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Bouvet Island

Coordinates:54°25′S3°22′E/ 54.42°S 03.36°E/-54.42; 03.36
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Bouvet Island
Bouvetøya(Norwegian)
Dependent territory of Norway
Location of Bouvet Island (circled in red)
Location of Bouvet Island (circled in red, in the Atlantic Ocean)
CountryNorway
Annexed by Norway23 January 1928(1928-01-23)
Dependency status27 February 1930[1]
Nature reserve declared17 December 1971[2]
Official languagesNorwegian
GovernmentDependencyunder aconstitutional monarchy
Harald V
• Administered by
Ministry of Justice and Public Security
Area
• Total
49 km2(19 sq mi)
•Glaciated
93%
Highest elevation
780 m (2,560 ft)
Population
• Estimate
0
ISO 3166 codeBV
Internet TLD

Bouvet Island(/ˈbuːveɪ/BOO-vay;Norwegian:Bouvetøya[3][bʉˈvèːœʏɑ])[4]is an island and dependency ofNorway,and declared an uninhabited protected nature reserve. It is asubantarcticvolcanic island, situated in the SouthAtlantic Oceanat the southern end of theMid-Atlantic Ridge,and is the world's mostremoteisland. It is not part of the southern region covered by theAntarctic Treaty System.

The island lies 1,700 km (1,100 mi) north of thePrincess Astrid CoastofQueen Maud Land,Antarctica,1,900 km (1,200 mi) east of theSouth Sandwich Islands,1,845 km (1,146 mi) south ofGough Island,and 2,600 km (1,600 mi) south-southwest of the coast of South Africa. It has an area of 49 km2(19 sq mi), 93 percent of which is covered by aglacier.The centre of the island is the ice-filled crater of an inactivevolcano.Someskerriesand one smaller island,Larsøya,lie along its coast. Nyrøysa, created by a rock slide in the late 1950s, is the only easy place to land and is the location of aweather station.

The island was first spotted on 1 January 1739 by the FrenchmanJean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier,during a French exploration mission in theSouth Atlanticwith the shipsAigleandMarie.They did not make landfall. He mislabeled the coordinates for the island, and it was not sighted again until 1808, when the BritishwhalerJames Lindsay encountered it and named itLindsay Island.[5]The first claim to have landed on the island was made by the American sailorBenjamin Morrell,although this claim is disputed. In 1825, the island was claimed for theBritish Crownby George Norris, who named itLiverpool Island.He also reported having sighted another island nearby, which he namedThompson Island,but this was later shown to be aphantom island.

In 1927, thefirstNorvegiaexpeditionlanded on the island, and claimed it for Norway. At that point, the island was given its current name ofBouvet Island( "Bouvetøya" in Norwegian).[6]In 1930, following resolution of a dispute with the United Kingdom over claiming rights, it was declared a Norwegian dependency. In 1971, it was designated anature reserve.

History[edit]

Discovery and early sightings[edit]

Southeast coast of Bouvet Island in 1898

The island was discovered on 1 January 1739 byJean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier,commander of the French shipsAigleandMarie.[5]Bouvet, who was searching for a presumed large southern continent, spotted the island through the fog and named the cape he sawCap de la Circoncision.He was not able to land and did notcircumnavigatehis discovery, thus not clarifying if it was an island or part ofa continent.[7]: 62 His plotting of its position was inaccurate,[8]: 47 leading several expeditions to fail to find the island.[7]: 58 James Cook'ssecond voyageset off fromCape Verdeon 22 November 1772 and attempted to find the island, but also failed.[9]

The next expedition to spot the island was in 1808 by James Lindsay, captain of theSamuel Enderby & Sons' (SE&S)snowwhalerSwan.[10]Swanand another Enderby whaler,Otterwere in company when they reached the island and recorded its position, though they were unable to land.[11][12]: 434–435 Lindsay could confirm that the "cape" was indeed an island.[7]: 62 The next expedition to arrive at the island was AmericanBenjamin Morrelland hisseal huntingshipWasp.Morrell, by his own account, found the island without difficulty (with "improbable ease", in the words of historian William Mills)[12]: 434–435 before landing and hunting 196 seals.[7]: 62 In his subsequent lengthy description, Morrell does not mention the island's most obvious physical feature: Its permanent ice cover.[8]: 106–107 This has caused some commentators to doubt whether he actually visited the island.[12]: 434–435 [13]

