Black people
Black people |
---|
African diaspora |
Asia-Pacific |
African-derived culture |
History |
Race-related |
Related topics |
Blackis aracializedclassification of people, usually apoliticalandskin color-based category for specific populations with a mid- to dark browncomplexion.Not all people considered "black" havedark skin;in certain countries, often in socially based systems ofracial classificationin theWestern world,the term "black" is used to describe persons who are perceived as dark-skinned compared to other populations. It is most commonly used for people ofsub-Saharan Africanancestry,Indigenous AustraliansandMelanesians,though it has been applied in many contexts to other groups, and is no indicator of any close ancestral relationship whatsoever. Indigenous African societies do not use the termblackas a racial identity outside of influences brought by Western cultures.
Contemporaryanthropologistsand other scientists, while recognizing the reality of biological variation between different human populations, regard the concept of a unified, distinguishable "Black race" associally constructed.Different societies apply different criteria regarding who is classified "black", and these social constructs have changed over time. In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, and the social criteria for "blackness" vary. In the United Kingdom, "black" was historically equivalent with "person of color",a general term for non-European peoples. While the term" person of color "is commonly used and accepted in theUnited States,[1]the near-sounding term "colored person"is considered highly offensive, except in South Africa, where it is a descriptor for a person ofmixed race.In other regions such asAustralasia,settlers applied the adjective "black" to the indigenous population. It was universally regarded as highly offensive in Australia until the 1960s and 70s. "Black" was generally not used as a noun, but rather as an adjective qualifying some other descriptor (e.g. "black ****" ). As desegregation progressed after the 1967 referendum, some Aboriginals adopted the term, following the American fashion, but it remains problematic.[2] Several American style guides,[3][4]including theAP Stylebook,changed their guides to capitalize the 'b' in 'black', following the 2020murder of George Floyd,anAfrican American.[3][4]TheASA Style Guidesays that the 'b' should not be capitalized.[5]Some perceive the term 'black' as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, and as a result neither use nor define it, especially in African countries with little to no history of colonialracial segregation.[6]
Africa
Northern Africa
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/African_slave_trade.png/250px-African_slave_trade.png)
Numerous communities of dark-skinned peoples are present inNorth Africa,some dating from prehistoric communities. Others descend from migrants via the historicaltrans-Saharan tradeor, after the Arab invasions of North Africa in the 7th century, from slaves from thetrans-Saharan slave tradein North Africa.[7][8]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Vrouwen_van_een_Ahwash-dansgroep_uit_de_Anti-Atlas_tijdens_het_nationaal_folklore_festival_te_Marrakech_TMnr_20017645.jpg/250px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Vrouwen_van_een_Ahwash-dansgroep_uit_de_Anti-Atlas_tijdens_het_nationaal_folklore_festival_te_Marrakech_TMnr_20017645.jpg)
In the 18th century, the Moroccan SultanMoulay Ismail"the Warrior King" (1672–1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black soldiers, called hisBlack Guard.[9][10]
According toCarlos Moore,resident scholar at Brazil's University of the State of Bahia, in the 21st century Afro-multiracials in theArab world,including Arabs in North Africa, self-identify in ways that resemble multi-racials inLatin America.He claims that darker-toned Arabs, much like darker-tonedLatin Americans,consider themselveswhitebecause they have some distant white ancestry.[11]
Egyptian PresidentAnwar Sadathad a mother who was a dark-skinnedNubianSudanese (Sudanese Arab) woman and a father who was a lighter-skinnedEgyptian.In response to an advertisement for an acting position, as a young man he said, "I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish".[12]
Due to thepatriarchalnature of Arab society, Arab men, including during the slave trade in North Africa, enslaved more African women than men. The female slaves were often put to work in domestic service and agriculture. The men interpreted theQuranto permit sexual relations between a male master and his enslaved females outside of marriage (seeMa malakat aymanukum and sex),[13][14]leading to manymixed-racechildren. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab master's child, she was considered asumm walador "mother of a child", a status that granted her privileged rights. The child was given rights of inheritance to the father's property, so mixed-race children could share in any wealth of the father.[15]Because the society waspatrilineal,the children inherited their fathers' social status at birth and were born free.
Some mixed-race children succeeded their respective fathers as rulers, such as SultanAhmad al-Mansur,who ruledMoroccofrom 1578 to 1608. He was not technically considered as a mixed-race child of a slave; his mother wasFulaniand aconcubineof his father.[15]
In early 1991, non-Arabs of theZaghawa peopleof Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arabapartheidcampaign, segregating Arabs and non-Arabs (specifically, people ofNiloticancestry).[16]Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan's non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of "deftly manipulating Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid andethnic cleansing.[17]
Sudanese Arabsare also black people in that they are culturally and linguisticallyArabizedindigenous peoples ofSudanof mostlyNilo-Saharan,Nubian,[18]andCushitic[19]ancestry; their skin tone and appearance resembles that of other black people.
American UniversityeconomistGeorge Ayitteyaccused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens.[20]According to Ayittey, "In Sudan... the Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid."[21]Many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practicing Arab apartheid.[22]
Sahara
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Portret_van_een_Bella_vrouw_nabij_Gorom-Gorom_TMnr_20010124.jpg/170px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Portret_van_een_Bella_vrouw_nabij_Gorom-Gorom_TMnr_20010124.jpg)
In theSahara,the nativeTuaregBerberpopulations kept "negro"slaves. Most of these captives were ofNilo-Saharanextraction, and were either purchased by the Tuareg nobles from slave markets in theWestern Sudanor taken during raids. Their origin is denoted via theAhaggar BerberwordIbenheren(sing.Ébenher), which alludes to slaves that only spoke aNilo-Saharanlanguage. These slaves were also sometimes known by the borrowedSonghaytermBella.[23]
Similarly, theSahrawiindigenous peoples of theWestern Saharaobserved a class system consisting of highcastesand low castes. Outside of these traditional tribal boundaries were "Negro" slaves, who were drawn from the surrounding areas.[24]
North-Eastern Africa
InEthiopiaandSomalia,the slave classes mainly consisted of captured peoples from the Sudanese-Ethiopian and Kenyan-Somali international borders[25]or other surrounding areas ofNiloticandBantupeoples who were collectively known asShanqella[26]andAdone(both analogues to "negro" in an English-speaking context).[27]Some of these slaves were captured during territorial conflicts in the Horn of Africa and then sold off to slave merchants.[28]The earliest representation of this tradition dates from a seventh or eighth century BC inscription belonging to theKingdom of Damat.[29]
These captives and others of analogous morphology were distinguished astsalim barya(dark-skinned slave) in contrast with the Afroasiatic-speaking nobles orsaba qayh( "red men" ) or light-skinned slave; while on the other hand, western racial category standards do not differentiate betweensaba qayh( "red men" —light-skinned) orsaba tiqur( "black men" —dark-skinned) Horn Africans (of either Afroasiatic-speaking, Nilotic-speaking or Bantu origin) thus considering all of them as "black people" (and in some case "negro" ) according to Western society's notion of race.[30][31][32]
Southern Africa
InSouth Africa,the period of colonization resulted in many unions and marriages betweenEuropeanand Africans (Bantu peoples of South AfricaandKhoisans) from various tribes, resulting in mixed-race children. As the Europeancolonialistsacquired control of territory, they generally pushed the mixed-race and African populations into second-class status. During the first half of the 20th century, the white-dominated government classified the population according to four main racial groups:Black,White,Asian(mostlyIndian), andColoured.The Coloured group included people of mixed Bantu, Khoisan, and European ancestry (with someMalayancestry, especially in theWestern Cape). The Coloured definition occupied an intermediary political position between the Black and White definitions in South Africa. It imposed a system of legal racial segregation, a complex of laws known asapartheid.
Theapartheidbureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in thePopulation Registration Actof 1945 to determine who belonged in which group. Minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications. When it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether the individual should be considered Coloured or Black, the "pencil test"was used. A pencil was inserted into a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough to hold the pencil, rather than having it pass through, as it would with smoother hair. If so, the person was classified as Black.[33]Such classifications sometimes divided families.
Sandra Laingis a South African woman who was classified as Coloured by authorities during the apartheid era, due to herskin colourandhair texture,although her parents could prove at least three generations of European ancestors. At age 10, she was expelled from her all-white school. The officials' decisions based on her anomalous appearance disrupted her family and adult life. She was the subject of the 2008 biographical dramatic filmSkin,which won numerous awards. During the apartheid era, those classed as "Coloured" were oppressed and discriminated against. But, they had limited rights and overall had slightly better socioeconomic conditions than those classed as "Black". The government required that Blacks and Coloureds live in areas separate from Whites, creating large townships located away from the cities as areas for Blacks.
