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Ablog(atruncationof "weblog")[1]is an informationalwebsiteconsisting of discrete, often informal diary-style text entries (posts). Posts are typically displayed inreverse chronological orderso that the most recent post appears first, at the top of theweb page.In the 2000s, blogs were often the work of a single individual, occasionally of a small group, and often covered a single subject or topic. In the 2010s, "multi-author blogs" (MABs) emerged, featuring the writing of multipleauthorsand sometimes professionallyedited.MABs fromnewspapers,othermedia outlets,universities,think tanks,advocacy groups,and similar institutions account for an increasing quantity of blogtraffic.The rise ofTwitterand other "microblogging"systems helps integrate MABs and single-author blogs into thenews media.Blogcan also be used as a verb, meaningto maintain or add content to a blog.

The emergence and growth of blogs in the late 1990s coincided with the advent of web publishing tools that facilitated the posting of content by non-technical users who did not have much experience withHTMLorcomputer programming.Previously, knowledge of such technologies as HTML andFile Transfer Protocolhad been required to publish content on the Web, and early Web users therefore tended to behackersand computer enthusiasts. As of the 2010s, the majority are interactiveWeb 2.0websites, allowing visitors to leave online comments, and it is this interactivity that distinguishes them from other static websites.[2]In that sense, blogging can be seen as a form ofsocial networking service.Indeed, bloggers not only produce content to post on their blogs but also often build social relations with their readers and other bloggers.[3]Blog owners or authors oftenmoderateandfilteronline comments to removehate speechor other offensive content. There are also high-readership blogs which do not allow comments.

Many blogs provide commentary on a particular subject or topic, ranging fromphilosophy,religion,andartstoscience,politics,andsports.Others function as more personalonline diariesoronline brand advertisingof a particular individual or company. A typical blog combines text,digital images,andlinksto other blogs, web pages, and other media related to its topic. Most blogs are primarily textual, although some focus on art (art blogs), photographs (photoblogs), videos (video blogsorvlogs), music (MP3 blogs), and audio (podcasts). In education, blogs can be used as instructional resources; these are referred to asedublogs.Microbloggingis another type of blogging, featuring very short posts.

Blogandbloggingare now loosely used for content creation and sharing onsocial media,especially when the content is long-form and one creates and shares content on regular basis, so one could be maintaining a blog onFacebookor blogging onInstagram.A 2022 estimate suggested that there were over 600 million public blogs out of more than 1.9 billion websites.[4]

History

Main articles:History of bloggingandonline diary
An early example of a "diary" style blog consisting of text and images transmitted wirelessly inreal-timefrom awearable computerwithhead-up display,February 22, 1995

The term "weblog" was coined byJorn Barger[5]on December 17, 1997. The short form "blog" was coined byPeter Merholz,who jokingly broke the wordwebloginto the phrasewe blogin the sidebar of his blog Peterme in May 1999.[6][7][8]Shortly thereafter,Evan WilliamsatPyra Labsused "blog" as both a noun and verb ( "to blog", meaning "to edit one's weblog or to post to one's weblog" ) and devised the term "blogger" in connection with Pyra Labs'Bloggerproduct, leading to the popularization of the terms.[9]

Origins

Before blogging became popular, digital communities took many forms, includingUsenet,commercial online services such asGEnie,Byte Information Exchange(BIX) and the earlyCompuServe,e-mail lists,[10]andBulletin Board Systems(BBS). In the 1990s,Internet forumsoftware created running conversations with "threads". Threads are topical connections between messages on a virtual "corkboard".[further explanation needed]

Berners-Lee also created what is considered byEncyclopedia Britannicato be "the first 'blog'"in 1992 to discuss the progress made on creating the World Wide Web and software used for it.[11]

From June 14, 1993, Mosaic Communications Corporation maintained their "What's New"[12]list of new websites, updated daily and archived monthly. The page was accessible by a special "What's New" button in the Mosaic web browser.