On 10 December 1825, SE&S's George Norris, master of theSprightly,landed on the island,[7]: 62 named it Liverpool Island and claimed it for theBritish CrownandGeorge IVon 16 December.[7]: 63 The next expedition to spot the island was Joseph Fuller and his shipFrancis Allynin 1893, but he was not able to land on the island. GermanCarl Chun'sValdivia Expeditionarrived at the island in 1898. They were not able to land, but dredged the seabed for geological samples.[14]They were also the first to accurately fix the island's position.[7]: 63 At least three sealing vessels visited the island between 1822 and 1895. A voyage of exploration in 1927–1928 also took seal pelts.[15]

Norris also spotted a second island in 1825, which he namedThompson Island,which he placed 72 km (45 mi) north-northeast of Liverpool Island. Thompson Island was also reported in 1893 by Fuller, but in 1898 Chun did not report seeing such an island, nor has anyone since.[14]However, Thompson Island continued to appear on maps as late as 1943.[16]A 1967 paper suggested that the island might have disappeared in an undetected volcanic eruption, but in 1997 it was discovered that the ocean is more than 2,400 m (7,900 ft) deep in the area.[17]

Norwegian annexation[edit]

The annexation of the island on 1 December 1927
The first hut, built onKapp Circoncision,in 1929

In 1927, the FirstNorvegiaExpedition, led by Harald Horntvedt and financed byLars Christensen,was the first to make an extended stay on the island. Observations and surveying were conducted on the island andoceanographicmeasurements performed in the sea around it. At Ny Sandefjord, a small hut was erected and, on 1 December, theNorwegian flagwas hoisted and the island claimed for Norway. The annexation was established by a royal decree on 23 January 1928.[7]: 63 

The claim was initially protested by the United Kingdom, on the basis of Norris's landing and annexation. However, the British position was weakened by Norris's sighting of two islands and the uncertainty as to whether he had been on Thompson or Liverpool (i.e. Bouvet) Island. Norris's positioning deviating from the correct location combined with the island's small size and lack of anatural harbourmade the UK accept the Norwegian claim.[18]: 52 This resulted in diplomatic negotiations between the two countries, and in November 1929, Britain renounced its claim to the island.[7]: 63 

TheSecondNorvegiaExpeditionarrived in 1928 with the intent of establishing a staffed meteorological radio station, but a suitable location could not be found.[7]: 63 By then both the flagpole and hut from the previous year had been washed away. TheThirdNorvegiaExpedition,led byHjalmar Riiser-Larsen,arrived the following year and built a new hut atKapp Circoncisionand on Larsøya. The expedition carried outaerial photographyof the island and was the first Antarctic expedition to use aircraft.[7]: 64 TheDependency Act,passed by theParliament of Norwayon 27 February 1930, established Bouvet Island as a dependency, along withPeter I IslandandQueen Maud Land.[1]Theeared sealwas protected on and around the island in 1929 and in 1935 all seals around the island were protected.[19]

Recent history[edit]

In 1955, the South African frigateSASTransvaalvisited the island.[20]Nyrøysa, a rock-strewn ice-free area, the largest such on Bouvet, was created sometime between 1955 and 1958, probably by a landslide.[21]

In 1964, the island was visited by the British naval shipHMSProtector.One ofProtector's twoWestland Whirlwindhelicopters landed a small survey team on the island led byLieutenant CommanderAlan Crawford at Nyrøysa for a brief visit. Shortly after landing, the survey team discovered an abandonedlifeboatin a small lagoon. With very little time, a brief search was made but no other signs of human activity were found, and the identity of the lifeboat remained a mystery for many years.[22]: 177–85 