In the post-apartheid era, the Constitution of South Africa has declared the country to be a "Non-racial democracy". In an effort to redress past injustices, the ANC government has introduced laws in support ofaffirmative actionpolicies for Blacks; under these they define "Black" people to include "Africans", "Coloureds" and "Asians". Someaffirmative actionpolicies favor "Africans" over "Coloureds" in terms of qualifying for certain benefits. Some South Africans categorized as "African Black" say that "Coloureds" did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid. "Coloured" South Africans are known to discuss their dilemma by saying, "we were not white enough under apartheid, and we are not black enough under the ANC (African National Congress) ".[34][35][36]
In 2008, the High Court in South Africa ruled thatChinese South Africanswho were residents during the apartheid era (and their descendants) are to be reclassified as "Black people," solely for the purposes of accessing affirmative action benefits, because they were also "disadvantaged" by racial discrimination. Chinese people who arrived in the country after the end of apartheid do not qualify for such benefits.[37]
Other than by appearance, "Coloureds" can usually be distinguished from "Blacks" by language. Most speakAfrikaansor English as afirst language,as opposed toBantu languagessuch asZuluorXhosa.They also tend to have more European-sounding names thanBantunames.[38]
Asia
Afro-Asians
"Afro-Asians"or" African-Asians "are persons of mixed sub-Saharan African andAsianancestry. In the United States, they are also called "black Asians" or "Blasians".[39]Historically, Afro-Asian populations have been marginalized as a result of human migration and social conflict.[40]
Western Asia
Arab world
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bilal.jpg/170px-Bilal.jpg)
In the medieval Arab world, the ethnic designation of "Black" encompassed not onlyZanj,or Africans, but also communities likeZutt,Sindis and Indians from theIndian subcontinent.[41]Historians estimate that between the advent ofIslamin 650 CE and the abolition of slavery in theArabian Peninsulain the mid-20th century, 10 to 18 million black Africans (known as the Zanj) were enslaved byeast African slave tradersand transported to the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries.[42]This number far exceeded the number of slaves who were taken to the Americas.[43]Slavery in Saudi Arabiaandslavery in Yemenwas abolished in 1962,slavery in Dubaiin 1963, andslavery in Omanin 1970.[44]
Several factors affected the visibility of descendants of this diaspora in 21st-century Arab societies: The traders shipped more female slaves than males, as there was a demand for them to serve asconcubinesin harems in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries. Male slaves were castrated in order to serve asharemguards. The death toll of black African slaves from forced labor was high. The mixed-race children of female slaves and Arab owners were assimilated into the Arab owners' families under thepatrilinealkinship system.As a result, few distinctive Afro-Arab communities have survived in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries.[45][46]
Distinctive and self-identified black communities have been reported in countries such as Iraq, with a reported 1.2 million black people (Afro-Iraqis), and they attest to a history of discrimination. These descendants of the Zanj have sought minority status from the government, which would reserve some seats in Parliament for representatives of their population.[47]According to Alamin M. Mazrui et al., generally in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries, most of these communities identify as both black and Arab.[48]
Iran
Afro-Iranians are people of black African ancestry residing in Iran. During theQajar dynasty,many wealthy households imported black African women and children as slaves to perform domestic work. This slave labor was drawn exclusively from the Zanj, who wereBantu-speaking peoples that lived along theAfrican Great Lakes,in an area roughly comprising modern-dayTanzania,MozambiqueandMalawi.[49][50]
Israel
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Black_hebrews_Dimona_children.jpg/186px-Black_hebrews_Dimona_children.jpg)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Israeli_Border_Guard_Police.jpg/185px-Israeli_Border_Guard_Police.jpg)
About 150,000 East African and black people live inIsrael,amounting to just over 2% of the nation's population. The vast majority of these, some 120,000, areBeta Israel,[51]most of whom are recent immigrants who came during the 1980s and 1990s fromEthiopia.[52]In addition, Israel is home to more than 5,000 members of theAfrican Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalemmovement that are ancestry ofAfrican Americanswho emigrated to Israel in the 20th century, and who reside mainly in a distinct neighborhood in theNegevtown ofDimona.Unknown numbers of black converts to Judaism reside in Israel, most of them converts from the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States.
Additionally, there are around 60,000 non-Jewish African immigrants in Israel, some of whom have sought asylum. Most of the migrants are from communities inSudanandEritrea,particularly theNiger-Congo-speakingNubagroups of the southernNuba Mountains;some are illegal immigrants.[53][54]
Turkey
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me-Black_Bashi-Bazouk-c._1869.jpg/226px-G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me-Black_Bashi-Bazouk-c._1869.jpg)
Beginning several centuries ago, during the period of theOttoman Empire,tens of thousands ofZanjcaptives were brought by slave traders to plantations and agricultural areas situated betweenAntalyaandIstanbul,which gave rise to theAfro-Turkpopulation in present-dayTurkey.[55]Some of their ancestry remainedin situ,and many migrated to larger cities and towns. Other black slaves were transported toCrete,from where they or their descendants later reached theİzmirarea through thepopulation exchange between Greece and Turkeyin 1923, or indirectly fromAyvalıkin pursuit of work.[56]
Apart from the historical Afro-Turk presence Turkey also hosts a sizeable immigrant black population since the end of the 1990s. The community is composed mostly of modern immigrants from Ghana, Ethiopia, DRC, Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, Eritrea, Somalia and Senegal. According to official figures 1.5 million Africans live in Turkey and around 25% of them are located inIstanbul.[57]Other studies state the majority of Africans in Turkey lives in Istanbul and reportTarlabaşı,Dolapdere,Kumkapı,YenikapıandKurtuluşas having a strong African presence.[58]
Most of the African immigrants in Turkey come to Turkey to further migrate to Europe. Immigrants from Eastern Africa are usually refugees, meanwhile Western and Central African immigration is reported to be economically driven.[58]It is reported that African immigrants in Turkey regularly face economic and social challenges, notablyracismandopposition to immigrationby locals.[59]
Southern Asia
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Siddi_Girl.jpg/170px-Siddi_Girl.jpg)
TheSiddiare an ethnic group inhabitingIndiaandPakistan.Members are descended from theBantu peoplesofSoutheast Africa.Some were merchants, sailors,indentured servants,slaves or mercenaries. The Siddi population is currently estimated at 270,000–350,000 individuals, living mostly inKarnataka,Gujarat,andHyderabadin India andMakranandKarachiin Pakistan.[60]In theMakranstrip of theSindhandBalochistanprovinces in southwesternPakistan,these Bantu descendants are known as the Makrani.[61]There was a brief "Black Power" movement in Sindh in the 1960s and many Siddi are proud of and celebrate their African ancestry.[62][63]
Southeastern Asia
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/TreeMix_analysis_of_worldwide_populations_%282022%29.jpg/220px-TreeMix_analysis_of_worldwide_populations_%282022%29.jpg)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ati_woman.jpg/170px-Ati_woman.jpg)
Negritos,are a collection of various, often unrelated peoples, who were once considered a single distinct population of closely related groups, but genetic studies showed that they descended from the same ancientEast Eurasianmeta-population which gave rise to modernEast Asian peoples,and consist of several separate groups, as well as displaying genetic heterogeneity.[64][65][66]They inhabit isolated parts ofSoutheast Asia,and are now confined primarily to Southern Thailand,[67]the Malay Peninsula, and the Andaman Islands of India.[68]
Negrito means "little black people" inSpanish(negrito is the Spanish diminutive of negro, i.e., "little black person" ); it is what the Spaniards called the aborigines that they encountered in thePhilippines.[69]The termNegritoitself has come under criticism in countries like Malaysia, where it is now interchangeable with the more acceptableSemang,[70]although this term actually refers to a specific group.
They have dark skin, often curly-hair and Asiatic facial characteristics, and are stockily built.[71][72][73]
Negritos in the Philippines frequently face discrimination. Because of their traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyle, they are marginalized and live in poverty, unable to find employment.[74]
Europe
Western Europe
France
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Hyacinthe_Rigaud_-_Jeune_n%C3%A8gre_avec_un_arc_%28ca.1697%29.jpg/170px-Hyacinthe_Rigaud_-_Jeune_n%C3%A8gre_avec_un_arc_%28ca.1697%29.jpg)
While census collection of ethnic background is illegal inFrance,it is estimated that there are about 2.5 – 5 million black people residing there.[75][76]
Germany
As of 2020, there are approximately one million black people living in Germany.[77]
Netherlands
Afro-Dutch are residents of theNetherlandswho are of Black African orAfro-Caribbeanancestry. They tend to be from the former and present Dutch overseas territories ofAruba,Bonaire,Curaçao,Sint MaartenandSuriname.The Netherlands also has sizableCape Verdeanand other African communities.
Portugal
As of 2021, there were at least 232,000 people of recent Black-African immigrant background living inPortugal.They mainly live in the regions ofLisbon,Porto,Coimbra.As Portugal doesn't collect information dealing with ethnicity, the estimate includes only people that, as of 2021, hold the citizenship of a Sub Saharan African country or people who have acquiredPortuguese citizenshipfrom 2008 to 2021, thus excluding descendants, people of more distant African ancestry or people who have settled in Portugal generations ago and are nowPortuguese citizens.[78][79]
Spain
The term "Moors"has been used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer toMuslims,[80]especially those ofAraborBerberancestry, whether living in North Africa or Iberia.[81]Moors were not a distinct orself-definedpeople.[82]Medieval and early modern Europeans applied the name to Muslim Arabs, Berbers, Sub-Saharan Africans and Europeans alike.[83]
Isidore of Seville,writing in the 7th century, claimed that theLatinword Maurus was derived from theGreekmauron,μαύρον, which is the Greek word for "black". Indeed, by the time Isidore of Seville came to write hisEtymologies,the word Maurus or "Moor" had become an adjective in Latin, "for the Greeks call black, mauron". "In Isidore's day, Moors were black by definition..."[84]
Afro-Spaniards areSpanish nationalsofWest/Central Africanancestry. Today, they mainly come fromCameroon,Equatorial Guinea,Ghana,Gambia,Mali,Nigeriaand Senegal. Additionally, many Afro-Spaniards born in Spain are from the former Spanish colonyEquatorial Guinea.Today, there are an estimated 683,000 Afro-Spaniards inSpain.
United Kingdom
According to theOffice for National Statistics,at the2001 censusthere were more than a million black people in the United Kingdom; 1% of the total population described themselves as "Black Caribbean", 0.8% as "Black African", and 0.2% as "Black other".[85]Britain encouraged the immigration of workers from the Caribbean after World War II; the first symbolic movement was of those who came on the ship theEmpire Windrushand, hence, those who migrated between 1948 and 1970 are known asthe Windrush generation.The preferred officialumbrella termis "black, Asian and minority ethnic" (BAME), but sometimes the term "black"is used on its own, to express unified opposition to racism,as in theSouthall Black Sisters,which started with a mainlyBritish Asianconstituency, and theNational Black Police Association,which has a membership of "African, African-Caribbean and Asian origin".[86]
Eastern Europe
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5._%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%90.%D0%9F._%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0.jpg/220px-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5._%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%90.%D0%9F._%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0.jpg)
As African statesbecame independentin the 1960s, theSoviet Unionoffered many of their citizens the chance to study inRussia.Over a period of 40 years, about 400,000 African students from various countries moved to Russia to pursue higher studies, including many black Africans.[87][88]This extended beyond the Soviet Union to many countries of theEastern bloc.