In November 1993Ranjit Bhatnagarstarted writing about interesting sites, pages and discussion groups he found on the internet, as well as some personal information, on his website Moonmilk, arranging them chronologically in a special section called Ranjit's HTTP Playground.[13]Other early pioneers of blogging, such asJustin Hall,credit him with being an inspiration.[14]

The earliest instance of a commercial blog was on the firstbusiness to consumerWeb site created in 1995 byTy, Inc.,which featured a blog in a section called "Online Diary". The entries were maintained by featuredBeanie Babiesthat were voted for monthly by Web site visitors.[15]

The modern blog evolved from theonline diarywhere people would keep a running account of the events in their personal lives. Most such writers called themselves diarists, journalists, or journalers.Justin Hall,who began personal blogging in 1994 while a student atSwarthmore College,is generally recognized as one of the earlier bloggers,[16]as isJerry Pournelle.[17]Dave Winer's Scripting News is also credited with being one of the older and longer running weblogs.[18][19]The Australian Netguide magazine maintained the Daily Net News[20]on their web site from 1996. Daily Net News ran links and daily reviews of new websites, mostly in Australia.

Another early blog was Wearable Wireless Webcam, an online shared diary of a person's personal life combining text, digital video, and digital pictures transmitted live from a wearable computer andEyeTapdevice to a web site in 1994. This practice of semi-automated blogging with live video together with text was referred to assousveillance,and such journals were also used as evidence in legal matters. Some early bloggers, such as The Misanthropic Bitch, who began in 1997, actually referred to their online presence as azine,before the term blog entered common usage.

The first research paper about blogging wasTorill MortensenandJill Walker Rettberg's paper "Blogging Thoughts",[21]which analysed how blogs were being used to foster research communities and the exchange of ideas and scholarship, and how this new means of networking overturns traditional power structures.

Technology

Early blogs were simply manually updated components of common Websites. In 1995, the "Online Diary" on theTy, Inc.Web site was produced and updated manually before any blogging programs were available. Posts were made to appear in reverse chronological order by manually updating text-basedHTMLcode usingFTPsoftware in real time several times a day. To users, this offered the appearance of a live diary that contained multiple new entries per day. At the beginning of each new day, new diary entries were manually coded into a new HTML file, and at the start of each month, diary entries were archived into their own folder, which contained a separate HTML page for every day of the month. Then, menus that contained links to the most recent diary entry were updated manually throughout the site. This text-based method of organizing thousands of files served as a springboard to define future blogging styles that were captured by blogging software developed years later.[15]

The evolution of electronic and software tools to facilitate the production and maintenance of Web articles posted in reverse chronological order made the publishing process feasible for a much larger and less technically-inclined population. Ultimately, this resulted in the distinct class of online publishing that produces blogs we recognize today. For instance, the use of some sort of browser-based software is now a typical aspect of "blogging". Blogs can be hosted by dedicatedblog hosting services,on regularweb hosting services,or run using blog software.

Rise in popularity

After a slow start, blogging rapidly gained in popularity. Blog usage spread during 1999 and the years following, being further popularized by the near-simultaneous arrival of the first hosted blog tools:

  • Bruce AblesonlaunchedOpen Diaryin October 1998, which soon grew to thousands of online diaries. Open Diary innovated the reader comment, becoming the first blog community where readers could add comments to other writers' blog entries.
  • Brad FitzpatrickstartedLiveJournalin March 1999.
  • Andrew Smales created Pitas in July 1999 as an easier alternative to maintaining a "news page" on a Web site, followed by DiaryLand in September 1999, focusing more on a personal diary community.[22]
  • Blogger(blogspot ) was launched in 1999[23]

Political impact

On December 6, 2002, Josh Marshall's talkingpointsmemo blog called attention to U.S. SenatorLott'scomments regarding Senator Thurmond. Senator Lott was eventually to resign his Senate leadership position over the matter.

An early milestone in the rise in importance of blogs came in 2002, when many bloggers focused on comments byU.S. Senate Majority LeaderTrent Lott.[24]Senator Lott, at a party honoringU.S. SenatorStrom Thurmond,praised Senator Thurmond by suggesting that the United States would have been better off had Thurmond been elected president. Lott's critics saw these comments as tacit approval ofracial segregation,a policy advocated by Thurmond's1948 presidential campaign.This view was reinforced by documents and recorded interviews dug up by bloggers. (SeeJosh Marshall'sTalking Points Memo.) Though Lott's comments were made at a public event attended by the media, no major media organizations reported on his controversial comments until after blogs broke the story. Blogging helped to create a political crisis that forced Lott to step down as majority leader.