On 17 December 1971, the entire island and its territorial waters were protected as anature reserve.[2]A scientific landing was made in 1978, during which the underground temperature was measured to be 25 °C (77 °F).[23]In addition to scientific surveys,[14]the lifeboat found by theProtectorteam was recovered from Nyrøysa, although no other signs of people were found.[23]The lifeboat was believed to belong to a Soviet scientific reconnaissance vessel.[b]

TheVela incidenttook place on 22 September 1979, on or above the sea between Bouvetøya andPrince Edward Islands,when the AmericanVela Hotelsatellite 6911 registered an unexplaineddouble flash.This observation has been variously interpreted as a meteor, or an instrumentation glitch, but most independent assessments conclude it was anundeclared joint nuclear testcarried out by South Africa and Israel.[23][25][26][27]

In the mid-1980s, Bouvetøya,Jan Mayen,andSvalbardwere considered as locations for the newNorwegian International Ship Register,but theflag of convenienceregistry was ultimately established inBergen,Norway, in 1987.[18]: 189  In 2007, the island was added to Norway's tentative list of nominations as aWorld Heritage Siteas part of the transnational nomination of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.[28]

Krill fishingin the Southern Ocean is subject to theConvention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources,which defines maximum catch quotas for asustainable exploitationofAntarctic krill.[29]Surveys conducted in 2000 showed high concentration of krill around Bouvetøya. In 2004,Aker BioMarinewas awarded a concession to fish krill, and additional quotas were awarded from 2008 for a total catch of 620,000 t (610,000 long tons; 680,000 short tons).[30]There is a controversy as to whether the fisheries are sustainable, particularly in relation to krill being important food for whales.[31]In 2009, Norway filed with theUN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelfto extend the outer limit of the continental shelf past 200 NM (230 mi; 370 km) surrounding the island.[32]

The expedition shipHanse Explorervisited Bouvet Island on 20 and 21 February 2012 as part of "Expédition pour le Futur".[33]The expedition's goal was to land and climb the highest point on the island.[c]

Bouvet Island is assigned the amateur radio callsign prefix 3Y0,[34]and several amateur radioDX-peditionshave been conducted to the island.[35][36][37][38]The3Y0J DX-pedition to Bouvet Islandtook place between January and February 2023, but had to be reduced in scope and eventually cut short due to bad and worsening weather conditions.[39][40]

Norvegia Station[edit]

Norvegia Station
Antarctic base
Coordinates:54°24′25″S3°17′16″E/ 54.407052°S 3.287791°E/-54.407052; 3.287791
CountryNorway
OperatorNorwegian Polar Institute
Established1927(1927)
Population
• Summer
6
• Winter
0
UN/LOCODENO
Active timesEvery summer
StatusOperational
ActivitiesMeteorology
FacilitiesDorms and labs
Websitenpolar.no

Since the 1970s, the island has been visited frequently by Norwegian Antarctic expeditions. In 1977 a temporary five-man station and anautomated weather stationwere constructed and staffed for two months in 1978 and 1979.[7]: 64 

In March 1985, a Norwegian expedition experienced sufficiently clear weather to allow the entire island to be photographed from the air, resulting in the first accurate map of the whole island, 247 years after its discovery.[7]: 59 

TheNorwegian Polar Instituteestablished a 36 m2(390 sq ft) research station, made ofshipping containers,at Nyrøysa in 1996. On 23 February 2006, the island experienced a magnitude 6.2 earthquake whose epicentre was about 100 km (62 mi) away,[41]weakening the station's foundation and causing it to be blown to sea during a winter storm.[42][43]

In December 2012, a new research station was sent by ship fromTromsøin Norway, viaCape Town,to Bouvet.[44]

The robust and technically advanced station was assembled in Nyrøysa, on the north-western part of the island, the only place wide enough to land by helicopter. The elevated station is formed by three modules placed on a steel platform fixed into a concrete base. It can accommodate six people for periods of 2–4 months, and it is designed and equipped to resist rough weather conditions. The energy is supplied by wind power, which makes it easier to operate the equipment during the long periods when the station is uninhabited. The base is equipped with an automatic meteorological station that sends data via satellite throughout the year.[45]

