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Black people

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Blackis aracializedclassification of people, usually apoliticalandskin color-based category for specific populations with a mid- to dark browncomplexion.Not all people considered "black" havedark skin;in certain countries, often in socially based systems ofracial classificationin theWestern world,the term "black" is used to describe persons who are perceived as dark-skinned compared to other populations. It is most commonly used for people ofsub-Saharan Africanancestry,Indigenous AustraliansandMelanesians,though it has been applied in many contexts to other groups, and is no indicator of any close ancestral relationship whatsoever. Indigenous African societies do not use the termblackas a racial identity outside of influences brought by Western cultures.

Contemporaryanthropologistsand other scientists, while recognizing the reality of biological variation between different human populations, regard the concept of a unified, distinguishable "Black race" associally constructed.Different societies apply different criteria regarding who is classified "black", and these social constructs have changed over time. In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, and the social criteria for "blackness" vary. In the United Kingdom, "black" was historically equivalent with "person of color",a general term for non-European peoples. While the term" person of color "is commonly used and accepted in theUnited States,[1]the near-sounding term "colored person"is considered highly offensive, except in South Africa, where it is a descriptor for a person ofmixed race.In other regions such asAustralasia,settlers applied the adjective "black" to the indigenous population. It was universally regarded as highly offensive in Australia until the 1960s and 70s. "Black" was generally not used as a noun, but rather as an adjective qualifying some other descriptor (e.g. "black ****" ). As desegregation progressed after the 1967 referendum, some Aboriginals adopted the term, following the American fashion, but it remains problematic.[2] Several American style guides,[3][4]including theAP Stylebook,changed their guides to capitalize the 'b' in 'black', following the 2020murder of George Floyd,anAfrican American.[3][4]TheASA Style Guidesays that the 'b' should not be capitalized.[5]Some perceive the term 'black' as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, and as a result neither use nor define it, especially in African countries with little to no history of colonialracial segregation.[6]

Africa

Northern Africa

The main slave routes in theMiddle EastandNorthern Africaduring theMiddle Ages.

Numerous communities of dark-skinned peoples are present inNorth Africa,some dating from prehistoric communities. Others descend from migrants via the historicaltrans-Saharan tradeor, after the Arab invasions of North Africa in the 7th century, from slaves from thetrans-Saharan slave tradein North Africa.[7][8]

Haratinwomen, a community of recent Sub-Saharan African origin residing in theMaghreb.

In the 18th century, the Moroccan SultanMoulay Ismail"the Warrior King" (1672–1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black soldiers, called hisBlack Guard.[9][10]

According toCarlos Moore,resident scholar at Brazil's University of the State of Bahia, in the 21st century Afro-multiracials in theArab world,including Arabs in North Africa, self-identify in ways that resemble multi-racials inLatin America.He claims that darker-toned Arabs, much like darker-tonedLatin Americans,consider themselveswhitebecause they have some distant white ancestry.[11]

Egyptian PresidentAnwar Sadathad a mother who was a dark-skinnedNubianSudanese (Sudanese Arab) woman and a father who was a lighter-skinnedEgyptian.In response to an advertisement for an acting position, as a young man he said, "I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish".[12]

Due to thepatriarchalnature of Arab society, Arab men, including during the slave trade in North Africa, enslaved more African women than men. The female slaves were often put to work in domestic service and agriculture. The men interpreted theQuranto permit sexual relations between a male master and his enslaved females outside of marriage (seeMa malakat aymanukum and sex),[13][14]leading to manymixed-racechildren. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab master's child, she was considered asumm walador "mother of a child", a status that granted her privileged rights. The child was given rights of inheritance to the father's property, so mixed-race children could share in any wealth of the father.[15]Because the society waspatrilineal,the children inherited their fathers' social status at birth and were born free.

Some mixed-race children succeeded their respective fathers as rulers, such as SultanAhmad al-Mansur,who ruledMoroccofrom 1578 to 1608. He was not technically considered as a mixed-race child of a slave; his mother wasFulaniand aconcubineof his father.[15]

In early 1991, non-Arabs of theZaghawa peopleof Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arabapartheidcampaign, segregating Arabs and non-Arabs (specifically, people ofNiloticancestry).[16]Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan's non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of "deftly manipulating Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid andethnic cleansing.[17]

Sudanese Arabsare also black people in that they are culturally and linguisticallyArabizedindigenous peoples ofSudanof mostlyNilo-Saharan,Nubian,[18]andCushitic[19]ancestry; their skin tone and appearance resembles that of other black people.

American UniversityeconomistGeorge Ayitteyaccused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens.[20]According to Ayittey, "In Sudan... the Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid."[21]Many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practicing Arab apartheid.[22]

Sahara

AnIbenheren(Bella) woman

In theSahara,the nativeTuaregBerberpopulations kept "negro"slaves. Most of these captives were ofNilo-Saharanextraction, and were either purchased by the Tuareg nobles from slave markets in theWestern Sudanor taken during raids. Their origin is denoted via theAhaggar BerberwordIbenheren(sing.Ébenher), which alludes to slaves that only spoke aNilo-Saharanlanguage. These slaves were also sometimes known by the borrowedSonghaytermBella.[23]

Similarly, theSahrawiindigenous peoples of theWestern Saharaobserved a class system consisting of highcastesand low castes. Outside of these traditional tribal boundaries were "Negro" slaves, who were drawn from the surrounding areas.[24]