Similarly, blogs were among the driving forces behind the "Rathergate"scandal. Television journalistDan Ratherpresented documents on the CBS show60 Minutesthat conflicted with accepted accounts of President Bush's military service record. Bloggers declared the documents to beforgeriesand presented evidence and arguments in support of that view. Consequently, CBS apologized for what it said were inadequate reporting techniques (see:Little Green Footballs). The impact of these stories gave greater credibility to blogs as a medium of news dissemination.

In Russia, some political bloggers have started to challenge the dominance of official, overwhelmingly pro-government media. Bloggers such asRustem AdagamovandAlexei Navalnyhave many followers, and the latter's nickname for the rulingUnited Russiaparty as the "party of crooks and thieves" has been adopted by anti-regime protesters.[25]This led toThe Wall Street Journalcalling Navalny "the manVladimir Putinfears most "in March 2012.[26]

Mainstream popularity

By 2004, the role of blogs became increasingly mainstream, aspolitical consultants,news services, and candidates began using them as tools for outreach and opinion forming. Blogging was established by politicians and political candidates to express opinions on war and other issues and cemented blogs' role as a news source. (SeeHoward DeanandWesley Clark.) Even politicians not actively campaigning, such as theUK's Labour Party'sMember of Parliament(MP)Tom Watson,began to blog to bond with constituents. In January 2005,Fortunemagazine listed eight bloggers whom business people "could not ignore":Peter Rojas,Xeni Jardin,Ben Trott,Mena Trott,Jonathan Schwartz,Jason Goldman,Robert Scoble,andJason Calacanis.[27]

Israel was among the first national governments to set up an official blog.[28]UnderDavid Saranga,theIsraeli Ministry of Foreign Affairsbecame active in adoptingWeb 2.0initiatives, including an officialvideo blog[28]and apolitical blog.[29]The Foreign Ministry also held amicrobloggingpress conference via Twitter about itswar with Hamas,with Saranga answering questions from the public in common text-messaging abbreviations during a live worldwide press conference.[30]The questions and answers were later posted onIsraelPolitik,the country's official political blog.[31]

The impact of blogging on the mainstream media has also been acknowledged by governments. In 2009, the presence of the American journalism industry had declined to the point that several newspaper corporations were filing for bankruptcy, resulting in less direct competition between newspapers within the same circulation area. Discussion emerged as to whether the newspaper industry would benefit from a stimulus package by the federal government. U.S. PresidentBarack Obamaacknowledged the emerging influence of blogging upon society by saying, "if the direction of the news is all blogosphere, all opinions, with no serious fact-checking, no serious attempts to put stories in context, then what you will end up getting is people shouting at each other across the void, but not a lot of mutual understanding".[32]Between 2009 and 2012, anOrwell Prizefor blogging was awarded.

In the late2000s,blogs were often used on business websites and forgrassrootspolitical activism.[33]

Types

A screenshot from the BlogActive website

There are many different types of blogs, differing not only in the type of content, but also in the way that content is delivered or written.