Balkans
Due to theslave tradein theOttoman Empirethat had flourished in theBalkans,the coastal town ofUlcinjinMontenegrohad its own black community.[89]In 1878, that community consisted of about 100 people.[90]
Oceania
Indigenous Australians
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Aborigine.png/134px-Aborigine.png)
Indigenous Australianshave been referred to as "black people" in Australia since theearly days of European settlement.[91]While originally related toskin colour,the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal orTorres Strait Islanderancestry in general and can refer to people of any skin pigmentation.[92]
Being identified as either "black" or "white" inAustraliaduring the 19th and early 20th centuries was critical in one's employment and social prospects. Various state-basedAboriginal Protection Boardswere established which had virtually complete control over the lives of Indigenous Australians – where they lived, their employment, marriage, education and included the power to separate children from their parents.[93][94][95]Aborigines were not allowed to vote and were often confined to reserves and forced into low paid or effectively slave labour.[96][97]The social position of mixed-race or "half-caste"individuals varied over time. A 1913 report byBaldwin Spencerstates that:
the half-castes belong neither to the aboriginal nor to the whites, yet, on the whole, they have more leaning towards the former;... One thing is certain and that is that the white population as a whole will never mix with half-castes... the best and kindest thing is to place them on reserves along with the natives, train them in the same schools and encourage them to marry amongst themselves.[98]
After theFirst World War,however, it became apparent that the number of mixed-race people was growing at a faster rate than the white population, and, by 1930, fear of the "half-caste menace" undermining theWhite Australiaideal from within was being taken as a serious concern.[99]Cecil Cook,theNorthern TerritoryProtector of Natives,noted that:
generally by the fifth and invariably by the sixth generation, all native characteristics of the Australian Aborigine are eradicated. The problem of our half-castes will quickly be eliminated by the complete disappearance of the black race, and the swift submergence of their progeny in the white.[100]
The official policy became one of biological andcultural assimilation:"Eliminate the full-blood and permit the white admixture to half-castes and eventually the race will become white".[101]This led to different treatment for "black" and "half-caste" individuals, with lighter-skinned individuals targeted for removal from their families to be raised as "white" people and prohibited from speaking their native language and practicing traditional customs, a process now known as theStolen Generation.[102]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Sam_Watson_Addresses_Invasion_Day_Rally%2C_Jan_26_2007%2C_Brisbane%2C_Queensland%2C_Australia.jpg/150px-Sam_Watson_Addresses_Invasion_Day_Rally%2C_Jan_26_2007%2C_Brisbane%2C_Queensland%2C_Australia.jpg)
The second half of the 20th century to the present has seen a gradual shift towards improved human rights for Aboriginal people. Ina 1967 referendum,more than 90% of the Australian population voted to end constitutional discrimination and to include Aborigines in the nationalcensus.[103]During this period, many Aboriginal activists began to embrace the term "black" and use their ancestry as a source of pride. ActivistBob Mazasaid:
I only hope that when I die I can say I'm black and it's beautiful to be black. It is this sense of pride which we are trying to give back to the aborigine [sic] today.[104]
In 1978, Aboriginal writerKevin Gilbertreceived the National Book Council award for his bookLiving Black: Blacks Talk to Kevin Gilbert,a collection of Aboriginal people's stories, and in 1998 was awarded (but refused to accept) the Human Rights Award for Literature forInside Black Australia,a poetry anthology and exhibition of Aboriginal photography.[105]In contrast to previous definitions based solely on the degree of Aboriginal ancestry, the Government changed the legal definition of Aboriginal in 1990 to include any:
person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent who identifies as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander and is accepted as such by the community in which he [or she] lives[106]
This nationwide acceptance and recognition of Aboriginal people led to a significant increase in the number of people self-identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander.[107][108]Thereappropriationof the term "black" with a positive and more inclusive meaning has resulted in its widespread use in mainstream Australian culture, including public media outlets,[109]government agencies,[110]and private companies.[111]In 2012, a number of high-profile cases highlighted the legal and community attitude that identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander is not dependent on skin color, with a well-known boxerAnthony Mundinebeing widely criticized for questioning the "blackness" of another boxer[112]and journalistAndrew Boltbeing successfully sued for publishing discriminatory comments about Aboriginals with light skin.[113]
Melanesians
The region ofMelanesiais named from Greekμέλας,black,andνῆσος,island,etymologicallymeaning "islands of black [people]", in reference to the dark skin of the indigenous peoples. Early European settlers, such as Spanish explorerYñigo Ortiz de Retez,noted the resemblance of the people to those in Africa.[114]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Fijian_mountain_warrior%2C_Kai_Colo.jpg/200px-Fijian_mountain_warrior%2C_Kai_Colo.jpg)
Melanesians, along with otherPacific Islanders,were frequently deceived or coerced during the 19th and 20th centuries into forced labour for sugarcane, cotton, and coffee planters in countries distant to their native lands in a practice known asblackbirding.InQueensland,some 55,000 to 62,500[115]were brought from theNew Hebrides,theSolomon Islands,andNew Guineato work in sugarcane fields. Under thePacific Island Labourers Act 1901,most islanders working in Queensland were repatriated back to their homelands.[116] Those who remained in Australia, commonly calledSouth Sea Islanders,often faced discrimination similarly to Indigenous Australians by white-dominated society. Many indigenous rights activists have South Sea Islander ancestry, includingFaith Bandler,Evelyn ScottandBonita Mabo.
Many Melanesians have taken up the term 'Melanesia' as a way to empower themselves as a collective people. Stephanie Lawson writes that the term "moved from a term of denigration to one of affirmation, providing a positive basis for contemporary subregional identity as well as a formal organisation".[117]: 14 For instance, the term is used in theMelanesian Spearhead Group,which seeks to promote economic growth among Melanesian countries.
Other
John Caesar,nicknamed "Black Caesar", aconvictandbushrangerwith parents born in an unknown area in Africa, was one of the first people of recent black African ancestry to arrive in Australia.[118]
At the 2006 Census, 248,605 residents declared that they wereborn in Africa.This figure pertains to all immigrants to Australia who were born in nations in Africa regardless of race, and includeswhite Africans.
North America
Canada
"Black Canadians" is a designation used for people of black African ancestry who are citizens or permanent residents ofCanada.[119][120]The majority of black Canadians are ofCaribbeanorigin, though the population also consists ofAfrican Americanimmigrants and their descendants (includingblack Nova Scotians), as well as manyAfricanimmigrants.[121][122]
Black Canadians often draw a distinction between those ofAfro-Caribbeanancestry and those of other African roots. The termAfrican Canadianis occasionally used by some black Canadians who trace their heritage to the first slaves brought by British and French colonists to the North American mainland.[120]Promised freedom by the British during theAmerican Revolutionary War,thousands ofBlack Loyalistswere resettled by the Crown in Canada afterward, such asThomas Peters.In addition, an estimated ten to thirty thousandfugitive slavesreached freedom in Canada from theSouthern United Statesduring the Antebellum years, aided by people along the Underground Railroad.
Many black people of Caribbean origin in Canada reject the term "African Canadian" as an elision of the uniquely Caribbean aspects of their heritage,[123]and instead identify asCaribbean Canadian.[123]Unlike in the United States, where "African American" has become a widely used term, in Canada controversies associated with distinguishing African or Caribbean heritage have resulted in the term "black Canadian" being widely accepted there.[124]
United States
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg/170px-Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg)
There were eight principal areas used by Europeans to buy and ship slaves to theWestern Hemisphere.The number of enslaved people sold to the New World varied throughout the slave trade. As for the distribution of slaves from regions of activity, certain areas produced far more enslaved people than others. Between 1650 and 1900, 10.24 million enslaved West Africans arrived in the Americas from the following regions in the following proportions:[125]
- Senegambia(Senegal andThe Gambia): 4.8%
- Upper Guinea(Guinea-Bissau,GuineaandSierra Leone): 4.1%
- Windward Coast(LiberiaandIvory Coast): 1.8%
- Gold Coast(Ghanaand east ofIvory Coast): 10.4%
- Bight of Benin(Togo,BeninandNigeriawest of the Niger Delta): 20.2%
- Bight of Biafra(Nigeriaeast of theNiger Delta,Cameroon,Equatorial GuineaandGabon): 14.6%
- West Central Africa (Republic of the Congo,Democratic Republic of the CongoandAngola): 39.4%
- Southeastern Africa (MozambiqueandMadagascar): 4.7%
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Slave_trade_from_Africa_to_the_Americas_%288928374600%29.jpg/170px-Slave_trade_from_Africa_to_the_Americas_%288928374600%29.jpg)
By the early 1900s,niggerhad become a pejorative word in the United States. In its stead, the termcoloredbecame the mainstream alternative tonegroand its derived terms. After theAmerican Civil Rights Movement,the termscoloredandnegrogave way to "black".Negrohad supersededcoloredas the most polite word forAfrican Americansat a time whenblackwas considered more offensive.[126][failed verification]This term was accepted as normal, including by people classified as Negroes, until the laterCivil Rightsmovement in the late 1960s. One well-known example is the use by Dr. Rev.Martin Luther King Jr.of "Negro" in his famous speech of 1963,I Have a Dream.During the American civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, some African-American leaders in the United States, notablyMalcolm X,objected to the wordNegrobecause they associated it with the long history of slavery, segregation, and discrimination that treated African Americans as second-class citizens, or worse.[127]Malcolm X preferredBlacktoNegro,but later gradually abandoned that as well forAfro-Americanafter leaving theNation of Islam.[128]
Since the late 1960s, various other terms for African Americans have been more widespread in popular usage. Aside fromblack American,these includeAfro-American(in use from the late 1960s to 1990) andAfrican American(used in the United States to refer to Black Americans, people often referred to in the past asAmerican Negroes).[129]
In the first 200 years that black people were in theUnited States,they primarily identified themselves by their specificethnic group(closely allied to language) and not by skin color. Individuals identified themselves, for example, asAshanti,Igbo,Bakongo,orWolof.However, when the first captives were brought tothe Americas,they were often combined with other groups from West Africa, and individual ethnic affiliations were not generally acknowledged by English colonists. In areas of the Upper South, different ethnic groups were brought together. This is significant as the captives came from a vast geographic region: the West African coastline stretching fromSenegaltoAngolaand in some cases from the south-east coast such asMozambique.A newAfrican-Americanidentity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various ethnic groups and of European cultural heritage, resulting in fusions such as theBlack churchandAfrican-American English.This new identity was based on provenance and slave status rather than membership in any one ethnic group.[130]
By contrast, slave records from Louisiana show that the French and Spanish colonists recorded more complete identities of the West Africans, including ethnicities and given tribal names.[131]
The U.S. racial or ethnic classification "black" refers to people with all possible kinds of skin pigmentation, from the darkest through to the very lightest skin colors, includingalbinos,if they are believed by others to have African ancestry (in any discernible percentage). There are also certain cultural traits associated with being "African American",a term used effectively as a synonym for" black person "within the United States.