North-Eastern Africa

InEthiopiaandSomalia,the slave classes mainly consisted of captured peoples from the Sudanese-Ethiopian and Kenyan-Somali international borders[25]or other surrounding areas ofNiloticandBantupeoples who were collectively known asShanqella[26]andAdone(both analogues to "negro" in an English-speaking context).[27]Some of these slaves were captured during territorial conflicts in the Horn of Africa and then sold off to slave merchants.[28]The earliest representation of this tradition dates from a seventh or eighth century BC inscription belonging to theKingdom of Damat.[29]

These captives and others of analogous morphology were distinguished astsalim barya(dark-skinned slave) in contrast with the Afroasiatic-speaking nobles orsaba qayh( "red men" ) or light-skinned slave; while on the other hand, western racial category standards do not differentiate betweensaba qayh( "red men" —light-skinned) orsaba tiqur( "black men" —dark-skinned) Horn Africans (of either Afroasiatic-speaking, Nilotic-speaking or Bantu origin) thus considering all of them as "black people" (and in some case "negro" ) according to Western society's notion of race.[30][31][32]

Southern Africa

InSouth Africa,the period of colonization resulted in many unions and marriages betweenEuropeanand Africans (Bantu peoples of South AfricaandKhoisans) from various tribes, resulting in mixed-race children. As the Europeancolonialistsacquired control of territory, they generally pushed the mixed-race and African populations into second-class status. During the first half of the 20th century, the white-dominated government classified the population according to four main racial groups:Black,White,Asian(mostlyIndian), andColoured.The Coloured group included people of mixed Bantu, Khoisan, and European ancestry (with someMalayancestry, especially in theWestern Cape). The Coloured definition occupied an intermediary political position between the Black and White definitions in South Africa. It imposed a system of legal racial segregation, a complex of laws known asapartheid.

Theapartheidbureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in thePopulation Registration Actof 1945 to determine who belonged in which group. Minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications. When it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether the individual should be considered Coloured or Black, the "pencil test"was used. A pencil was inserted into a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough to hold the pencil, rather than having it pass through, as it would with smoother hair. If so, the person was classified as Black.[33]Such classifications sometimes divided families.

Sandra Laingis a South African woman who was classified as Coloured by authorities during the apartheid era, due to herskin colourandhair texture,although her parents could prove at least three generations of European ancestors. At age 10, she was expelled from her all-white school. The officials' decisions based on her anomalous appearance disrupted her family and adult life. She was the subject of the 2008 biographical dramatic filmSkin,which won numerous awards. During the apartheid era, those classed as "Coloured" were oppressed and discriminated against. But, they had limited rights and overall had slightly better socioeconomic conditions than those classed as "Black". The government required that Blacks and Coloureds live in areas separate from Whites, creating large townships located away from the cities as areas for Blacks.

In the post-apartheid era, the Constitution of South Africa has declared the country to be a "Non-racial democracy". In an effort to redress past injustices, the ANC government has introduced laws in support ofaffirmative actionpolicies for Blacks; under these they define "Black" people to include "Africans", "Coloureds" and "Asians". Someaffirmative actionpolicies favor "Africans" over "Coloureds" in terms of qualifying for certain benefits. Some South Africans categorized as "African Black" say that "Coloureds" did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid. "Coloured" South Africans are known to discuss their dilemma by saying, "we were not white enough under apartheid, and we are not black enough under the ANC (African National Congress) ".[34][35][36]

In 2008, the High Court in South Africa ruled thatChinese South Africanswho were residents during the apartheid era (and their descendants) are to be reclassified as "Black people," solely for the purposes of accessing affirmative action benefits, because they were also "disadvantaged" by racial discrimination. Chinese people who arrived in the country after the end of apartheid do not qualify for such benefits.[37]

Other than by appearance, "Coloureds" can usually be distinguished from "Blacks" by language. Most speakAfrikaansor English as afirst language,as opposed toBantu languagessuch asZuluorXhosa.They also tend to have more European-sounding names thanBantunames.[38]

Asia

Afro-Asians

"Afro-Asians"or" African-Asians "are persons of mixed sub-Saharan African andAsianancestry. In the United States, they are also called "black Asians" or "Blasians".[39]Historically, Afro-Asian populations have been marginalized as a result of human migration and social conflict.[40]

Western Asia

Arab world

Bilal ibn Ribah(picturedatop theKaaba,Mecca) was a former Ethiopian slave and the firstmuezzin,ca. 630.

In the medieval Arab world, the ethnic designation of "Black" encompassed not onlyZanj,or Africans, but also communities likeZutt,Sindis and Indians from theIndian subcontinent.[41]Historians estimate that between the advent ofIslamin 650 CE and the abolition of slavery in theArabian Peninsulain the mid-20th century, 10 to 18 million black Africans (known as the Zanj) were enslaved byeast African slave tradersand transported to the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries.[42]This number far exceeded the number of slaves who were taken to the Americas.[43]Slavery in Saudi Arabiaandslavery in Yemenwas abolished in 1962,slavery in Dubaiin 1963, andslavery in Omanin 1970.[44]