Personal blogs
The personal blog is an ongoing online diary or commentary written by an individual, rather than a corporation or organization. While the vast majority of personal blogs attract very few readers, other than the blogger's immediate family and friends, a small number of personal blogs have become popular, to the point that they have attracted lucrative advertising sponsorship. A tiny number of personal bloggers have become famous, both in the online community and in the real world.
Collaborative blogs or group blogs
A type of weblog in which posts are written and published by more than one author. The majority of high-profile collaborative blogs are organised according to a single uniting theme, such as politics, technology or advocacy. In recent years, theblogospherehas seen the emergence and growing popularity of more collaborative efforts, often set up by already established bloggers wishing to pool time and resources, both to reduce the pressure of maintaining a popular website and to attract a larger readership.
Microblogging
Microblogging is the practice of posting small pieces of digital content—which could be text, pictures, links, short videos, or other media—on the internet. Microblogging offers a portable communication mode that feels organic and spontaneous to many users. It has captured the public imagination, in part because the short posts are easy to read on the go or when waiting. Friends use it to keep in touch, business associates use it to coordinate meetings or share useful resources, and celebrities and politicians (or their publicists) microblog about concert dates, lectures, book releases, or tour schedules. A wide and growing range of add-on tools enables sophisticated updates and interaction with other applications. The resulting profusion of functionality is helping to define new possibilities for this type of communication.[34]Examples of these include Twitter, Facebook,Tumblrand, by far the largest,Weibo.
Corporate and organizational blogs
A blog can be private, as in most cases, or it can be for business ornot-for-profit organizationor government purposes. Blogs used internally and only available to employees via anIntranetare calledcorporate blogs.Companies use internal corporate blogs to enhance the communication, culture andemployee engagementin a corporation. Internal corporate blogs can be used to communicate news about company policies or procedures, build employeeesprit de corpsand improvemorale.Companies and other organizations also use external, publicly accessible blogs for marketing, branding, orpublic relationspurposes. Some organizations have a blog authored by their executive; in practice, many of these executive blog posts are penned by aghostwriterwho makes posts in the style of the credited author. Similar blogs for clubs and societies are called club blogs, group blogs, or by similar names; typical use is to inform members and other interested parties of club and member activities.
Aggregated blogs
Individuals or organization may aggregate selected feeds on a specific topic, product or service and provide a combined view for its readers. This allows readers to concentrate on reading instead of searching for quality on-topic content and managing subscriptions. Many such aggregations called planets from name ofPlanet (software)that perform such aggregation, hosting sites usually haveplanet.subdomainindomain name(likehttp://planet.gnome.org/).
By genre
Some blogs focus on a particular subject, such aspolitical blogs,journalism blogs,health blogs,travel blogs(also known astravelogs), gardening blogs, house blogs,Book Blogs,[35][36]fashion blogs,beauty blogs, lifestyle blogs, party blogs, wedding blogs, photography blogs, project blogs, psychology blogs, sociology blogs,education blogs,niche blogs,classical music blogs,quizzing blogs,legal blogs(often referred to as a blawgs), ordreamlogs.How-to/Tutorialblogs are becoming increasing popular.[37]Two common types of genre blogs areart blogsandmusic blogs.A blog featuring discussions, especially abouthomeand family is not uncommonly called amom blog.While not a legitimate type of blog, one used for the sole purpose of spamming is known as asplog.
By media type
A blog comprising videos is called avlog,one comprising links is called alinklog,a site containing a portfolio of sketches is called asketchblogor one comprising photos is called aphotoblog.Blogs with shorter posts and mixed media types are calledtumblelogs.Blogs that are written on typewriters and then scanned are called typecast or typecast blogs. A rare type of blog hosted on theGopher Protocolis known as aphlog.
By device
A blog can also be defined by which type of device is used to compose it. A blog written by amobile devicelike a mobile phone orPDAcould be called amoblog.[38]One early blog was Wearable Wireless Webcam, an online shared diary of a person's personal life combining text, video, and pictures transmitted live from a wearable computer andEyeTapdevice to a web site. This practice of semi-automated blogging with live video together with text was referred to assousveillance.Such journals have been used as evidence in legal matters.[citation needed]
Reverse blog
A reverse blog is composed by its users rather than a single blogger. This system has the characteristics of a blog and the writing of several authors. These can be written by several contributing authors on a topic or opened up for anyone to write. There is typically some limit to the number of entries to keep it from operating like aweb forum.[citation needed]

Community and cataloging

An artist's depiction of the interconnections between blogs and blog authors in the "blogosphere"in 2007
Blogosphere
The collective community of all blogs and blog authors, particularly notable and widely read blogs, is known as theblogosphere.Since all blogs are on the internet by definition, they may be seen as interconnected and socially networked, through blogrolls, comments,linkbacks(refbacks, trackbacks or pingbacks), and backlinks. Discussions "in the blogosphere" were occasionally used by the media as a gauge of public opinion on various issues. Because new, untapped communities of bloggers and their readers can emerge in the space of a few years,Internet marketerspay close attention to "trends in the blogosphere".[39]
Blog search engines
Several blog search engines have been used to search blog contents, such asBloglines(defunct),BlogScope(defunct), andTechnorati(defunct).
Blogging communities and directories
Severalonline communitiesexist that connect people to blogs and bloggers to other bloggers. Interest-specific blogging platforms are also available. For instance, Blogster has a sizable community of political bloggers among its members.Global Voicesaggregates international bloggers, "with emphasis on voices that are not ordinarily heard in international mainstream media."[40]
Blogging and advertising
It is common for blogs to featurebanner advertisementsor promotional content, either to financially benefit the blogger, support website hosting costs, or to promote the blogger's favourite causes or products. The popularity of blogs has also given rise to"fake blogs"in which a company will create a fictional blog as a marketing tool to promote a product.[41]

