Brassicaceae
| Brassicaceae | |
|---|---|
| |
| Winter cress,Barbarea vulgaris | |
Scientific classification
| |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Rosids |
| Order: | Brassicales |
| Family: | Brassicaceae Burnett[1] |
| Genera | |
Brassicaceae(/ˌbræsɪˈkeɪsiːˌiː,-siˌaɪ/) or (the older)Cruciferae(/kruːˈsɪfəri/)[2]is a medium-sized and economically importantfamilyofflowering plantscommonly known as themustards,thecrucifers,or thecabbage family.Most areherbaceous plants,while some areshrubs.Theleavesare simple (although are sometimes deeply incised), lackstipules,and appear alternately on stems or inrosettes.Theinflorescencesare terminal and lackbracts.The flowers have four freesepals,four free alternatingpetals,two shorter freestamensand four longer free stamens. Thefruithas seeds in rows, divided by a thin wall (or septum).
The family contains 372generaand 4,060 acceptedspecies.[3]The largest genera areDraba(440 species),Erysimum(261 species),Lepidium(234 species),Cardamine(233 species), andAlyssum(207 species).
The family contains thecruciferous vegetables,including species such asBrassica oleracea(cultivated ascabbage,kale,cauliflower,broccoliandcollards),Brassica rapa(turnip,Chinese cabbage,etc.),Brassica napus(rapeseed,etc.),Raphanus sativus(commonradish),Armoracia rusticana(horseradish), but also a cut-flowerMatthiola(stock) and themodel organismArabidopsis thaliana(thale cress).
Pieris rapaeand other butterflies of the familyPieridaeare some of the best-known pests of Brassicaceae species planted as commercial crops.Trichoplusia ni(cabbage looper) moth is also becoming increasingly problematic for crucifers due to its resistance to commonly usedpest controlmethods.[4]Some rarerPierisbutterflies, such asP. virginiensis,depend upon native mustards for their survival in their native habitats. Some non-native mustards such asAlliaria petiolata(garlic mustard), an extremelyinvasive species in the United States,can be toxic to theirlarvae.
Description[edit]
Species belonging to the Brassicaceae are mostlyannual,biennial,orperennialherbaceous plants,some aredwarf shrubsorshrubs,and very fewvines.Although generally terrestrial, a few species such aswater awlwortlive submerged in fresh water. They may have ataprootor a sometimes woodycaudexthat may have few or many branches, some have thin or tuberousrhizomes,or rarely developrunners.Few species have multi-cellular glands.Hairsconsist of one cell and occur in many forms: from simple to forked, star-, tree- or T-shaped, rarely taking the form of a shield or scale. They are never topped by a gland. Thestemsmay be upright, rise up towards the tip, or lie flat, are mostly herbaceous but sometimes woody. Stems carry leaves or the stems may be leafless (inCaulanthus), and some species lack stems altogether. The leaves do not havestipules,but there may be a pair of glands at base ofleaf stalksandflower stalks.The leaf may be seated or have a leafstalk. Theleaf bladeis usually simple, entire ordissected,rarelytrifoliolateorpinnately compound.A leaf rosette at the base may be present or absent. The leaves along the stem are almost alwaysalternately arranged,rarely apparently opposite.[5]The stomata are of theanisocytictype.[6]Thegenome sizeof Brassicaceae compared to that of other Angiosperm families is very small to small (less than 3.425 million base pairs per cell), varying from 150 Mbp inArabidopsis thalianaandSphaerocardamumspp., to 2375 MbpBunias orientalis.The number ofhomologous chromosome setsvaries from four (n=4) in somePhysariaandStenopetalumspecies, five (n=5) in otherPhysariaandStenopetalumspecies,Arabidopsis thalianaand aMathiolaspecies, to seventeen (n=17). About 35% of the species in which chromosomes have been counted have eight sets (n=8). Due topolyploidy,some species may have up to 256 individual chromosomes, with some very high counts in the North American species ofCardamine,such asC. diphylla.Hybridisationis not unusual in Brassicaceae, especially inArabis,Rorippa,CardamineandBoechera.Hybridisation between species originating in Africa and California, and subsequentpolyploidisationis surmised forLepidiumspecies native to Australia and New Zealand.[7]
Inflorescence and flower[edit]
Flowers may be arranged inracemes,panicles,orcorymbs,with pedicels sometimes in the axil of a bract, and few species have flowers that sit individually on flower stems that spring from the axils of rosette leaves. The orientation of the pedicels when fruits are ripe varies dependent on the species. The flowers arebisexual,star symmetrical(zygomorphic inIberisandTeesdalia) and theovary positioned above the other floral parts.Each flower has four free or seldom mergedsepals,the lateral two sometimes with a shallow spur, which are mostly shed after flowering, rarely persistent, may be reflexed, spreading, ascending, or erect, together forming a tube-, bell- or urn-shaped calyx. Each flower has fourpetals,set alternating with the sepals, although in some species these are rudimentary or absent. They may be differentiated into abladeand aclawor not, and consistently lack basal appendages. The blade is entire or has an indent at the tip, and may sometimes be much smaller than the claws. The mostly sixstamensare set in two whorls: usually the two lateral, outer ones are shorter than the four inner stamens, but very rarely the stamens can all have the same length, and very rarely species have different numbers of stamens such as sixteen to twenty four inMegacarpaea,four inCardamine hirsuta,and two inCoronopus.The filaments are slender and not fused, while the anthers consist of two pollen producing cavities, and open with longitudinal slits. The pollen grains aretricolpate.Thereceptaclecarries a variable number ofnectaries,but these are always present opposite the base of the lateral stamens.[5][8]