Several factors affected the visibility of descendants of this diaspora in 21st-century Arab societies: The traders shipped more female slaves than males, as there was a demand for them to serve asconcubinesin harems in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries. Male slaves were castrated in order to serve asharemguards. The death toll of black African slaves from forced labor was high. The mixed-race children of female slaves and Arab owners were assimilated into the Arab owners' families under thepatrilinealkinship system.As a result, few distinctive Afro-Arab communities have survived in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries.[45][46]

Distinctive and self-identified black communities have been reported in countries such as Iraq, with a reported 1.2 million black people (Afro-Iraqis), and they attest to a history of discrimination. These descendants of the Zanj have sought minority status from the government, which would reserve some seats in Parliament for representatives of their population.[47]According to Alamin M. Mazrui et al., generally in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries, most of these communities identify as both black and Arab.[48]

Iran

Afro-Iranians are people of black African ancestry residing in Iran. During theQajar dynasty,many wealthy households imported black African women and children as slaves to perform domestic work. This slave labor was drawn exclusively from the Zanj, who wereBantu-speaking peoples that lived along theAfrican Great Lakes,in an area roughly comprising modern-dayTanzania,MozambiqueandMalawi.[49][50]

Israel

AnAfrican Hebrew Israelitechild inDimona
Anethnic Jewish(Beta IsraelEthiopian Jew)IsraeliBorder Policeman

About 150,000 East African and black people live inIsrael,amounting to just over 2% of the nation's population. The vast majority of these, some 120,000, areBeta Israel,[51]most of whom are recent immigrants who came during the 1980s and 1990s fromEthiopia.[52]In addition, Israel is home to more than 5,000 members of theAfrican Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalemmovement that are ancestry ofAfrican Americanswho emigrated to Israel in the 20th century, and who reside mainly in a distinct neighborhood in theNegevtown ofDimona.Unknown numbers of black converts to Judaism reside in Israel, most of them converts from the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States.

Additionally, there are around 60,000 non-Jewish African immigrants in Israel, some of whom have sought asylum. Most of the migrants are from communities inSudanandEritrea,particularly theNiger-Congo-speakingNubagroups of the southernNuba Mountains;some are illegal immigrants.[53][54]

Turkey

A Bashi-bazoukof theOttoman Empire,painting byJean-Léon Gérôme,1869

Beginning several centuries ago, during the period of theOttoman Empire,tens of thousands ofZanjcaptives were brought by slave traders to plantations and agricultural areas situated betweenAntalyaandIstanbul,which gave rise to theAfro-Turkpopulation in present-dayTurkey.[55]Some of their ancestry remainedin situ,and many migrated to larger cities and towns. Other black slaves were transported toCrete,from where they or their descendants later reached theİzmirarea through thepopulation exchange between Greece and Turkeyin 1923, or indirectly fromAyvalıkin pursuit of work.[56]

Apart from the historical Afro-Turk presence Turkey also hosts a sizeable immigrant black population since the end of the 1990s. The community is composed mostly of modern immigrants from Ghana, Ethiopia, DRC, Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, Eritrea, Somalia and Senegal. According to official figures 1.5 million Africans live in Turkey and around 25% of them are located inIstanbul.[57]Other studies state the majority of Africans in Turkey lives in Istanbul and reportTarlabaşı,Dolapdere,Kumkapı,YenikapıandKurtuluşas having a strong African presence.[58]

Most of the African immigrants in Turkey come to Turkey to further migrate to Europe. Immigrants from Eastern Africa are usually refugees, meanwhile Western and Central African immigration is reported to be economically driven.[58]It is reported that African immigrants in Turkey regularly face economic and social challenges, notablyracismandopposition to immigrationby locals.[59]

Southern Asia

A Siddi girl from the town ofYellapurinUttara Karnatakadistrict, Karnataka, India.

TheSiddiare an ethnic group inhabitingIndiaandPakistan.Members are descended from theBantu peoplesofSoutheast Africa.Some were merchants, sailors,indentured servants,slaves or mercenaries. The Siddi population is currently estimated at 270,000–350,000 individuals, living mostly inKarnataka,Gujarat,andHyderabadin India andMakranandKarachiin Pakistan.[60]In theMakranstrip of theSindhandBalochistanprovinces in southwesternPakistan,these Bantu descendants are known as the Makrani.[61]There was a brief "Black Power" movement in Sindh in the 1960s and many Siddi are proud of and celebrate their African ancestry.[62][63]

Southeastern Asia

Population genomic "TreeMix" analysis of Malaysian Negritos (Semang) and closely related populations (e.g. East Asians and Andamanese peoples).
Atiwoman, Philippines – the Negritos are an indigenous people of Southeast Asia.

Negritos,are a collection of various, often unrelated peoples, who were once considered a single distinct population of closely related groups, but genetic studies showed that they descended from the same ancientEast Eurasianmeta-population which gave rise to modernEast Asian peoples,and consist of several separate groups, as well as displaying genetic heterogeneity.[64][65][66]They inhabit isolated parts ofSoutheast Asia,and are now confined primarily to Southern Thailand,[67]the Malay Peninsula, and the Andaman Islands of India.[68]

Negrito means "little black people" inSpanish(negrito is the Spanish diminutive of negro, i.e., "little black person" ); it is what the Spaniards called the aborigines that they encountered in thePhilippines.[69]The termNegritoitself has come under criticism in countries like Malaysia, where it is now interchangeable with the more acceptableSemang,[70]although this term actually refers to a specific group.