Geography and geology[edit]

Bouvet Island
Glacier on Bouvet Island's west coast

Bouvetøya is a volcanic island constituting the top of ashield volcanojust off theSouthwest Indian Ridgein the South Atlantic Ocean.[46]The island measures 9.5 by 7 km (5.9 by 4.3 mi) and covers an area of 49 km2(19 sq mi),[19]including a number of small rocks and skerries and one sizable island,Larsøya.[47]

It is located in the Subantarctic, south of theAntarctic Convergence,[48]which, by some definitions, would place the island in theSouthern Ocean.[49]

Bouvet Island is one of themost remote islandsin the world.[50] The closest land isQueen Maud Landof Antarctica, which is 1,700 km (1,100 mi) to the south,[7]: 58 andGough Island,1,845 km (1,146 mi) to the north.[51]The closest inhabited location isTristan da Cunhaisland, 2,250 km (1,400 mi) to the northwest.[19]To its west, theSouth Sandwich Islandslie about 1,900 km (1,200 mi) away, and to its east are thePrince Edward Islands,about 2,500 km (1,600 mi) away.[citation needed]

Nyrøysa is a 2 by 0.5 km (1.2 by 0.3 mi) terrace located on the north-west coast of the island. Created by arock slidesometime between 1955 and 1957, it is the island's easiest access point.[7]: 59 It is the site of the automatic weather station.[52]The north-west corner is the peninsula ofKapp Circoncision.[53]From there, east toKapp Valdivia,the coast is known as Morgenstiernekysten.[54]

Store Kariis an islet located 1.2 km (0.75 mi) east of the cape.[55]From Kapp Valdivia, southeast toKapp Lollo,on the east side of the island, the coast is known as Victoria Terrasse.[56]From there toKapp Fieat the southeastern corner, the coast is known asMowinckelkysten.Svartstranda is a section ofblack sandwhich runs 1.8 km (1.1 mi) along the section fromKapp Meteor,south to Kapp Fie.[57]

After rounding Kapp Fie, the coast along the south side is known as Vogtkysten.[58]The westernmost part of it is the 300 m (980 ft) long shore of Sjøelefantstranda.[59]

Off Catoodden, on the south-western corner, liesLarsøya,the only island of any size off Bouvetøya.[47]The western coast from Catoodden north to Nyrøysa, is known as Esmarchkysten. Midway up the coast lies Norvegiaodden (Kapp Norvegia)[60]and 0.5 km (0.31 mi) off it the skerries of Bennskjæra.[61]

Ninety-three percent of the island is covered byglaciers,giving it a domed shape.[7]: 59 The summit region of the island is Wilhelmplatået, slightly to the west of the island's center.[14]Theplateauis 3.5 km (2.2 mi) across[62]and surrounded by several peaks.[14]The tallest isOlavtoppen,780 m (2,560 ft)above mean sea level(AMSL),[7]: 59 followed byLykketoppen(766 m or 2,513 ft AMSL)[63]andMosbytoppane(670 m or 2,200 ft AMSL).[64]Below Wilhelmplatået is the maincalderaresponsible for creating the island.[14]The lasteruptiontook place 2000 BCE, producing alavaflow at Kapp Meteor.[62]The volcano is presumed to be in a declining state.[14]The temperature 30 cm (12 in) below the surface is 25 °C (77 °F).[7]: 59 

The island's total coastline is 29.6 km (18.4 mi).[65]Landing on the island is very difficult, as it normally experiences high seas and features asteep coast.[7]: 59 During the winter, it is surrounded bypack ice.[19]TheBouvet Triple Junctionis located 275 km (171 mi) west of Bouvet Island. It is atriple junctionbetween theSouth American Plate,theAfrican Plateand theAntarctic Plate,and of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the Southwest Indian Ridge and theAmerican–Antarctic Ridge.[66]

West coast of Bouvet Island

Climate[edit]