Ovary, fruit and seed[edit]
There is onesuperiorpistilthat consists of twocarpelsthat may either sit directly above the base of the stamens or on astalk.It initially consists of only one cavity but during its further development a thin wall grows that divides the cavity, both placentas and separates the two valves (a so-called false septum). Rarely, there is only one cavity without a septum. The 2–600ovulesare usually along the side margin of the carpels, or rarely at the top. Fruits are capsules that open with two valves, usually towards the top. These are calledsiliqueif at least three times longer than wide, orsilicleif the length is less than three times the width. The fruit is very variable in its other traits. There may be one persistentstylethat connects the ovary to the globular or conicalstigma,which is undivided or has two spreading or connivent lobes. The variously shaped seeds are usually yellow or brown in color, and arranged in one or two rows in each cavity. Theseed leavesare entire or have a notch at the tip. The seed does not containendosperm.[5]
Differences with similar families[edit]
Brassicaceae have a bisymmetrical corolla (left is mirrored by right, stem-side by out-side, but each quarter is not symmetrical), a septum dividing the fruit, lackstipulesand have simple (although sometimes deeply incised) leaves. Thesister familyCleomaceaehasbilateral symmetricalcorollas (left is mirrored by right, but stem-side is different from out-side), stipules and mostly palmately divided leaves, and mostly no septum.[5]Capparaceae generally have agynophore,sometimes anandrogynophore,and a variable number of stamens.[8]
Phytochemistry[edit]
Almost all Brassicaceae haveC3 carbon fixation.The only exceptions are a fewMoricandiaspecies, which have a hybrid system between C3 andC4 carbon fixation,C4 fixation being more efficient in drought, high temperature and low nitrate availability.[9]Brassicaceae contain different cocktails of dozens ofglucosinolates.They also contain enzymes calledmyrosinases,that convert the glucosinolates intoisothiocyanates,thiocyanatesandnitriles,which are toxic to many organisms, and so help guard against herbivory.[10]
Taxonomy[edit]
Carl Linnaeusin 1753 regarded the Brassicaceae as a natural group, naming them "Klass" Tetradynamia.Alfred Barton Rendleplaced the family in the orderRhoeadales,whileGeorge BenthamandJoseph Dalton Hookerin their system published from 1862 to 1883, assigned it to their cohortParietales(now the classViolales). Following Bentham and Hooker,John Hutchinsonin 1948 and again in 1964 thought the Brassicaceae to stem from near thePapaveraceae.In 1994, a group of scientists includingWalter Stephen Juddsuggested to include theCapparaceaein the Brassicaceae. Early DNA-analysis showed that the Capparaceae—as defined at that moment—wereparaphyletic,and it was suggested to assign the genera closest to the Brassicaceae to theCleomaceae.[11]The Cleomaceae and Brassicaceae diverged approximately 41 million years ago.[7]All three families have consistently been placed in one order (variably calledCapparalesorBrassicales).[11]TheAPG IIsystem merged Cleomaceae and Brassicaceae. Other classifications have continued to recognize the Capparaceae, but with a more restricted circumscription, either includingCleomeand its relatives in the Brassicaceae or recognizing them in the segregate familyCleomaceae.TheAPG III systemhas recently adopted this last solution, but this may change as a consensus arises on this point. Current insights in the relationships of the Brassicaceae, based on a 2012 DNA-analysis, are summarized in the following tree.[8][12]
| core Brassicales |
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Relationships within the family[edit]
Early classifications depended on morphological comparison only, but because of extensiveconvergent evolution,these do not provide a reliablephylogeny.Although a substantial effort was made throughmolecular phylogenetic studies,the relationships within the Brassicaceae have not always been well resolved yet. It has long been clear that theAethionemaaresisterof the remainder of the family.[13]One analysis from 2014 represented the relation between 39 tribes with the following tree.[14]
| Brassicaceae |
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Genera[edit]
As of October 2023Plants of the World Onlineaccepts 346 genera.[15]
Etymology[edit]