As the popularity of blogging continued to rise (as of 2006), the commercialisation of blogging is rapidly increasing. Many corporations and companies collaborate with bloggers to increase advertising and engage online communities with their products. In the bookFans, Bloggers, and Gamers,Henry Jenkins stated that "Bloggers take knowledge into their own hands, enabling successful navigation within and between these emerging knowledge cultures. One can see such behaviour as co-optation into commodity culture insofar as it sometimes collaborates with corporate interests, but one can also see it as increasing the diversity of media culture, providing opportunities for greater inclusiveness, and making more responsive to consumers."[42]

Early popularity

  • Before 2006:Theblogdexproject was launched by researchers in theMIT Media Labto crawl the Web and gather data from thousands of blogs to investigate their social properties. Information was gathered by the tool for over four years, during which it autonomously tracked the most contagious information spreading in the blog community, ranking it by recency and popularity. It can, therefore,[original research?]be considered the first instantiation of amemetracker.The project was replaced bytailrank,which in turn has been replaced by spinn3r.
  • 2006:Blogs are given rankings byAlexa Internet(web hits of Alexa Toolbar users), and formerly by blog search engineTechnoratibased on the number of incoming links (Technorati stopped doing this in 2014). In August 2006, Technorati found that the most linked-to blog on the internet was that of Chinese actressXu Jinglei.[43]Chinese mediaXinhuareported that this blog received more than 50 million page views, claiming it to be the most popular blog in the world at the time.[44][better source needed]Technorati ratedBoing Boingto be the most-read group-written blog.[43]
  • 2008:As of 2008,blogging had become such a mania that a new blog was created every second of every minute of every hour of every day.[45]Researchers have actively analyzed the dynamics of how blogs become popular. There are essentially two measures of this: popularity through citations, as well as popularity through affiliation (i.e., blogroll). The basic conclusion from studies of the structure of blogs is that while it takes time for a blog to become popular through blogrolls,permalinkscan boost popularity more quickly and are perhaps more indicative of popularity and authority than blogrolls since they denote that people are actually reading the blog's content and deem it valuable or noteworthy in specific cases.[46]

Blurring with the mass media

Many bloggers, particularly those engaged inparticipatory journalism,are amateur journalists, and thus they differentiate themselves from the professional reporters and editors who work inmainstream mediaorganizations. Other bloggers are media professionals who are publishing online, rather than via a TV station or newspaper, either as an add-on to a traditional media presence (e.g., hosting a radio show or writing a column in a paper newspaper), or as their sole journalistic output. Some institutions and organizations see blogging as a means of "getting around the filter" of media "gatekeepers"and pushing their messages directly to the public. Many mainstream journalists, meanwhile, write their own blogs—well over 300, according to CyberJournalist.net's J-blog list.[citation needed]The first known use of a blog on a news site was in August 1998, whenJonathan DubeofThe Charlotte Observerpublished one chroniclingHurricane Bonnie.[47]

Some bloggers have moved over to other media. The following bloggers (and others) have appeared on radio and television:Duncan Black(known widely by his pseudonym, Atrios),Glenn Reynolds(Instapundit),Markos Moulitsas Zúniga(Daily Kos),Alex Steffen(Worldchanging),Ana Marie Cox(Wonkette),Nate Silver(FiveThirtyEight), andEzra Klein(Ezra Klein blog inThe American Prospect,now inThe Washington Post''). In counterpoint,Hugh Hewittexemplifies a mass media personality who has moved in the other direction, adding to his reach in "old media" by being an influential blogger. Similarly, it wasEmergency Preparedness and Safety Tips On Air and Onlineblog articles that capturedSurgeon General of the United StatesRichard Carmona's attention and earned his kudos for the associated broadcasts by talk show hostLisa Tolliverand Westchester Emergency Volunteer Reserves-Medical Reserve CorpsDirector Marianne Partridge.[48][49]

Blogs have also had an influence onminority languages,bringing together scattered speakers and learners; this is particularly so with blogs inGaelic languages.Minority language publishing (which may lack economic feasibility) can find its audience through inexpensive blogging. There are examples of bloggers who have published books based on their blogs, e.g.,Salam Pax,Ellen Simonetti,Jessica Cutler,andScrappleFace.Blog-based books have been given the nameblook.A prize for the best blog-based book was initiated in 2005,[50]theLulu Blooker Prize.[51]However, success has been elusive offline, with many of these books not selling as well as their blogs. The book based onJulie Powell's blog "The Julie/Julia Project" was made into the filmJulie & Julia,apparently the first to do so.