In March 1807,Great Britain,which largely controlled the Atlantic, declaredthe transatlantic slave trade illegal,as did the United States. (The latter prohibition took effect 1 January 1808, the earliest date on whichCongresshad the power to do so after protecting the slave trade underArticle I, Section 9of theUnited States Constitution.)
By that time, the majority of black people in the United States were native-born, so the use of the term "African" became problematic. Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared that the use of African as an identity would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the United States. They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating black people back to Africa. In 1835, black leaders called upon Black Americans to remove the title of "African" from their institutions and replace it with "Negro"or" Colored American ". A few institutions chose to keep their historic names, such as theAfrican Methodist Episcopal Church.African Americans popularly used the terms "Negro" or "colored" for themselves until the late 1960s.[132]
The termblackwas used throughout but not frequently since it carried a certain stigma. In his 1963 "I Have a Dream"speech,[133]Martin Luther King Jr.uses the termsnegrofifteen times andblackfour times. Each time that he usesblack,it is in parallel construction withwhite;for example, "black men and white men".[134]
With the successes of theAmerican Civil Rights Movement,a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination. In place ofNegro,activists promoted the use ofblackas standing for racial pride, militancy, and power. Some of the turning points included the use of the term "Black Power"by Kwame Ture (Stokely Carmichael) and the popular singerJames Brown's song "Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud".
In 1988, the civil rights leaderJesse Jacksonurged Americans to use instead the term "African American" because it had a historical cultural base and was a construction similar to terms used by European descendants, such as German American, Italian American, etc. Since then, African American and black have often had parallel status. However, controversy continues over which, if any, of the two terms is more appropriate.Maulana Karengaargues that the term African-American is more appropriate because it accurately articulates their geographical and historical origin.[citation needed]Others have argued that "black" is a better term because "African" suggests foreignness, although black Americans helped found the United States.[135]Still others believe that the term "black" is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones.[136][137]Some surveys suggest that the majority of Black Americans have no preference for "African American" or "black",[138]although they have a slight preference for "black" in personal settings and "African American" in more formal settings.[139]
In theU.S. census race definitions,black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in the black racial groups of Africa.[140]According to theOffice of Management and Budget,the grouping includes individuals who self-identify as African American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and sub-Saharan Africa.[141]The grouping is thus based on geography, and may contradict or misrepresent an individual's self-identification, since not all immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa are "black".[140]The Census Bureau also notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as scientific or anthropological.[142]
According to U.S. Census Bureau data,African immigrantsgenerally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities (~95%).[143]Immigrants from someCaribbean,Central AmericanandSouth Americannations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term.[144]
Recent surveys of African Americans using agenetic testingservice have found varied ancestries that show different tendencies by region and sex of ancestors. These studies found that on average, African Americans have 73.2–80.9%West African,18–24% European, and 0.8–0.9%Native Americangenetic heritage, with large variation between individuals.[145][146][147]
According to studies in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, U.S. residents consistently overestimate the size, physical strength, and formidability of young black men.[148]
One-drop rule
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Frederick_Douglass_%28circa_1879%29.jpg/170px-Frederick_Douglass_%28circa_1879%29.jpg)
From the late 19th century, the South used acolloquialterm, theone-drop rule,to classify as black a person of any known African ancestry. This practice ofhypodescentwas not put into law until the early 20th century.[149]Legally, the definition varied from state to state. Racial definition was more flexible in the 18th and 19th centuries before theAmerican Civil War.For instance, PresidentThomas Jeffersonheld in slavery persons who were legally white (less than 25% black) according to Virginia law at the time, but, because they were born to slave mothers, they were born into slavery, according to the principle ofpartus sequitur ventrem,which Virginia adopted into law in 1662.
Outside of the United States, some other countries have adopted the one-drop rule, but the definition of who is black and the extent to which the one-drop "rule" applies varies greatly from country to country.
The one-drop rule may have originated as a means of increasing the number of black slaves[150]and was maintained as an attempt to keep the white race "pure".[151][unreliable source]One of the results of the one-drop rule was the uniting of the African-American community.[149]Some of the most prominent abolitionists and civil-rights activists of the 19th century were multiracial, such asFrederick Douglass,Robert Purvisand James Mercer Langston. They advocated equality for all.
Blackness
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Official_portrait_of_Barack_Obama.jpg/170px-Official_portrait_of_Barack_Obama.jpg)
The concept of blackness in the United States has been described as the degree to which one associates themselves with mainstreamAfrican-American culture,politics,[156][157]and values.[158]To a certain extent, this concept is not so much about race but more about political orientation,[156][157]culture and behavior. Blackness can be contrasted with "acting white",where black Americans are said to behave with assumed characteristics of stereotypical white Americans with regard to fashion, dialect, taste in music,[159]and possibly, from the perspective of a significant number of black youth, academic achievement.[160]
Due to the often political[156][157]and cultural contours of blackness in the United States, the notion of blackness can also be extended to non-black people.Toni Morrisononce describedBill Clintonas the first blackPresident of the United States,[161]because, as she put it, he displayed "almost every trope of blackness".[162]Clinton welcomed the label.[163]
The question of blackness also arose in the DemocratBarack Obama's2008 presidential campaign.Commentators questioned whether Obama, who was elected the first president with black ancestry, was "black enough", contending that his background is not typical because his mother was awhite Americanand his father was a black student visitor from Kenya.[153][155]Obama chose to identify as black andAfrican American.[164]
Mexico
The 2015 preliminary survey to the 2020 census allowed Afro-Mexicans to self-identify for the first time in Mexico and recorded a total of 1.4 million (1.2% of the total Mexican population). The majority of Afro-Mexicans live in theCosta Chica of Guerreroregion.[165]
Caribbean
Dominican Republic
The first Afro-Dominican slaves were shipped to theDominican Republicby Spanish conquistadors during the Transatlantic slave trade.
Puerto Rico
Spanish conquistadors shipped slaves from West Africa toPuerto Rico.Afro-Puerto Ricans in part trace ancestry to this colonization of the island.
South America
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Rugendasroda.jpg/250px-Rugendasroda.jpg)
Approximately 12 million people were shipped from Africa to theAmericasduring theAtlantic slave tradefrom 1492 to 1888. Of these, 11.5 million of those shipped toSouth Americaand theCaribbean.[166]Brazil was the largest importer in the Americas, with 5.5 million African slaves imported, followed by the British Caribbean with 2.76 million, the Spanish Caribbean and Spanish Mainland with 1.59 million Africans, and the French Caribbean with 1.32 million.[167]Today their descendants number approximately 150 million in South America and the Caribbean.[168]In addition to skin color, other physical characteristics such as facial features and hair texture are often variously used in classifying peoples as black in South America and the Caribbean.[169][170]In South America and the Caribbean, classification as black is also closely tied to social status and socioeconomic variables, especially in light of social conceptions of "blanqueamiento"(racial whitening) and related concepts.[170][171]
Brazil
The concept of race inBrazilis complex. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both of their parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from. Between an individual of unmixed West African ancestry and a very lightmulattoindividual, more than a dozen racial categories were acknowledged, based on various combinations ofhair color,hair texture,eye color,andskin color.These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. In Brazil, people are classified by appearance, not heredity.[172]
Scholars disagree over the effects of social status on racial classifications in Brazil. It is generally believed that achievingupward mobilityand education results in individuals being classified as a category of lighter skin. The popular claim is that in Brazil, poor whites are considered black and wealthy blacks are considered white. Some scholars disagree, arguing that "whitening"of one's social status may be open to people ofmixed race,a large part of the population known aspardo,but a person perceived aspreto(black) will continue to be classified as black regardless of wealth or social status.[173][174]
Statistics
Brazilian Population, by Race, from 1872 to 1991 (Census Data)[175] | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ethnic group | White | Black | Brown | Yellow (East Asian) | Undeclared | Total | ||||
1872 | 3,787,289 | 1,954,452 | 4,188,737 | – | – | 9,930,478 | ||||
1940 | 26,171,778 | 6,035,869 | 8,744,365 | 242,320 | 41,983 | 41,236,315 | ||||
1991 | 75,704,927 | 7,335,136 | 62,316,064 | 630,656 | 534,878 | 146,521,661 |
Year | White | Pardo | Black |
---|---|---|---|
1835 | 24.4% | 18.2% | 51.4% |
2000 | 53.7% | 38.5% | 6.2% |
2010 | 48.4% | 42.4% | 6.7% |
From the years 1500 to 1850, an estimated 3.5 million captives were forcibly shipped from West/Central Africa to Brazil. The territory received the highest number of slaves of any country in the Americas.[176]Scholars estimate that more than half of the Brazilian population is at least in part descended from these individuals. Brazil has the largest population of Afro-ancestry outside Africa. In contrast to the US, during the slavery period and after, the Portuguese colonial government in Brazil and the later Brazilian government did not pass formal anti-miscegenationor segregation laws. As in other Latin American countries,intermarriagewas prevalent during the colonial period and continued afterward. In addition, people ofmixed race(pardo) often tended to marry white spouses, and their descendants became accepted as white. As a result, some of the European descended population also has West African or Amerindian blood. According to the last census of the 20th century, in which Brazilians could choose from five color/ethnic categories with which they identified, 54% of individuals identified as white, 6.2% identified as black, and 39.5% identified as pardo (brown)—a broad multi-racial category, including tri-racial persons.[177]
In the 19th century, a philosophy ofracial whiteningemerged in Brazil, related to the assimilation of mixed-race people into the white population through intermarriage. Until recently the government did not keep data on race. However, statisticians estimate that in 1835, roughly 50% of the population waspreto(black; most wereenslaved), a further 20% waspardo(brown), and 25% white, with the remainderAmerindian.Some classified as pardo were tri-racial.
