavation at Dihar 2012-2013: An Interim Report".Pratna Samiksha.1:9–33.Retrieved27 September2023.

External links

• BengalisEncyclopædia Britannicaentry