Consumer-generated advertising

Consumer-generated advertisingis a relatively new and controversial development, and it has created a new model of marketing communication from businesses to consumers. Among the various forms of advertising on blog, the most controversial are thesponsored posts.[52]These are blog entries or posts and may be in the form of feedback, reviews, opinion, videos, etc. and usually contain a link back to the desired site using a keyword or several keywords. Blogs have led to somedisintermediationand a breakdown of the traditional advertising model, where companies can skip over the advertising agencies (previously the only interface with the customer) and contact the customers directly via social media websites. On the other hand, new companies specialised in blog advertising have been established to take advantage of this new development as well. However, there are many people who look negatively on this new development. Some believe that any form of commercial activity on blogs will destroy the blogosphere's credibility.[53]

Legal and social consequences

Blogging can result in a range of legal liabilities and otherunforeseen consequences.[54]

Defamation or liability

Several cases have been brought before the national courts against bloggers concerning issues ofdefamation or liability.U.S. payouts related to blogging totalled $17.4 million by 2009; in some cases these have been covered byumbrella insurance.[55]The courts have returned with mixed verdicts.Internet Service Providers(ISPs), in general, are immune from liability for information that originates with third parties (U.S.Communications Decency Actand the EU Directive 2000/31/EC). InDoe v. Cahill,theDelaware Supreme Courtheld that stringent standards had to be met to unmask theanonymous bloggersand also took the unusual step of dismissing the libel case itself (as unfounded under American libel law) rather than referring it back to thetrial courtfor reconsideration.[56]In a bizarre twist, the Cahills were able to obtain the identity of John Doe, who turned out to be the person they suspected: the town's mayor, Councilman Cahill's political rival. The Cahills amended their original complaint, and the mayor settled the case rather than going to trial.

In January 2007, two prominent Malaysian political bloggers,Jeff OoiandAhirudin Attan,were sued by a pro-government newspaper, The New Straits Times Press (Malaysia) Berhad, Kalimullah bin Masheerul Hassan, Hishamuddin bin Aun and Brenden Johna/lJohn Pereira over alleged defamation. The plaintiff was supported by the Malaysian government.[57]Following the suit, the Malaysian government proposed to "register" all bloggers in Malaysia to better control parties against their interests.[58]This is the first such legal case against bloggers in the country. In the United States, blogger Aaron Wall was sued by Traffic Power fordefamationand publication oftrade secretsin 2005.[59]According toWiredmagazine, Traffic Power had been "banned from Google for allegedly rigging search engine results."[60]Wall and other "white hat"search engine optimizationconsultants had exposed Traffic Power in what they claim was an effort to protect the public. The case was dismissed for lack of personal jurisdiction, and Traffic Power failed to appeal within the allowed time.[61]

In 2009,NDTVissued a legal notice to Indian blogger Kunte for a blog post criticizing their coverage of theMumbai attacks.[62]The blogger unconditionally withdrew his post, which resulted in several Indian bloggers criticizing NDTV for trying to silence critics.[63]

Employment

Employees who blog about elements of their place of employment can begin to affect the reputation of their employer, either in a positive way, if the employee is praising the employer and its workplaces, or in a negative way, if the blogger is making negative comments about the company or its practices.

In general, attempts by employee bloggers to protect themselves by maintaining anonymity have proved ineffective.[64]In 2009, a controversial and landmark decision byThe Hon. Mr Justice Eadyrefused to grant an order to protect the anonymity ofRichard Horton.Horton was a police officer in the United Kingdom who blogged about his job under the name "NightJack".[65]

Delta Air Linesfiredflight attendantEllen Simonettibecause she posted photographs of herself in uniform on an aeroplane and because of comments posted on her blog "Queen of Sky: Diary of a Flight Attendant" which the employer deemed inappropriate.[66][67]This case highlighted the issue of personal blogging and freedom of expression versus employer rights and responsibilities, and so it received wide media attention. Simonetti took legal action against the airline for "wrongful termination, defamation of character and lost future wages".[68]The suit was postponed while Delta was in bankruptcy proceedings.[69]