They have dark skin, often curly-hair and Asiatic facial characteristics, and are stockily built.[71][72][73]

Negritos in the Philippines frequently face discrimination. Because of their traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyle, they are marginalized and live in poverty, unable to find employment.[74]

Europe

Western Europe

France

Young Negro with a BowbyHyacinthe Rigaud,ca. 1697.

While census collection of ethnic background is illegal inFrance,it is estimated that there are about 2.5 – 5 million black people residing there.[75][76]

Germany

As of 2020, there are approximately one million black people living in Germany.[77]

Netherlands

Afro-Dutch are residents of theNetherlandswho are of Black African orAfro-Caribbeanancestry. They tend to be from the former and present Dutch overseas territories ofAruba,Bonaire,Curaçao,Sint MaartenandSuriname.The Netherlands also has sizableCape Verdeanand other African communities.

Portugal

As of 2021, there were at least 232,000 people of recent Black-African immigrant background living inPortugal.They mainly live in the regions ofLisbon,Porto,Coimbra.As Portugal doesn't collect information dealing with ethnicity, the estimate includes only people that, as of 2021, hold the citizenship of a Sub Saharan African country or people who have acquiredPortuguese citizenshipfrom 2008 to 2021, thus excluding descendants, people of more distant African ancestry or people who have settled in Portugal generations ago and are nowPortuguese citizens.[78][79]

Spain

The term "Moors"has been used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer toMuslims,[80]especially those ofAraborBerberancestry, whether living in North Africa or Iberia.[81]Moors were not a distinct orself-definedpeople.[82]Medieval and early modern Europeans applied the name to Muslim Arabs, Berbers, Sub-Saharan Africans and Europeans alike.[83]

Isidore of Seville,writing in the 7th century, claimed that theLatinword Maurus was derived from theGreekmauron,μαύρον, which is the Greek word for "black". Indeed, by the time Isidore of Seville came to write hisEtymologies,the word Maurus or "Moor" had become an adjective in Latin, "for the Greeks call black, mauron". "In Isidore's day, Moors were black by definition..."[84]

Afro-Spaniards areSpanish nationalsofWest/Central Africanancestry. Today, they mainly come fromCameroon,Equatorial Guinea,Ghana,Gambia,Mali,Nigeriaand Senegal. Additionally, many Afro-Spaniards born in Spain are from the former Spanish colonyEquatorial Guinea.Today, there are an estimated 683,000 Afro-Spaniards inSpain.

United Kingdom

According to theOffice for National Statistics,at the2001 censusthere were more than a million black people in the United Kingdom; 1% of the total population described themselves as "Black Caribbean", 0.8% as "Black African", and 0.2% as "Black other".[85]Britain encouraged the immigration of workers from the Caribbean after World War II; the first symbolic movement was of those who came on the ship theEmpire Windrushand, hence, those who migrated between 1948 and 1970 are known asthe Windrush generation.The preferred officialumbrella termis "black, Asian and minority ethnic" (BAME), but sometimes the term "black"is used on its own, to express unified opposition to racism,as in theSouthall Black Sisters,which started with a mainlyBritish Asianconstituency, and theNational Black Police Association,which has a membership of "African, African-Caribbean and Asian origin".[86]

Eastern Europe

Bust of Russian generalAbram Gannibal,who was the great-grandfather ofAlexander Pushkin.

As African statesbecame independentin the 1960s, theSoviet Unionoffered many of their citizens the chance to study inRussia.Over a period of 40 years, about 400,000 African students from various countries moved to Russia to pursue higher studies, including many black Africans.[87][88]This extended beyond the Soviet Union to many countries of theEastern bloc.

Balkans

Due to theslave tradein theOttoman Empirethat had flourished in theBalkans,the coastal town ofUlcinjinMontenegrohad its own black community.[89]In 1878, that community consisted of about 100 people.[90]

Oceania

Indigenous Australians

UnknownAboriginalwoman in 1911

Indigenous Australianshave been referred to as "black people" in Australia since theearly days of European settlement.[91]While originally related toskin colour,the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal orTorres Strait Islanderancestry in general and can refer to people of any skin pigmentation.[92]

Being identified as either "black" or "white" inAustraliaduring the 19th and early 20th centuries was critical in one's employment and social prospects. Various state-basedAboriginal Protection Boardswere established which had virtually complete control over the lives of Indigenous Australians – where they lived, their employment, marriage, education and included the power to separate children from their parents.[93][94][95]Aborigines were not allowed to vote and were often confined to reserves and forced into low paid or effectively slave labour.[96][97]The social position of mixed-race or "half-caste"individuals varied over time. A 1913 report byBaldwin Spencerstates that:

the half-castes belong neither to the aboriginal nor to the whites, yet, on the whole, they have more leaning towards the former;... One thing is certain and that is that the white population as a whole will never mix with half-castes... the best and kindest thing is to place them on reserves along with the natives, train them in the same schools and encourage them to marry amongst themselves.[98]

After theFirst World War,however, it became apparent that the number of mixed-race people was growing at a faster rate than the white population, and, by 1930, fear of the "half-caste menace" undermining theWhite Australiaideal from within was being taken as a serious concern.[99]Cecil Cook,theNorthern TerritoryProtector of Natives,noted that:

generally by the fifth and invariably by the sixth generation, all native characteristics of the Australian Aborigine are eradicated. The problem of our half-castes will quickly be eliminated by the complete disappearance of the black race, and the swift submergence of their progeny in the white.[100]