By the 2000 census, demographic changes including the end to slavery, immigration from Europe and Asia, assimilation of multiracial persons, and other factors resulted in a population in which 6.2% of the population identified as black, 40% as pardo, and 55% as white. Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multi-racial category by intermi xing.[172]A 2007 genetic study found that at least 29% of the middle-class, white Brazilian population had some recent (since 1822 and the end of the colonial period) African ancestry.[178]
Race relations in Brazil
According to the 2022 census, 10.2% of Brazilians said they were black, compared with 7.6% in 2010, and 45.3% said they were racially mixed, up from 43.1%, while the proportion of self-declared white Brazilians has fallen from 47.7% to 43.5%. Activists from Brazil’s Black movement attribute the racial shift in the population to a growing sense of pride among African-descended Brazilians in recognising and celebrating their ancestry.[179]
The philosophy of theracial democracyin Brazil has drawn some criticism, based on economic issues. Brazil has one of the largest gaps in income distribution in the world. The richest 10% of the population earn 28 times the average income of the bottom 40%. The richest 10 percent is almost exclusively white or predominantly European in ancestry. One-third of the population lives under thepoverty line,with blacks and otherpeople of coloraccounting for 70 percent of the poor.[180]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Henry_Chamberlain_-_Quitandeiras_da_Lapa.jpg/220px-Henry_Chamberlain_-_Quitandeiras_da_Lapa.jpg)
In 2015 United States, African Americans, including multiracial people, earned 76.8% as much as white people. By contrast, black and mixed race Brazilians earned on average 58% as much as whites in 2014.[181]The gap in income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared to the large gap between whites and all people of color. Other social factors, such as illiteracy and education levels, show the same patterns of disadvantage for people of color.[182]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Jean_Baptiste_Debret_-_Loja_de_barbeiros%2C_1821.jpg/220px-Jean_Baptiste_Debret_-_Loja_de_barbeiros%2C_1821.jpg)
Some commentators[who?]observe that the United States practice ofsegregationandwhite supremacyin the South, and discrimination in many areas outside that region, forced many African Americans to unite in the civil rights struggle, whereas the fluid nature of race in Brazil has divided individuals of African ancestry between those with more or less ancestry and helped sustain an image of the country as an example of post-colonial harmony. This has hindered the development of a common identity among black Brazilians.[181]
Though Brazilians of at least partial African heritage make up a large percentage[183]of the population, few blacks have been elected as politicians. The city ofSalvador, Bahia,for instance, is 80% people of color, but voters have not elected a mayor of color.
Patterns of discrimination against non-whites have led some academic and other activists to advocate for use of the Portuguese termnegroto encompass all African-descended people, in order to stimulate a "black" consciousness and identity.[184]
Colombia
Afro-Colombians are the third-largest African diaspora population in Latin America after Afro-Brazilians and Afro-Haitians.
Venezuela
Most black Venezuelans descend from people brought as slaves to Venezuela directly from Africa during colonization;[185]others have been descendants of immigrants from the Antilles and Colombia. Many blacks were part of theindependence movement,and several managed to be heroes. There is a deep-rooted heritage of African culture in Venezuelan culture, as demonstrated in many traditional Venezuelan music and dances, such as theTambor,a musical genre inherited from black members of the colony, or theLlanera musicor theGaita zulianathat both are a fusion of all the three major peoples that contribute to the cultural heritage. Also, black inheritance is present in the country's gastronomy.
There are entire communities of blacks in theBarloventozone, as well as part of theBolívar stateand in other small towns; they also live peaceably among the general population in the rest of Venezuela. Currently, blacks represent a plurality of the Venezuelan population, although many are actuallymixed people.
See also
- African diaspora
- Afrophobia
- Black elite
- Black supremacy
- Black women
- Lists of black people
- Mulatto
- Negrito
- San Basilio de Palenque– the first free African town in the Americas
- Scientific racism
- Zambo
References
- ^Starr, Paul; Freeland, Edward P. (2023)."'People of Color' as a category and identity in the United States ".Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies.50:47–67.doi:10.1080/1369183x.2023.2183929.ISSN1369-183X.
- ^"Blak, Black, Blackfulla: Language is important, but it can be tricky".Sydney Morning Herald.30 August 2021.
- ^ab"AP changes writing style to capitalize" b "in Black".Associated Press.20 June 2020.Retrieved21 June2020.
- ^abHenry, Tanyu (17 June 2020)."Black with a Capital" B ": Mainstream Media Join Black Press in Upper-casing Race".blackvoicenews.
- ^Lab, Purdue Writing."Manuscript Writing Style // Purdue Writing Lab".Purdue Writing Lab.Retrieved6 September2020.
- ^Levinson, Meira (2012).No Citizen Left Behind.Harvard University Press. p. 70.ISBN978-0-674-06529-1.
- ^Frigi et al. 2010,Ancient Local Evolution of African mtDNA Haplogroups in Tunisian Berber Populations,Human Biology,Volume 82, Number 4, August 2010.
- ^Harich et.al (2010)."The trans-Saharan slave trade – clues from interpolation analyses and high-resolution characterization of mitochondrial DNA lineages".BMC Evolutionary Biology.10(138): 138.Bibcode:2010BMCEE..10..138H.doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-138.PMC2875235.PMID20459715.
- ^Lewis,Race and Slavery in the Middle East,Oxford University Press, 1994.
- ^"Abīd al-Bukhārī (Moroccan military organization)".Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^Musselman, Anson."The Subtle Racism of Latin America".UCLA International Institute. Archived fromthe originalon 4 June 2003.
- ^Joseph Finklestone,Anwar Sadat: Visionary Who Dared,pp. 5–7, 31.ISBN0-7146-3487-5.
- ^SeeTahfeem ul Qur'anbySayyid Abul Ala Maududi,Vol. 2, pp. 112–113, footnote 44. See also commentary on verses[Quran23:1-6-Tafhim-ul-Quran]:Vol. 3, notes 7–1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications.
- ^Tafsir ibn Kathir4:24.
- ^abHunwick, John."Arab Views of Black Africans and Slavery"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^Johnson, Hilde F. (2011).Waging Peace in Sudan: The Inside Story of the Negotiations that Ended Africa's Longest Civil War.Sussex Academic Press. p. 38.ISBN978-1-84519-453-6.
- ^Vukoni Lupa Lasaga, "The slow, violent death of apartheid in Sudan," 19 September 2006, Norwegian Council for Africa.
- ^Richard A. Lobban Jr. (2004): "Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia". The Scarecrow Press, p. 37.
- ^Jakobsson, Mattias; Hassan, Hisham Y.; Babiker, Hiba; Günther, Torsten; Schlebusch, Carina M.; Hollfelder, Nina (24 August 2017). "Northeast African genomic variation shaped by the continuity of indigenous groups and Eurasian migrations".PLOS Genetics.13(8): e1006976.doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1006976.ISSN1553-7404.PMC5587336.PMID28837655.
- ^George Ayittey, "Africa and China,"The Economist,19 February 2010.
- ^Ayittey, George B.N. (1999). "How the Multilateral Institutions Compounded Africa's Economic Crisis".Law and Policy in International Business.30.
- ^Koigi wa Wamwere (2003).Negative Ethnicity: From Bias to Genocide.Seven Stories Press. p.152.ISBN978-1-58322-576-9.
George B.N. Ayittey (15 January 1999).Africa in Chaos: A Comparative History.Palgrave Macmillan. p. 50.ISBN978-0-312-21787-7.
George B. N. Ayittey (2006).Indigenous African Institutions.Transnational Publishers.ISBN978-1-57105-337-4.
Diallo, Garba (1993)."Mauritania, the other apartheid?"(PDF).Current African Issues(16). Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022. - ^Nicolaisen, Johannes (1963).Ecology and Culture of the Pastoral Tuareg: With Particular Reference to the Tuareg of Ahaggar and Ayr.National Museum of Copenhagen. p. 16.
- ^Alcobé, Santiago (November 1947). "The Physical Anthropology of the West Saharan Nomads".Man.47(160–168): 141–143.doi:10.2307/2791649.JSTOR2791649.PMID18895492.
- ^Division, American University (Washington, D. C. ) Foreign Areas Studies (1964).Area Handbook for Ethiopia.U.S. Government Printing Office.
{{cite book}}
:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^Dynamics of Religion: Past and Present. Proceedings of the XXI World Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions.Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. 2017. p. PT306.ISBN978-3-11-045110-8.