In early 2006, Erik Ringmar, a senior lecturer at theLondon School of Economics,was ordered by the convenor of his department to "take down and destroy" his blog in which he discussed the quality of education at the school.[70]

Mark Jen was terminated in 2005 after 10 days of employment as an assistant product manager at Google for discussing corporate secrets on his personal blog, then called 99zeros and hosted on the Google-ownedBloggerservice.[71]He blogged about unreleased products and company finances a week before the company's earnings announcement. He was fired two days after he complied with his employer's request to remove the sensitive material from his blog.[72]

In India, blogger Gaurav Sabnis resigned fromIBMafter his posts questioned the claims made by a management school.[73]Jessica Cutler,aka "The Washingtonienne", blogged about her sex life while employed as a congressional assistant. After the blog was discovered and she was fired,[74]she wrote a novel based on her experiences and blog:The Washingtonienne: A Novel.As of 2006,Cutler is being sued by one of her former lovers in a case that could establish the extent to which bloggers are obligated to protect the privacy of their real life associates.[75]

Catherine Sanderson, a.k.a.Petite Anglaise,lost her job in Paris at a British accountancy firm because of blogging.[76]Although given in the blog in a fairly anonymous manner, some of the descriptions of the firm and some of its people were less than flattering. Sanderson later won a compensation claim case against the British firm, however.[77]

On the other hand,Penelope Trunkwrote an upbeat article inThe Boston Globein 2006, entitled "Blogs 'essential' to a good career".[78]She was one of the first journalists to point out that a large portion of bloggers are professionals and that a well-written blog can help attract employers.

Business owners

Business owners who blog about their business can also run into legal consequences.Mark Cuban,owner of theDallas Mavericks,was fined during the 2006NBAplayoffs for criticizing NBA officials on the court and in his blog.[79]

Political dangers

See also:Political repression of cyber-dissidents

Blogging can sometimes have unforeseen consequences in politically sensitive areas. In some countries,Internet policeorsecret policemay monitor blogs and arrest blog authors or commentators. Blogs can be much harder to control than broadcast or print media because a person can create a blog whose authorship is hard to trace by using anonymity technology such asTor.As a result,totalitarianandauthoritarianregimes often seek to suppress blogs and punish those who maintain them.

In Singapore, two ethnic Chinese individuals wereimprisonedunder the country'santi-sedition lawfor postinganti-Muslimremarks in their blogs.[80]Egyptian bloggerKareem Amerwas charged with insulting the Egyptian presidentHosni Mubarakand anIslamicinstitutionthrough his blog. It is the first time in the history of Egypt that a blogger was prosecuted. After a brief trial session that took place inAlexandria,the blogger was found guilty and sentenced to prison terms of three years for insultingIslamand inciting sedition and one year for insulting Mubarak.[81]Egyptian blogger Abdel Monem Mahmoud was arrested in April 2007 for anti-government writings in his blog. Monem is a member of the then bannedMuslim Brotherhood.After the2011 Egyptian revolution,the Egyptian bloggerMaikel Nabil Sanadwas charged with insulting the military for an article he wrote on his personal blog and sentenced to three years.[82]

After expressing opinions in his personal blog about the state of the Sudanese armed forces,Jan Pronk,United Nations Special Representative forSudan,was given three days notice to leave Sudan. The Sudanese army had demanded his deportation.[83][84]InMyanmar,Nay Phone Latt, a blogger, was sentenced to 20 years in jail for posting a cartoon critical of head of stateThan Shwe.[85]

Personal safety

See also:CyberstalkingandInternet homicide

One consequence of blogging is the possibility of online or in-person attacks or threats against the blogger, sometimes without apparent reason. In some cases, bloggers have facedcyberbullying.Kathy Sierra,author of the blog "Creating Passionate Users",[86]was the target of threats andmisogynisticinsults to the point that she cancelled her keynote speech at a technology conference in San Diego, fearing for her safety.[87]While a blogger's anonymity is often tenuous,Internet trollswho would attack a blogger with threats or insults can be emboldened by the anonymity of the online environment, where some users are known only by a pseudonymous "username" (e.g., "Hacker1984" ). Sierra and supporters initiated an online discussion aimed at countering abusive online behaviour[88]and developed aBlogger's Code of Conduct,which set out arules for behaviourin the online space.

Behaviour

TheBlogger's Code of Conductis a list of seven proposed ideas.

See also

References

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Further reading

External links

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