The official policy became one of biological andcultural assimilation:"Eliminate the full-blood and permit the white admixture to half-castes and eventually the race will become white".[101]This led to different treatment for "black" and "half-caste" individuals, with lighter-skinned individuals targeted for removal from their families to be raised as "white" people and prohibited from speaking their native language and practicing traditional customs, a process now known as theStolen Generation.[102]

AboriginalactivistSam Watsonaddressing Invasion Day Rally 2007 in an "Australia has a Black History" T-shirt

The second half of the 20th century to the present has seen a gradual shift towards improved human rights for Aboriginal people. Ina 1967 referendum,more than 90% of the Australian population voted to end constitutional discrimination and to include Aborigines in the nationalcensus.[103]During this period, many Aboriginal activists began to embrace the term "black" and use their ancestry as a source of pride. ActivistBob Mazasaid:

I only hope that when I die I can say I'm black and it's beautiful to be black. It is this sense of pride which we are trying to give back to the aborigine [sic] today.[104]

In 1978, Aboriginal writerKevin Gilbertreceived the National Book Council award for his bookLiving Black: Blacks Talk to Kevin Gilbert,a collection of Aboriginal people's stories, and in 1998 was awarded (but refused to accept) the Human Rights Award for Literature forInside Black Australia,a poetry anthology and exhibition of Aboriginal photography.[105]In contrast to previous definitions based solely on the degree of Aboriginal ancestry, the Government changed the legal definition of Aboriginal in 1990 to include any:

person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent who identifies as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander and is accepted as such by the community in which he [or she] lives[106]

This nationwide acceptance and recognition of Aboriginal people led to a significant increase in the number of people self-identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander.[107][108]Thereappropriationof the term "black" with a positive and more inclusive meaning has resulted in its widespread use in mainstream Australian culture, including public media outlets,[109]government agencies,[110]and private companies.[111]In 2012, a number of high-profile cases highlighted the legal and community attitude that identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander is not dependent on skin color, with a well-known boxerAnthony Mundinebeing widely criticized for questioning the "blackness" of another boxer[112]and journalistAndrew Boltbeing successfully sued for publishing discriminatory comments about Aboriginals with light skin.[113]

Melanesians

The region ofMelanesiais named from Greekμέλας,black,andνῆσος,island,etymologicallymeaning "islands of black [people]", in reference to the dark skin of the indigenous peoples. Early European settlers, such as Spanish explorerYñigo Ortiz de Retez,noted the resemblance of the people to those in Africa.[114]

Fi gianwarrior, 1870s.

Melanesians, along with otherPacific Islanders,were frequently deceived or coerced during the 19th and 20th centuries into forced labour for sugarcane, cotton, and coffee planters in countries distant to their native lands in a practice known asblackbirding.InQueensland,some 55,000 to 62,500[115]were brought from theNew Hebrides,theSolomon Islands,andNew Guineato work in sugarcane fields. Under thePacific Island Labourers Act 1901,most islanders working in Queensland were repatriated back to their homelands.[116] Those who remained in Australia, commonly calledSouth Sea Islanders,often faced discrimination similarly to Indigenous Australians by white-dominated society. Many indigenous rights activists have South Sea Islander ancestry, includingFaith Bandler,Evelyn ScottandBonita Mabo.

Many Melanesians have taken up the term 'Melanesia' as a way to empower themselves as a collective people. Stephanie Lawson writes that the term "moved from a term of denigration to one of affirmation, providing a positive basis for contemporary subregional identity as well as a formal organisation".[117]: 14 For instance, the term is used in theMelanesian Spearhead Group,which seeks to promote economic growth among Melanesian countries.

Other

John Caesar,nicknamed "Black Caesar", aconvictandbushrangerwith parents born in an unknown area in Africa, was one of the first people of recent black African ancestry to arrive in Australia.[118]

At the 2006 Census, 248,605 residents declared that they wereborn in Africa.This figure pertains to all immigrants to Australia who were born in nations in Africa regardless of race, and includeswhite Africans.

North America

Canada

"Black Canadians" is a designation used for people of black African ancestry who are citizens or permanent residents ofCanada.[119][120]The majority of black Canadians are ofCaribbeanorigin, though the population also consists ofAfrican Americanimmigrants and their descendants (includingblack Nova Scotians), as well as manyAfricanimmigrants.[121][122]

Black Canadians often draw a distinction between those ofAfro-Caribbeanancestry and those of other African roots. The termAfrican Canadianis occasionally used by some black Canadians who trace their heritage to the first slaves brought by British and French colonists to the North American mainland.[120]Promised freedom by the British during theAmerican Revolutionary War,thousands ofBlack Loyalistswere resettled by the Crown in Canada afterward, such asThomas Peters.In addition, an estimated ten to thirty thousandfugitive slavesreached freedom in Canada from theSouthern United Statesduring the Antebellum years, aided by people along the Underground Railroad.

Many black people of Caribbean origin in Canada reject the term "African Canadian" as an elision of the uniquely Caribbean aspects of their heritage,[123]and instead identify asCaribbean Canadian.[123]Unlike in the United States, where "African American" has become a widely used term, in Canada controversies associated with distinguishing African or Caribbean heritage have resulted in the term "black Canadian" being widely accepted there.[124]

United States

Civil rights activistMartin Luther King Jr.