Gorgoryos had already named another concept in Ge'ez[...] (shanqella), which means something like 'negro' in a pejorative sense.
- ^Trimingham, James (2013).Islam in Ethiopia.Routledge. p. 221.ISBN978-1-136-97022-1.
These negroes are the remnants of the original inhabitants of the fluvial region of Somaliland who were overwhelmed by the wave of Somali conquest.[...] The Dube and Shabeli are often referred to as the Adone
- ^Division, American University (Washington, D. C. ) Foreign Areas Studies (1964).Area Handbook for Ethiopia.U.S. Government Printing Office.
{{cite book}}
:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^Hoyland, Robert."Sabbatical Notes".ISAW.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Tibebu, Teshale (1995).The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896–1974.The Red Sea Press. pp. 60–61.ISBN978-1-56902-001-2.
- ^"About Race".The United States Census Bureau.Retrieved7 April2020.
- ^Chacko, Elizabeth (2003). "Identity and Assimilation among Young Ethiopian Immigrants in Metropolitan Washington".Geographical Review.93(4): 491–506.Bibcode:2003GeoRv..93..491C.doi:10.1111/j.1931-0846.2003.tb00044.x.ISSN0016-7428.JSTOR30033939.S2CID145226876.
- ^Nullis, Clare (8 January 2007)."Township tourism booming in South Africa".Associated Press.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Eusebius McKaiser (15 February 2012)."Not White Enough, Not Black Enough".The New York Times.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Hatred for Black People; by Shehu Sani; Xlibris Corporation, 2013;ISBN978-1-4931-2076-5;page 43.
- ^Mohamed Adhikari (2004)."'Not Black Enough': Changing Expressions of Coloured Identity in Post-Apartheid South Africa "(PDF).South African Historical Journal.51:168.
- ^"We agree that you are black, South African court tells Chinese",The Times.
- ^du Preez, Max (13 April 2006)."Coloureds – the most authentic SA citizens".The Star.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Bird, Stephanie Rose (2009).Light, bright, and damned near white: biracial and triracial culture in America.Westport, Conn.: Praeger. p.118.ISBN978-0-275-98954-5.
blasian definition.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^Reicheneker, Sierra (January 2011)."The Marginalization of Afro-Asians in East Asia: Globalization and the Creation of Subculture and Hybrid Identity".Global Tides.5(1).Retrieved4 July2012.
There are several models for analyzing the marginalization of ethnic minorities. The Afro-Asian population exemplifies Park's definition of marginalization, in that they are the "product of human migrations and socio-cultural conflict." Born into relatively new territory in the area of biracial relations, there entrance into the culture of these Asian states often causes quite a stir. They also fit into Green and Goldberg's definition of psychological marginalization, which constitutes multiple attempts at assimilation with the dominant culture followed by continued rejection. The magazineEbony,from 1967, outlines a number of Afro-Asians in Japan who find themselves as outcasts, most of which try to find acceptance within the American military bubble, but with varying degrees of success.
- ^Islam on the Margins: Studies in Memory of Michael Bonner.BRILL. 6 February 2023. p. 222.ISBN978-90-04-52783-6.
- ^"Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History".Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^"Focus on the slave trade",BBC.
- ^A. Klein (2002),Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition,Page xxii,ISBN0-8108-4102-9
- ^"Dr Susan".Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Timothy Williams,"In Iraq's African Enclave, Color is Plainly Seen",The New York Times,2 December 2009: "But on the packed dirt streets of Zubayr, Iraq's scaled-down version of Harlem, African-Iraqis talk of discrimination so steeped in Iraqi culture that they are commonly referred to as" abd "– slave in Arabic – prohibited from interracial marriage and denied even menial jobs...Historians say that most African-Iraqis arrived as slaves from East Africa as part of the Arab slave trade starting about 1,400 years ago. They worked in southern Iraq's salt marshes and sugarcane fields. Though slavery – which in Iraq included Arabs as well as Africans – was banned in the 1920s, it continued until the 1950s, African-Iraqis say. Recently, they have begun to campaign for recognition as a minority population, which would grant them the same benefits as Christians, including reserved seats in Parliament..." Black people here are living in fear, "said Jalal Dhiyab Thijeel, an advocate for the country's estimated 1.2 million African-Iraqis." We want to end that. ""
- ^Alamin M. Mazrui et al.,Debating the African Condition(2004),ISBN1-59221-145-3,p. 324: "But many Arabs were themselves Black. To the present day there are Arab princes in Saudi Arabia who, in the Western world, would be regarded as 'black'. One of the main reasons why the African Diaspora in the Arab world is so small is that people with African blood are much more readily accepted as Arabs than they would be accepted as 'whites' in the Americas."
- ^F.R.C. Bagley et al.,The Last Great Muslim Empires,(Brill: 1997), p.174.
- ^Bethwell A. Ogot,Zamani: A Survey of East African History,(East African Publishing House: 1974), p.104.
- ^"The Ethiopian Population In Israel"Archived13 November 2010 at theWayback Machine,Reuters.16 July 2009. Retrieved 6 May 2018.
- ^Mitnick, Joshua. "Why Jews see racism in Israel ",The Christian Science Monitor,1 September 2009. Retrieved 6 May 2018.
- ^Collins, Toby (18 August 2012)."Israel deports Sudanese asylum seekers as S. Sudanese nationals".Sudan Tribune.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Sherwood, Harriet (20 May 2012)."Israel PM: Illegal African immigrants threaten identity of Jewish state".The Guardian.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^"Ayvalık'ın renkli derneği".Archived fromthe originalon 31 January 2009.Retrieved28 August2008.
- ^Walz, Terence; Cuno, Kenneth M. (2010).Race and Slavery in the Middle East: Histories of Trans-Saharan Africans in Nineteenth-century Egypt, Sudan, and the Ottoman Mediterranean.American University in Cairo Press. p. 190.ISBN978-977-416-398-2.
- ^"Africans in Turkey leave lasting impression on locals".aa.tr.Retrieved13 August2021.
- ^abŞimşek, Doğuş (25 July 2019)."İSTANBUL'DAKİ AFRİKALI GÖÇMENLERİN ULUSÖTESİ SOSYAL ALANLARININ ENTEGRASYON SÜREÇLERİNE ETKİSİ".Öneri Dergisi.14(52): 216–235.doi:10.14783/maruoneri.594943.ISSN1300-0845.
- ^"Türkiye'de Afrikalı göçmenler: Bize insan değilmişiz gibi bakılıyor".euronews(in Turkish). 18 September 2020.Retrieved13 August2021.
- ^Shah, Anish M.; et al. (15 July 2011)."Indian Siddis: African ancestry with Indian Admixture".American Journal of Human Genetics.89(1): 154–161.doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.05.030.PMC3135801.PMID21741027.
- ^John B. Edlefsen, Khalida Shah, Mohsin Farooq, "Makranis, the Negroes of West PakistanArchived4 November 2012 at theWayback Machine",Phylon(1960–), Vol. 21, No. 2 (2nd Qtr 1960), pp. 124–130. Published by: Clark Atlanta University.
- ^Albinia, Alice(2012).Empires of the Indus: The Story of a River.UK: Hachette.ISBN978-0-393-06322-6.
- ^"Services of Sheedis for Sindh recalled".Dawn.16 December 2013.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Yang, Melinda A. (6 January 2022)."A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia".Human Population Genetics and Genomics.2(1): 1–32.doi:10.47248/hpgg2202010001.ISSN2770-5005.
- ^Larena, Maximilian; Sanchez-Quinto, Federico; Sjödin, Per; McKenna, James; Ebeo, Carlo; Reyes, Rebecca; Casel, Ophelia; Huang, Jin-Yuan; Hagada, Kim Pullupul; Guilay, Dennis; Reyes, Jennelyn; Allian, Fatima Pir; Mori, Virgilio; Azarcon, Lahaina Sue; Manera, Alma (30 March 2021)."Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.118(13): e2026132118.Bibcode:2021PNAS..11826132L.doi:10.1073/pnas.2026132118.ISSN0027-8424.PMC8020671.PMID33753512.
- ^Göllner, Larena, Kutanan, Lukas, Fieder, Schaschl (10 February 2022)."Unveiling the Genetic History of the Maniq, a Primary Hunter-Gatherer Society".Genome Biology and Evolution.14(4).doi:10.1093/gbe/evac021.PMC9005329.PMID35143674.
{{cite journal}}
:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^"35. The Negrito of Thailand".Archived fromthe originalon 20 May 2013.
- ^The Houghton Mifflin Dictionary of Geography.Wisconsin: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1997.ISBN978-0-395-86448-7.
- ^William Marsden (1834)."On the Polynesian, or East-Insular Languages".Miscellaneous Works of William Marsden.Parbury, Allen. p. 4.ISBN978-0-342-28944-8.
- ^Hajek, John (June 1996). "Unraveling Lowland Semang".Oceanic Linguistics.35(1): 138–141.doi:10.2307/3623034.JSTOR3623034.
- ^Marta Mirazón Lahr (1996). "R. A. Foley; Nina Jablonski; Michael Little; C. G. Nicholas Mascie-Taylor; Karen Strier; Kenneth M. Weiss".The Evolution of Modern Human Diversity: A Study of Cranial Variation.Cambridge University Press, p. 303.ISBN0-521-47393-4.
- ^The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 20.Grolier Incorporated. 1990. p. 76.ISBN0-7172-0121-X.
- ^Bulbeck, David (27 November 2013)."Craniodental Affinities of Southeast Asia's" Negritos "and the Concordance with Their Genetic Affinities".Human Biology.85(1): 95–133.doi:10.3378/027.085.0305.ISSN0018-7143.PMID24297222.S2CID19981437.