The island is located south of theAntarctic Convergence,giving it a marineAntarctic climatedominated by heavy clouds and fog. It experiences a mean temperature of −1 °C (30 °F),[7]: 59 with January average of 1 °C (34 °F) and September average of −3 °C (27 °F).[51]The monthly high mean temperatures fluctuate little through the year.[67]The peak temperature of 14 °C (57 °F) was recorded in March 1980, caused by intense sun radiation. Spot temperatures as high as 20 °C (68 °F) have been recorded in sunny weather on rock faces.[7]: 59 The island predominantly experiences a weakwest wind.[51]In spite of these severe climate conditions, Bouvet Island actually is located four degrees of latitude closer to the equator than the southernmost tip of Norway, which is located at 58°N. Its latitude – by analogy to Scandinavia – is instead similar to southernDenmark.[citation needed]

Climate data for Bouvet Island
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 10.2
(50.4) 		10.2
(50.4) 		10.6
(51.1) 		7.7
(45.9) 		5.6
(42.1) 		5.2
(41.4) 		3.8
(38.8) 		5.9
(42.6) 		7.3
(45.1) 		8.7
(47.7) 		8.3
(46.9) 		10.6
(51.1) 		10.6
(51.1)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 3.7
(38.7) 		4.0
(39.2) 		3.3
(37.9) 		2.5
(36.5) 		1.0
(33.8) 		−0.4
(31.3) 		−1.2
(29.8) 		−1.1
(30.0) 		−0.8
(30.6) 		0.5
(32.9) 		1.8
(35.2) 		3.0
(37.4) 		1.4
(34.4)
Daily mean °C (°F) 1.7
(35.1) 		2.0
(35.6) 		1.5
(34.7) 		0.9
(33.6) 		−0.8
(30.6) 		−2.2
(28.0) 		−3.3
(26.1) 		−3.6
(25.5) 		−3.3
(26.1) 		−1.8
(28.8) 		−0.3
(31.5) 		0.9
(33.6) 		−0.7
(30.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −0.3
(31.5) 		−0.1
(31.8) 		−0.4
(31.3) 		−0.8
(30.6) 		−2.5
(27.5) 		−3.9
(25.0) 		−5.3
(22.5) 		−6.0
(21.2) 		−5.8
(21.6) 		−4.1
(24.6) 		−2.5
(27.5) 		−1.2
(29.8) 		−2.7
(27.1)
Record low °C (°F) −2.6
(27.3) 		−2.2
(28.0) 		−3.2
(26.2) 		−4.7
(23.5) 		−9.7
(14.5) 		−10.2
(13.6) 		−14.8
(5.4) 		−15
(5) 		−18.7
(−1.7) 		−15.2
(4.6) 		−8.4
(16.9) 		−4.1
(24.6) 		−18.7
(−1.7)
Source 1: Météo climat stats (Norvege)[68]
Source 2: Météo Climat stats (Isl. Bouvet)[69]

Nature[edit]

NASAimage of Bouvet Island from space

The harsh climate and ice-bound terrain limits non-animal life tofungi(ascomycetesincluding symbioticlichens) andnon-vascular plants(mossesandliverworts). The flora are representative for the maritime Antarctic and arephytogeographicallysimilar to those of theSouth Sandwich IslandsandSouth Shetland Islands.Vegetation is limited because of the ice cover, althoughsnow algaeare recorded. The remaining vegetation is located in snow-free areas such asnunatakridges and other parts of the summit plateau, the coastal cliffs, capes and beaches. At Nyrøysa, five species of moss, six ascomycetes (including five lichens), and twenty algae have been recorded. Most snow-free areas are so steep and subject to frequentavalanchesthat onlycrustoselichens and algal formations are sustainable. There are sixendemicascomycetes, three of which are lichenized.[52]