There were eight principal areas used by Europeans to buy and ship slaves to theWestern Hemisphere.The number of enslaved people sold to the New World varied throughout the slave trade. As for the distribution of slaves from regions of activity, certain areas produced far more enslaved people than others. Between 1650 and 1900, 10.24 million enslaved West Africans arrived in the Americas from the following regions in the following proportions:[125]

The main slave routes in theAtlantic Slave Trade.

By the early 1900s,niggerhad become a pejorative word in the United States. In its stead, the termcoloredbecame the mainstream alternative tonegroand its derived terms. After theAmerican Civil Rights Movement,the termscoloredandnegrogave way to "black".Negrohad supersededcoloredas the most polite word forAfrican Americansat a time whenblackwas considered more offensive.[126][failed verification]This term was accepted as normal, including by people classified as Negroes, until the laterCivil Rightsmovement in the late 1960s. One well-known example is the use by Dr. Rev.Martin Luther King Jr.of "Negro" in his famous speech of 1963,I Have a Dream.During the American civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, some African-American leaders in the United States, notablyMalcolm X,objected to the wordNegrobecause they associated it with the long history of slavery, segregation, and discrimination that treated African Americans as second-class citizens, or worse.[127]Malcolm X preferredBlacktoNegro,but later gradually abandoned that as well forAfro-Americanafter leaving theNation of Islam.[128]

Since the late 1960s, various other terms for African Americans have been more widespread in popular usage. Aside fromblack American,these includeAfro-American(in use from the late 1960s to 1990) andAfrican American(used in the United States to refer to Black Americans, people often referred to in the past asAmerican Negroes).[129]

In the first 200 years that black people were in theUnited States,they primarily identified themselves by their specificethnic group(closely allied to language) and not by skin color. Individuals identified themselves, for example, asAshanti,Igbo,Bakongo,orWolof.However, when the first captives were brought tothe Americas,they were often combined with other groups from West Africa, and individual ethnic affiliations were not generally acknowledged by English colonists. In areas of the Upper South, different ethnic groups were brought together. This is significant as the captives came from a vast geographic region: the West African coastline stretching fromSenegaltoAngolaand in some cases from the south-east coast such asMozambique.A newAfrican-Americanidentity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various ethnic groups and of European cultural heritage, resulting in fusions such as theBlack churchandAfrican-American English.This new identity was based on provenance and slave status rather than membership in any one ethnic group.[130]

By contrast, slave records from Louisiana show that the French and Spanish colonists recorded more complete identities of the West Africans, including ethnicities and given tribal names.[131]

The U.S. racial or ethnic classification "black" refers to people with all possible kinds of skin pigmentation, from the darkest through to the very lightest skin colors, includingalbinos,if they are believed by others to have African ancestry (in any discernible percentage). There are also certain cultural traits associated with being "African American",a term used effectively as a synonym for" black person "within the United States.

In March 1807,Great Britain,which largely controlled the Atlantic, declaredthe transatlantic slave trade illegal,as did the United States. (The latter prohibition took effect 1 January 1808, the earliest date on whichCongresshad the power to do so after protecting the slave trade underArticle I, Section 9of theUnited States Constitution.)

By that time, the majority of black people in the United States were native-born, so the use of the term "African" became problematic. Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared that the use of African as an identity would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the United States. They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating black people back to Africa. In 1835, black leaders called upon Black Americans to remove the title of "African" from their institutions and replace it with "Negro"or" Colored American ". A few institutions chose to keep their historic names, such as theAfrican Methodist Episcopal Church.African Americans popularly used the terms "Negro" or "colored" for themselves until the late 1960s.[132]

The termblackwas used throughout but not frequently since it carried a certain stigma. In his 1963 "I Have a Dream"speech,[133]Martin Luther King Jr.uses the termsnegrofifteen times andblackfour times. Each time that he usesblack,it is in parallel construction withwhite;for example, "black men and white men".[134]

With the successes of theAmerican Civil Rights Movement,a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination. In place ofNegro,activists promoted the use ofblackas standing for racial pride, militancy, and power. Some of the turning points included the use of the term "Black Power"by Kwame Ture (Stokely Carmichael) and the popular singerJames Brown's song "Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud".

In 1988, the civil rights leaderJesse Jacksonurged Americans to use instead the term "African American" because it had a historical cultural base and was a construction similar to terms used by European descendants, such as German American, Italian American, etc. Since then, African American and black have often had parallel status. However, controversy continues over which, if any, of the two terms is more appropriate.Maulana Karengaargues that the term African-American is more appropriate because it accurately articulates their geographical and historical origin.[citation needed]Others have argued that "black" is a better term because "African" suggests foreignness, although black Americans helped found the United States.[135]Still others believe that the term "black" is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones.[136][137]Some surveys suggest that the majority of Black Americans have no preference for "African American" or "black",[138]although they have a slight preference for "black" in personal settings and "African American" in more formal settings.[139]

In theU.S. census race definitions,black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in the black racial groups of Africa.[140]According to theOffice of Management and Budget,the grouping includes individuals who self-identify as African American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and sub-Saharan Africa.[141]The grouping is thus based on geography, and may contradict or misrepresent an individual's self-identification, since not all immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa are "black".[140]The Census Bureau also notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as scientific or anthropological.[142]

According to U.S. Census Bureau data,African immigrantsgenerally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities (~95%).[143]Immigrants from someCaribbean,Central AmericanandSouth Americannations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term.[144]

Recent surveys of African Americans using agenetic testingservice have found varied ancestries that show different tendencies by region and sex of ancestors. These studies found that on average, African Americans have 73.2–80.9%West African,18–24% European, and 0.8–0.9%Native Americangenetic heritage, with large variation between individuals.[145][146][147]

According to studies in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, U.S. residents consistently overestimate the size, physical strength, and formidability of young black men.[148]

One-drop rule

Multiracial social reformerFrederick Douglass.