- ^"Beyond the beach: The untold story of Boracay's Ati tribe".GMA News Online.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Richburg, Keith B. (24 April 2005)."Europe's Minority Politicians in Short Supply".The Washington Post.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Sachs, Susan (12 January 2007)."In officially colorblind France, blacks have a dream – and now a lobby".The Christian Science Monitor.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^"Zu Besuch in Neger und Mohrenkirch: Können Ortsnamen rassistisch sein?".
Rund eine Million schwarzer Menschen leben laut ISD hierzulande.
- ^"Sefstat"(PDF).
- ^"Portal do INE".ine.pt.Retrieved4 June2023.
- ^Menocal, María Rosa (2002).Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain,Little, Brown, & Co., p. 241.ISBN0-316-16871-8.
- ^John Randall Baker(1974).Race.Oxford University Press.p.226.ISBN978-0-19-212954-3.
In one sense the word 'Moor' means Mohammedan Berbers and Arabs of North-western Africa, with some Syrians, who conquered most of Spain in the 8th century and dominated the country for hundreds of years.
- ^Ross Brann, "The Moors?",Andalusia,New York University. Quote: "Andalusi Arabic sources, as opposed to laterMudéjarandMoriscosources in Aljamiado and medieval Spanish texts, neither refer to individuals as Moors nor recognize any such group, community or culture. "
- ^Blackmore, Josiah (2009).Moorings: Portuguese Expansion and the Writing of Africa.University of Minnesota Press. pp.xvi,18.ISBN978-0-8166-4832-0.
- ^Jonathan Conant,Staying Roman: Conquest and Identity in Africa and the Mediterranean,Cambridge University Press, 2012, pp. 439–700.
- ^"Home- Office for National Statistics".Archived fromthe originalon 13 March 2009.
- ^The emphasis is on the common experience and determination of the people of African, African-Caribbean and Asian originArchived17 February 2010 at theWayback Machine,NBPA Website.
- ^"MediaRights: Film: Black Russians".Archived fromthe originalon 17 April 2011.
- ^"Лили Голден и Лили Диксон. Телепроект" Черные русские ": синопсис. Info on" Black Russians "film project in English".Archived fromthe originalon 15 January 2011.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^"6".Yugoslavia – Montenegro and Kosovo – The Next Conflict?.Archived fromthe originalon 18 November 2016.Retrieved16 January2009.
- ^"Ulcinj History".
- ^"A Proclamation",The Hobart Town Courier,8 November 1828.
- ^Byrd, Dylan (6 April 2011)."Aboriginal identity goes beyond skin colour".The Sydney Morning Herald.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Broome, Richard (2005).Aboriginal Victorians: A History Since 1800.Allen & Unwin.pp. 130–131.ISBN978-1-74114-569-4.
- ^Aboriginal Protection Board at theState Records Office of Western Australia,accessed 20 December 2012Archived10 March 2013 at theWayback Machine
- ^"Aboriginal Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897 (Qld)".Museum of Australian Democracy.Retrieved19 December2012.
- ^Goodall, Heather (1990)."Land In Our Own Country: The Aboriginal Land Rights Movement in South Eastern Australia, 1860 to 1914"(PDF).Aboriginal History.14:1–24.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^Armstrong, Mick (October 2004)."Aborigines: Problems of Race and Class"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^Spencer, Sir Baldwin (20 May 1913)."Preliminary Report on the Aboriginals of the Northern Territory".p. 21.
- ^McGregor, Russell (2012)."1".Indifferent Inclusion: Aboriginal People and the Australian Nation.Aboriginal Studies Press. pp. 1–5.ISBN978-0-85575-779-3.
- ^"Bringing them home 8. The History – Northern Territory"(PDF).Australian Human Rights Commission.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^A.O.N, (A. O. Neville, Chief Protector of Aborigines in Western Australia) (18 April 1930)."COLOURED FOLK. Some Pitiful Cases".West Australian.p. 9.
{{cite news}}
:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^Australian Human Rights Commission (1997)."Bringing Them Home: Report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from Their Families"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^"Indigenous Australia Timeline – 1901 to 1969".Australian Museum. 3 November 2011.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Lothian, Kathy (2007)."Moving Blackwards: Black Power and the Aboriginal Embassy"(PDF).In Macfarlane, Ingereth; Hannah, Mark (eds.).Transgressions: Critical Australian Indigenous histories.Australian National University and Aboriginal History Inc.ISBN978-1-921313-44-8.
- ^"Gilbert, Kevin".Teaching Aust. Lit.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^"Essentially Yours: The Protection of Human Genetic Information in Australia (ALRC Report 96), Chapter 36 Kinship and Identity: Legal definitions of Aboriginality".Australian Law Reform Commission. Archived fromthe originalon 27 September 2020.Retrieved12 November2012.
- ^Australian Bureau of Statistics (1998)."Population Growth: Growth and distribution of Indigenous people".
- ^Memmott, Paul; Moran, Mark (2001)."Indigenous Settlements of Australia".Australian Government Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities.
- ^Darby, Andrew (1 May 2012)."The forgotten conflict".The Sydney Morning Herald.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^"Black Screen".13 September 2016.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^"Black on Track: Indigenous Men?s Programs, School Programs, Employment Programs, Sports Mentoring Programs, Community Engagement Live in Program, Motivational Speaking, Developing Programs for your Community".Archived fromthe originalon 8 April 2013.Retrieved20 December2012.
- ^Shepherd, Tony (19 October 2012)."Anthony Mundine echoes the Ku Klux Klan: Mansell".news.au.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^"Bolt breached discrimination act, judge rules".Australian Broadcasting Corporation.29 September 2011.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Quanchi, Max (2005).Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands.The Scarecrow Press. p. 215.ISBN0-8108-5395-7.
- ^Tracey Flanagan, Meredith Wilkie, and Susanna Iuliano."Australian South Sea Islanders: A Century of Race Discrimination under Australian Law"Archived14 March 2011 at theWayback Machine,Australian Human Rights Commission.
- ^"Documenting Democracy: Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 (Cth)".National Archives of Australia: Foundingdocs.gov.au. Archived fromthe originalon 26 October 2009.Retrieved14 October2012.
- ^Lawson, Stephanie (2013). "'Melanesia': The History and Politics of an Idea ".Journal of Pacific History.48(1): 1–22.doi:10.1080/00223344.2012.760839.S2CID219627550.
- ^Sparrow, Jeff (17 June 2006)."Black Founders: The Unknown Story of Australia's First Black Settlers".The Age.Melbourne.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Harrison, Faye Venetia(2005).Resisting racism and xenophobia: global perspectives on race, gender, and human rights.AltaMira Press. p. 180.ISBN978-0-7591-0482-2.
- ^abMagocsi, Paul Robert (1999).Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples.University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division.ISBN978-0-8020-2938-6.
- ^"2006 Census of Canada – Ethnic Origin".
- ^"Blacks in Canada: A long history"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved11 May2014.
- ^abRinaldo Walcott,Black Like Who?: Writing Black Canada.2003,Insomniac Press.ISBN1-894663-40-3.
- ^"As for terminology, in Canada, it is still appropriate to say Black Canadians." Valerie Pruegger, "Black History Month".Culture and Community Spirit,Government of Alberta.
- ^Lovejoy, Paul E.Transformations in Slavery.Cambridge University Press, 2000.
- ^Nguyen, Elizabeth,"Origins of Black History Month"Archived2 October 2011 at theWayback Machine,Spartan Daily,Campus News. San Jose State University, 24 February 2004. Accessed 12 April 2008.
- ^Smith, Tom W (1992). "Changing racial labels: from 'Colored' to 'Negro' to 'Black' to 'African American'".Public Opinion Quarterly.56(4): 496–514.doi:10.1086/269339.S2CID143826058.
- ^Liz Mazucci,"Going Back to Our Own: Interpreting Malcolm X's Transition From 'Black Asiatic' to 'Afro-American'",Souls7(1), 2005, pp. 66–83.
- ^Christopher H. Foreman,The African-American predicament,Brookings Institution Press, 1999, p. 99.
- ^"LINGUISTICS AND AFRICA | Black or African | Sub-Saharan Africa | Feminism | Pre-Colonial | Spiritual vs Religious".africanholocaust.net.Archived fromthe originalon 5 November 2020.Retrieved1 October2018.
- ^Gwendolyn Midlo Hall,Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century,Louisiana State University Press, 1992/1995.
- ^African American Journeys to Africa,pp. 63–64.
- ^Martin Luther King, Jr. (28 August 1963).I Have a Dream(Google Video). Washington, D.C. Archived fromthe originalon 15 March 2010.
- ^Smith, Tom W. (Winter 1992). "Changing Racial Labels: From" Colored "to" Negro "to" Black "to" African American "".The Public Opinion Quarterly.56(4). Oxford University Press: 496–514.doi:10.1086/269339.JSTOR2749204.OCLC192150485.S2CID143826058.
- ^McWhorter, John H. (8 September 2004)."Why I'm Black, Not African American".Los Angeles Times.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Relethford, JH (2000). "Human skin color diversity is highest in sub-Saharan African populations".Human Biology; an International Record of Research.72(5): 773–80.PMID11126724.
- ^Shriver M.D.; Parra E.J.; Dios S.; et al. (April 2003)."Skin pigmentation, biogeographical ancestry and admixture mapping"(PDF).Human Genetics.112(4): 387–399.doi:10.1007/s00439-002-0896-y.PMID12579416.S2CID7877572.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^Newport, Frank (28 September 2007)."Black or African American".Gallup.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Miller, Pepper; Kemp, Herb (2006).What's Black About? Insights to Increase Your Share of a Changing African-American Market.Paramount Market Publishing, Inc. p. 8.ISBN978-0-9725290-9-9.OCLC61694280.