Cape Valdivia, Bouvet Island, 2009

The island has been designated as anImportant Bird AreabyBirdLife Internationalbecause of its importance as abreeding groundforseabirds.In 1978–1979 there were an estimated 117,000 breedingpenguinson the island, consisting ofmacaroni penguinand, to a lesser extent,chinstrap penguinandAdélie penguin,although these were only estimated to be 62,000 in 1989–1990. Nyrøysa is the most importantcolonyfor penguins, supplemented by Posadowskybreen, Kapp Circoncision, Norvegiaodden and across from Larsøya.Southern fulmaris by far the most common non-penguin bird with 100,000 individuals. Other breeding seabirds consist ofCape petrel,Antarctic prion,Wilson's storm petrel,black-bellied storm petrel,subantarctic skua,southern giant petrel,snow petrel,slender-billed prionandAntarctic tern.Kelp gullis thought to have bred on the island earlier. Non-breeding birds which can be found on the island include theking penguin,wandering albatross,black-browed albatross,Campbell albatross,Atlantic yellow-nosed albatross,sooty albatross,light-mantled albatross,northern giant petrel,Antarctic petrel,blue petrel,soft-plumaged petrel,Kerguelen petrel,white-headed petrel,fairy prion,white-chinned petrel,great shearwater,common diving petrel,south polar skuaandparasitic jaeger.[52]

The only non-birdvertebrateson the island areseals,specifically thesouthern elephant sealandAntarctic fur seal,which breed on the island. In 1998–1999, there were 88 elephant seal pups and 13,000 fur seal pups at Nyrøysa.Southern right whale,humpback whale,fin whale,southern right whale dolphin,hourglass dolphin,andkiller whaleare seen in the surrounding waters.[70][52][71][72]

Politics and government[edit]

Image courtesy of the Image Science & Analysis Laboratory, NASA Johnson Space Center
Nils Olav,Baron of the Bouvet Islands

Bouvetøya is one of three dependencies of Norway.[73]UnlikePeter I IslandandQueen Maud Land,which are subject to theAntarctic Treaty System,[7]: 65 Bouvetøya is not disputed.[65]The dependency status entails that the island is not part of the Kingdom of Norway, but is still under Norwegiansovereignty.This implies that the island can becededwithout violating the first article of theConstitution of Norway.[73]Norwegian administration of the island is handled by the Polar Affairs Department of theMinistry of Justice and the Police,located inOslo.[74]

The annexation of the island is regulated by the Dependency Act of 24 March 1933. It establishes that Norwegiancriminal law,private lawandprocedural lawapply to the island, in addition to other laws that explicitly state they are valid on the island. It further establishes that all land belongs to the state, and prohibits the storage and detonation of nuclear products.[1]

Bouvet Island has been designated with theISO 3166-2codeBV[75]and was subsequently awarded thecountry codetop-level domain.bvon 21 August 1997.[76]The domain is managed byNoridbut is not in use.[77]

Theexclusive economic zonesurrounding the island covers an area of 441,163 km2(170,334 sq mi).[78]Monitoring of compliance with resource laws and regulations is carried out through theCommission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources(CCAMLR) which includes 27 member states, including Norway. Utilizing an intelligence-sharing approach, vessels that may have participated in illegal, unregulated or unreported fishing are subject to blacklisting and potential enforcement measures by member states and throughINTERPOL.[79]

Aking penguininEdinburgh Zoo,Major General Sir Nils Olav III,carries the titleBaron of the Bouvet Islands.[80]

In fiction[edit]

See also[edit]

Explanatory notes[edit]

  1. ^The internet domain suffix.bv is allocated to Bouvetøya, but has never been used.
  2. ^The scientific reconnaissance vessel 'Slava-9' began its regular 13th cruise with the 'Slava' Antarctic whaling fleet on 22 October 1958... On 27 November she got to Bouvet Island. A group of sailors landed, but were unable to leave the island in time because of worsened weather and stayed on it for about 3 days. The people were withdrawn by helicopter on 29 November 1958.[24]
  3. ^The first four climbers (Aaron Halstead, Will Allen, Bruno Rodi and Jason Rodi) were the first humans to climb the highest peak. Atime capsulecontaining the top visions of the future for 2062 was left behind. The next morning, Aaron Halstead led five other climbers (Sarto Blouin, Seth Sherman, Chakib Bouayed,Cindy Sampson,and Akos Hivekovics) to the top.[33]