From the late 19th century, the South used acolloquialterm, theone-drop rule,to classify as black a person of any known African ancestry. This practice ofhypodescentwas not put into law until the early 20th century.[149]Legally, the definition varied from state to state. Racial definition was more flexible in the 18th and 19th centuries before theAmerican Civil War.For instance, PresidentThomas Jeffersonheld in slavery persons who were legally white (less than 25% black) according to Virginia law at the time, but, because they were born to slave mothers, they were born into slavery, according to the principle ofpartus sequitur ventrem,which Virginia adopted into law in 1662.

Outside of the United States, some other countries have adopted the one-drop rule, but the definition of who is black and the extent to which the one-drop "rule" applies varies greatly from country to country.

The one-drop rule may have originated as a means of increasing the number of black slaves[150]and was maintained as an attempt to keep the white race "pure".[151][unreliable source]One of the results of the one-drop rule was the uniting of the African-American community.[149]Some of the most prominent abolitionists and civil-rights activists of the 19th century were multiracial, such asFrederick Douglass,Robert Purvisand James Mercer Langston. They advocated equality for all.

Blackness

Barack Obama—the first person of color, biracial, and self-identified African American President of the United States[152]—was throughouthis campaigncriticized as being either "too black" or "not black enough".[153][154][155]

The concept of blackness in the United States has been described as the degree to which one associates themselves with mainstreamAfrican-American culture,politics,[156][157]and values.[158]To a certain extent, this concept is not so much about race but more about political orientation,[156][157]culture and behavior. Blackness can be contrasted with "acting white",where black Americans are said to behave with assumed characteristics of stereotypical white Americans with regard to fashion, dialect, taste in music,[159]and possibly, from the perspective of a significant number of black youth, academic achievement.[160]

Due to the often political[156][157]and cultural contours of blackness in the United States, the notion of blackness can also be extended to non-black people.Toni Morrisononce describedBill Clintonas the first blackPresident of the United States,[161]because, as she put it, he displayed "almost every trope of blackness".[162]Clinton welcomed the label.[163]

The question of blackness also arose in the DemocratBarack Obama's2008 presidential campaign.Commentators questioned whether Obama, who was elected the first president with black ancestry, was "black enough", contending that his background is not typical because his mother was awhite Americanand his father was a black student visitor from Kenya.[153][155]Obama chose to identify as black andAfrican American.[164]

Mexico

The 2015 preliminary survey to the 2020 census allowed Afro-Mexicans to self-identify for the first time in Mexico and recorded a total of 1.4 million (1.2% of the total Mexican population). The majority of Afro-Mexicans live in theCosta Chica of Guerreroregion.[165]

Caribbean

Dominican Republic

The first Afro-Dominican slaves were shipped to theDominican Republicby Spanish conquistadors during the Transatlantic slave trade.

Puerto Rico

Spanish conquistadors shipped slaves from West Africa toPuerto Rico.Afro-Puerto Ricans in part trace ancestry to this colonization of the island.

South America

Capoeira,an Afro-Brazilian martial art.

Approximately 12 million people were shipped from Africa to theAmericasduring theAtlantic slave tradefrom 1492 to 1888. Of these, 11.5 million of those shipped toSouth Americaand theCaribbean.[166]Brazil was the largest importer in the Americas, with 5.5 million African slaves imported, followed by the British Caribbean with 2.76 million, the Spanish Caribbean and Spanish Mainland with 1.59 million Africans, and the French Caribbean with 1.32 million.[167]Today their descendants number approximately 150 million in South America and the Caribbean.[168]In addition to skin color, other physical characteristics such as facial features and hair texture are often variously used in classifying peoples as black in South America and the Caribbean.[169][170]In South America and the Caribbean, classification as black is also closely tied to social status and socioeconomic variables, especially in light of social conceptions of "blanqueamiento"(racial whitening) and related concepts.[170][171]

Brazil

The concept of race inBrazilis complex. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both of their parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from. Between an individual of unmixed West African ancestry and a very lightmulattoindividual, more than a dozen racial categories were acknowledged, based on various combinations ofhair color,hair texture,eye color,andskin color.These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. In Brazil, people are classified by appearance, not heredity.[172]

Scholars disagree over the effects of social status on racial classifications in Brazil. It is generally believed that achievingupward mobilityand education results in individuals being classified as a category of lighter skin. The popular claim is that in Brazil, poor whites are considered black and wealthy blacks are considered white. Some scholars disagree, arguing that "whitening"of one's social status may be open to people ofmixed race,a large part of the population known aspardo,but a person perceived aspreto(black) will continue to be classified as black regardless of wealth or social status.[173][174]