- ^ab"Race, Ethnicity, and Language data – Standardization for Health Care Quality Improvement"(PDF).Institute of Medicine of the National Academies.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Sonya Tastogi; Tallese D. Johnson; Elizabeth M. Hoeffel; Malcolm P. Drewery, Jr. (September 2011)."The Black Population: 2010"(PDF).United States Census Bureau.United States Department of Commerce.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^"2000 US Census basics"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Kusow, Abdi M."African Immigrants in the United States: Implications for Affirmative Action".Iowa State University.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^"The size and regional distribution of the black population".Lewis Mumford Center. Archived fromthe originalon 12 October 2007.Retrieved1 October2007.
- ^Katarzyna Bryc; Adam Auton; Matthew R. Nelson; Jorge R. Oksenberg; Stephen L. Hauser; Scott Williams; Alain Froment; Jean-Marie Bodo; Charles Wambebe; Sarah A. Tishkoff; Carlos D. Bustamante (12 January 2010)."Genome-wide patterns of population structure and admixture in West Africans and African Americans".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.107(2): 786–791.Bibcode:2010PNAS..107..786B.doi:10.1073/pnas.0909559107.PMC2818934.PMID20080753.
- ^Katarzyna Bryc; Eric Y. Durand; J. Michael Macpherson; David Reich; Joanna L. Mountain (8 January 2015)."The Genetic Ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States".The American Journal of Human Genetics.96(1): 37–53.doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.11.010.PMC4289685.PMID25529636.
- ^Soheil Baharian; Maxime Barakatt; Christopher R. Gignoux; Suyash Shringarpure; Jacob Errington; William J. Blot; Carlos D. Bustamante; Eimear E. Kenny; Scott M. Williams; Melinda C. Aldrich; Simon Gravel (27 May 2015)."The Great Migration and African-American Genomic Diversity".PLOS Genetics.12(5): e1006059.doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1006059.PMC4883799.PMID27232753.
- ^"People overestimate the size of black men, perceive them as more threatening than white men, study finds".Los Angeles Times.14 March 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 14 March 2017.Retrieved1 June2021.
- ^abJames, F. Davis."Who is Black? One Nation's Definition".PBS.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Clarence Page,A Credit to His RacesArchived1 August 2013 at theWayback Machine,The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer,1 May 1997.
- ^Sweet, Frank (1 April 2006)."Presenting the Triumph of the One-Drop Rule".The One-Drop Rule.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Jolivétte, Andrew (2012).Obama and the Biracial Factor: The Battle for a New American Majority.Policy Press. p. xiii.ISBN978-1-4473-0100-4.
He is not only the first self-identified African American/person of color to be elected President of the United States—but he is also the first biracial person to hold this office.
- ^ab"Remarks of Senator Barack Obama:" A More Perfect Union "(transcript)"(PDF).BBC News.18 March 2008. p. 2.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved6 May2018.
This is not to say that race has not been an issue in the campaign. At various stages in the campaign, some commentators have deemed me either "too black" or "not black enough". Racial tensions bubbled to the surface during the week before theSouth Carolina primary.The press has scoured every exit poll for the latest evidence of racial polarization, not just in terms of white and black, but black and brown as well.
See also:video - ^Adesioye, Lola (27 June 2008)."Ralph Nader's guilt complex".The Guardian.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^abCoates, Ta-Nehisi Paul (1 February 2007)."Is Obama Black Enough?".Time.Retrieved6 May2018.
Barack Obama's real problem isn't that he's too white—it's that he's too black.
- ^abcEze, Chielozona (2011).Postcolonial Imaginations and Moral Representations.Le xing ton Books. p. 25.ISBN978-0-7391-4508-1.
For Du Bois, blackness is political, it is existential, but above all, it is moral, for in it values abound; these values spring from the fact of being an oppressed.
- ^abcOlson, Barbara (2003).The Final Days.Regnery. p. 58.ISBN978-0-89526-125-0.
In fact, Bill Clinton had promoted an even worse variation, that authentic blackness is political...
- ^Olatunde, Allen Timilehin.Missions in the Dark Soil: Life and Work of Thomas Jefferson Bowen in Africa.aiconcept. p.92.ISBN978-978-52387-6-1.
- ^Edler, Melissa (Spring 2007)."Acting White".Kent State Magazine.Archived fromthe originalon 29 September 2008.Retrieved22 July2008.
- ^Ogbu, J. "Black American students in an affluent suburb: a study of academic disengagement". Erlbaum Associates Press. Mahwah, NJ. 2003.
- ^Hansen, Suzy (20 February 2002)."Blacks and Bill Clinton".Salon.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Morrison, Toni(5 October 1998)."Comment".The New Yorker.
- ^Martin Halpern (2003)."Unions, Radicals, and Democratic Presidents: Seeking Social Change in the Twentieth Century".Praeger. p. 220.[permanent dead link]
- ^Kroft, Steve (11 February 2007)."A Transcript Excerpt of Steve Kroft's Interview With Sen. Obama".CBS News.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^"Afro-Mexicans".Minority Rights Group International.
- ^United Nations Slavery MemorialArchived10 December 2013 at theWayback Machine:"Accurate figures are still not available but at a conservative estimate, using the figures that have been generated by the latest Slave Trade Database, of the estimated millions transported, Portugal dominated the trade with 5.8 million or 46%, while Great Britain transported 3.25 million or 26%, France accounted for 1.38 million or 11%, and Spain 1.06 million or 8%. So it is unmistakable, that the 4 leading colonial powers accounted for a combined total of 11.5 million Africans or 92% of the overall trade. The remainder was transported by the US 305,326, the Netherlands 554,336, and Denmark/Baltic 111,041. There were several stages to the trade. During the first phase between 1501 and 1600, an estimated 277,509 Africans or just 2% of the overall trade, were sent to the Americas and Europe. During the 17th century, some 15% or 1,875,631 Africans embarked for the Americas. The period from 1701 to the passage of the British Abolition Act in 1807 was the peak of the trade. Here an estimated 7,163,241 or 57% of the trafficking in Africans transpired, with the remaining 26% or 3,204,935 occurring between 1808 and 1866."
- ^United Nations Slavery MemorialArchived10 December 2013 at theWayback Machine:"In the Americas, Brazil was the largest importer of Africans, accounting for 5.5 million or 44%, the British Caribbean with 2.76 million or 22%, the French Caribbean 1.32 million, and the Spanish Caribbean and Spanish Mainland accounting for 1.59 million. The relatively high numbers for Brazil and the British Caribbean is largely a reflection of the dominance and continued expansion of the plantation system in those regions. Even more so, the inability of the enslaved population in these regions to reproduce meant that the replacement demand for laborers was significantly high. In other words, Africans were imported to make up the demographic deficit on the plantations."
- ^"Community Outreach" Seminar on Planning Process for SANTIAGO +5Archived27 July 2020 at theWayback Machine,Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative,4 February 2006.
- ^De La Torre, Miguel A. (2009).Hispanic American Religious Cultures.ABC-Clio. p. 386.ISBN978-1-59884-139-8.
The ways of defining blackness range from characteristics of skin tones, hair textures, facial features...
- ^abWhitten, Norman E.; Torres, Arlene, eds. (1998).Blackness in Latin America and the Caribbean.Indiana University Press. p. 161.ISBN978-0-253-21194-1.
In still other instances, persons are counted in reference to equally ambiguous phenotypical variations, particularly skin color, facial features, or hair texture.
- ^Hernandez, Tanya Kateri (2012).Racial Subordination in Latin America.Cambridge University Press. p. 20.ISBN978-1-107-02486-1.
Given the larger numbers of persons of African and indigenous descent in Spanish America, the region developed its own form of eugenics with the concepts of blanqueamiento (whitening)...blanqueamiento was meant to benefit the entire nation with a white image, and not just individual persons of African descent seeking access to the legal rights and privileges of colonial whites.
- ^abSkidmore, Thomas E. (April 1992)."Fact and Myth: Discovering a Racial Problem in Brazil"(PDF).Working Paper.173.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^Telles, Edward Eric (2004).Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil.Princeton University Press. pp.95–98.ISBN978-0-691-11866-6.
- ^Telles, Edward E. (3 May 2002)."Racial Ambiguity Among the Brazilian Population"(PDF).Ethnic and Racial Studies.25(3). California Center for Population Research: 415–441.doi:10.1080/01419870252932133.S2CID51807734.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 15 January 2005.
- ^"Brasil: 500 anos de povoamento"(in Brazilian Portuguese). IBGE. Archived fromthe originalon 23 September 2009.Retrieved29 December2011.
- ^Telles, Edward Eric (2004).Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil.Princeton University Press. p.24.ISBN978-0-691-11866-6.
- ^"Brazil".The World Factbook(2024 ed.).Central Intelligence Agency.Retrieved6 May2018.(Archived 2018 edition.)
- ^V.F. Gonçalves, F. Prosdocimi, L. S. Santos, J. M. Ortega and S. D. J. Pena,"Sex-biased gene flow in African Americans but not in American Caucasians",GMR,2007, Vol. 12, No. 6.
- ^"Mixed-race people become Brazil's biggest population group | Brazil | The Guardian".theguardian.Retrieved4 June2024.
- ^Barrolle, Melvin Kadiri."African 'Americans' in Brazil".New America Media. Archived fromthe originalon 16 May 2007.Retrieved5 August2009.
- ^ab"Slavery's legacies".The Economist.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^Roland, Edna Maria Santos."The Economics of Racism: People of African Descent in Brazil".Archived fromthe originalon 14 June 2007.
- ^Tom Phillips,"Brazil census shows African-Brazilians in the majority for the first time",The Guardian,17 November 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2018.
- ^Rodriguez, Gregory (3 September 2006)."Brazil Separates into a World of Black and White".Los Angeles Times.Retrieved6 May2018.
- ^University of the Andes (Venezuela)(3 March 2011),Historia de Venezuela – Procedencia de los Esclavos Negros en Venezuela,retrieved6 May2018
External links
Media related toBlack peopleat Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related toBlack peopleat Wikiquote