References[edit]

  1. ^abc"Lov om Bouvet-øya, Peter I's øy og Dronning Maud Land m.m. (bilandsloven)"(in Norwegian). Lovdata.Archivedfrom the original on 2 December 2013.Retrieved29 August2011.
  2. ^ab"Forskrift om fredning av Bouvetøya med tilliggende territorialfarvann som naturreservat"(in Norwegian). Lovdata.Archivedfrom the original on 6 June 2014.Retrieved9 May2012.
  3. ^"Bouvetøya".stadnamn.npolar.no.Place names in Norwegian polar areas.Norwegian Polar Institute.
  4. ^Berulfsen, Bjarne (1969).Norsk Uttaleordbok(in Norwegian). Oslo:H. Aschehoug & Co (W Nygaard).p. 51.
  5. ^abMills, William James (2003).Exploring Polar Frontiers: A Historical Encyclopedia.Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 96.ISBN978-1576074220.
  6. ^"An abandoned lifeboat at world's end".allkindsofhistory.wordpress.A Blast from the Past. 13 February 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 2 November 2011.Retrieved7 June2015.
  7. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvBarr, Susan (1987).Norway's Polar Territories.Oslo: Aschehoug.ISBN8203156894.
  8. ^abMill, Hugh Robert(1905).The Siege of the South Pole.London: Alston Rivers.
  9. ^Hough, Richard(1994).Captain James Cook.Hodder and Stoughton. p. 248.ISBN0340825561.
  10. ^Burney, James(1817).A Chronological History of the Discoveries in the South Sea or Pacific Ocean.Vol. V. p. 35.
  11. ^McGonigal, David(2003).Antarctica.London: Frances Lincoln. p. 135.ISBN978-0711229808.
  12. ^abcMills, William James (2003).Exploring Polar Frontiers: A historical encyclopedia.Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1576074220.
  13. ^Simpson-Housley, Paul (1992).Antarctica: Exploration, perception, and metaphor.New York: Routledge. p. 60.ISBN978-0415082259.
  14. ^abcdefgBaker, P.E. (1967)."Historical and geological notes on Bouvetøya"(PDF).British Antarctic Survey Bulletin(13): 71–84. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 16 March 2012.Retrieved8 May2012.
  15. ^Headland, R.K., ed. (2018).Historical Antarctic Sealing Industry.Scott Polar Research Institute. Cambridge University. p. 168.ISBN978-0901021267.
  16. ^A.R.H.; N.A.M. (1943). "Review: A New Chart of the Antarctic".The Geographical Journal.102(1): 29–34.doi:10.2307/1789367.JSTOR1789367.
  17. ^"Thompson Island".Global Volcanism Program.Smithsonian Institution.Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2012.Retrieved8 May2012.
  18. ^abKyvik, Helga, ed. (2008).Norge i Antarktis(in Norwegian). Oslo: Schibsted Forlag.ISBN978-8251625890.
  19. ^abcd"Bouvetøya".placenames.npolar.no.Norwegian Polar Institute.Archivedfrom the original on 14 March 2013.Retrieved8 May2012.
  20. ^"South African expedition to Bouvetøya, 1955".Polar Record.8(54): 256–258. September 1956.Bibcode:1956PoRec...8..256..doi:10.1017/S003224740004907X.S2CID251062020.
  21. ^"Bouvet"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 13 March 2013.Retrieved11 May2012.
  22. ^Crawford, Allan (1982).Tristan da Cunha and the Roaring Forties.Edinburgh: Charles Skilton Ltd.ISBN978-0-284-98589-7.OCLC868642138.
  23. ^abcRubin, Jeff (2005).Antarctica.Lonely Planet. p. 155.ISBN1740590945.
  24. ^Transactions of the Oceanographical Institute.p. 129.
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External links[edit]

54°25′S3°22′E/ 54.42°S 03.36°E/-54.42; 03.36

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bouvet_Island&oldid=1232294847"