Statistics

Brazilian Population, by Race, from 1872 to 1991 (Census Data)[175]
Ethnic group White Black Brown Yellow (East Asian) Undeclared Total
1872 3,787,289 1,954,452 4,188,737 9,930,478
1940 26,171,778 6,035,869 8,744,365 242,320 41,983 41,236,315
1991 75,704,927 7,335,136 62,316,064 630,656 534,878 146,521,661
Demographics of Brazil
Year White Pardo Black
1835 24.4% 18.2% 51.4%
2000 53.7% 38.5% 6.2%
2010 48.4% 42.4% 6.7%

From the years 1500 to 1850, an estimated 3.5 million captives were forcibly shipped from West/Central Africa to Brazil. The territory received the highest number of slaves of any country in the Americas.[176]Scholars estimate that more than half of the Brazilian population is at least in part descended from these individuals. Brazil has the largest population of Afro-ancestry outside Africa. In contrast to the US, during the slavery period and after, the Portuguese colonial government in Brazil and the later Brazilian government did not pass formal anti-miscegenationor segregation laws. As in other Latin American countries,intermarriagewas prevalent during the colonial period and continued afterward. In addition, people ofmixed race(pardo) often tended to marry white spouses, and their descendants became accepted as white. As a result, some of the European descended population also has West African or Amerindian blood. According to the last census of the 20th century, in which Brazilians could choose from five color/ethnic categories with which they identified, 54% of individuals identified as white, 6.2% identified as black, and 39.5% identified as pardo (brown)—a broad multi-racial category, including tri-racial persons.[177]

In the 19th century, a philosophy ofracial whiteningemerged in Brazil, related to the assimilation of mixed-race people into the white population through intermarriage. Until recently the government did not keep data on race. However, statisticians estimate that in 1835, roughly 50% of the population waspreto(black; most wereenslaved), a further 20% waspardo(brown), and 25% white, with the remainderAmerindian.Some classified as pardo were tri-racial.

By the 2000 census, demographic changes including the end to slavery, immigration from Europe and Asia, assimilation of multiracial persons, and other factors resulted in a population in which 6.2% of the population identified as black, 40% as pardo, and 55% as white. Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multi-racial category by intermi xing.[172]A 2007 genetic study found that at least 29% of the middle-class, white Brazilian population had some recent (since 1822 and the end of the colonial period) African ancestry.[178]

Race relations in Brazil

BrazilianCandombléceremony

According to the 2022 census, 10.2% of Brazilians said they were black, compared with 7.6% in 2010, and 45.3% said they were racially mixed, up from 43.1%, while the proportion of self-declared white Brazilians has fallen from 47.7% to 43.5%. Activists from Brazil’s Black movement attribute the racial shift in the population to a growing sense of pride among African-descended Brazilians in recognising and celebrating their ancestry.[179]

The philosophy of theracial democracyin Brazil has drawn some criticism, based on economic issues. Brazil has one of the largest gaps in income distribution in the world. The richest 10% of the population earn 28 times the average income of the bottom 40%. The richest 10 percent is almost exclusively white or predominantly European in ancestry. One-third of the population lives under thepoverty line,with blacks and otherpeople of coloraccounting for 70 percent of the poor.[180]

Fruit sellers inRio de Janeiroc. 1820

In 2015 United States, African Americans, including multiracial people, earned 76.8% as much as white people. By contrast, black and mixed race Brazilians earned on average 58% as much as whites in 2014.[181]The gap in income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared to the large gap between whites and all people of color. Other social factors, such as illiteracy and education levels, show the same patterns of disadvantage for people of color.[182]

Black people in Brazil c. 1821

Some commentators[who?]observe that the United States practice ofsegregationandwhite supremacyin the South, and discrimination in many areas outside that region, forced many African Americans to unite in the civil rights struggle, whereas the fluid nature of race in Brazil has divided individuals of African ancestry between those with more or less ancestry and helped sustain an image of the country as an example of post-colonial harmony. This has hindered the development of a common identity among black Brazilians.[181]

Though Brazilians of at least partial African heritage make up a large percentage[183]of the population, few blacks have been elected as politicians. The city ofSalvador, Bahia,for instance, is 80% people of color, but voters have not elected a mayor of color.

Patterns of discrimination against non-whites have led some academic and other activists to advocate for use of the Portuguese termnegroto encompass all African-descended people, in order to stimulate a "black" consciousness and identity.[184]

Colombia

Afro-Colombians are the third-largest African diaspora population in Latin America after Afro-Brazilians and Afro-Haitians.

Venezuela

Most black Venezuelans descend from people brought as slaves to Venezuela directly from Africa during colonization;[185]others have been descendants of immigrants from the Antilles and Colombia. Many blacks were part of theindependence movement,and several managed to be heroes. There is a deep-rooted heritage of African culture in Venezuelan culture, as demonstrated in many traditional Venezuelan music and dances, such as theTambor,a musical genre inherited from black members of the colony, or theLlanera musicor theGaita zulianathat both are a fusion of all the three major peoples that contribute to the cultural heritage. Also, black inheritance is present in the country's gastronomy.

There are entire communities of blacks in theBarloventozone, as well as part of theBolívar stateand in other small towns; they also live peaceably among the general population in the rest of Venezuela. Currently, blacks represent a plurality of the Venezuelan population, although many are actuallymixed people.

See also

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