The nameBrassicaceaecomes tointernational scientific vocabularyfromNeo-Latin,fromBrassica,thetype genus,+-aceae,[16]a standardizedsuffixfor plant family names in modern taxonomy. The genus name comes from theClassical Latinwordbrassica,referring tocabbageand othercruciferous vegetables.The alternative older name,Cruciferae,meaning "cross-bearing", describes the four petals ofmustardflowers, which resemble across.Cruciferae is one of eight plant family names, not derived from a genus name and without the suffix-aceaethat are authorized alternative names.[17]
Distribution[edit]
Brassicaceae can be found almost on the entire land surface of the planet, but the family is absent from Antarctica, and also absent from some areas in the tropics i.e. northeastern Brazil, theCongo basin,Maritime Southeast Asiaand tropicalAustralasia.The area of origin of the family is possibly theIrano-Turanian Region,where approximately 900 species occur in 150 different genera. About 530 of those 900 species areendemics.Next in abundance comes theMediterranean Region,with around 630 species (290 of which are endemic) in 113 genera. The family is less prominent in theSaharo-Arabian Region—65 genera, 180 species of which 62 are endemic—and North America (comprising theNorth American Atlantic Regionand theRocky Mountain Floristic Region)—99 genera, 780 species of which 600 are endemic. South America has 40 genera containing 340 native species, Southern Africa 15 genera with over 100 species, and Australia and New-Zealand have 19 genera with 114 species between them.[7]
Ecology[edit]
Brassicaceae are almost exclusivelypollinated by insects.A chemical mechanism in the pollen is active in many species to avoidselfing.Two notable exceptions are exclusiveself-pollination in closed flowersinCardamine chenopodifolia,and wind pollination inPringlea antiscorbutica.[8]Although it can be cross-pollinated,Alliaria petiolata(garlic mustard) isself-fertile.Most species reproduce sexually through seed, butCardamine bulbiferaproducesgemmaeand in others, such asCardamine pentaphyllos,the coral-like roots easily break into segments, that will grow into separate plants.[8]In some species, such as in the genusCardamine,seed pods open with force and so catapult the seeds quite far. Many of these have sticky seed coats, assisting long distance dispersal by animals, and this may also explain several intercontinental dispersal events in the genus, and its near global distribution. Brassicaceae are common onserpentineanddolomiterich inmagnesium.Over a hundred species in the family accumulateheavy metals,particularlyzincandnickel,which is a record percentage.[18]SeveralAlyssumspecies can accumulate nickel up to 0.3% of their dry weight, and may be useful insoil remediationor even bio-mining.[19]
Brassicaceae containglucosinolatesas well asmyrosinasesinside their cells. When the cell is damaged, the myrosinaseshydrolisethe glucosinolates, leading to the synthesis ofisothiocyanates,which arecompounds toxic to most animals,fungi and bacteria. Some insect herbivores have developed counter adaptations such as rapid absorption of the glucosinates, quick alternative breakdown into non-toxic compounds and avoiding cell damage. In the whites family (Pieridae), one counter mechanism involves glucosinolate sulphatase, which changes the glucosinolate, so that it cannot be converted to isothiocyanate. A second is that the glucosinates are quickly broken down, forming nitriles.[10]Differences between the mixtures of glucosinolates between species and even within species is large, and individual plants may produce in excess of fifty individual substances. The energy penalty for synthesising all these glucosinolates may be as high as 15% of the total needed to produce a leaf.Barbarea vulgaris(bittercress) also producestriterpenoid saponins.These adaptations and counter adaptations probably have led to extensive diversification in both the Brassicaceae and one of its major pests, the butterfly familyPieridae.A particular cocktail of volatile glucosinates triggers egg-laying in many species. Thus a particular crop can sometimes be protected by planting bittercress as a deadly bait, for the saponins kill the caterpillars, but the butterfly is still lured by the bittercress to lay its egg on the leaves.[20] A moth that feeds on a range of Brassicaceae is thediamondback moth(Plutella xylostella). Like the Pieridae, it is capable of converting isothiocyanates into less problematicnitriles.Managing this pest in crops became more complicated after resistance developed against a toxin produced byBacillus thuringiensis,which is used as a wide spectrum biologicalplant protectionagainst caterpillars.Parasitoidwasps that feed on such insect herbivores are attracted to the chemical compounds released by the plants, and thus are able to locate their prey. Thecabbage aphid(Brevicoryne brassicae) stores glucosinolates and synthesises its own myrosinases, which may deter its potential predators.[18]
Since its introduction in the 19th century,Alliaria petiolatahas been shown to be extremely successful as aninvasive speciesin temperate North America due, in part, to its secretion of allelopathic chemicals. These inhibit thegerminationof most competing plants and kill beneficial soilfungineeded by many plants, such as many tree species, to successfully see their seedlings grow to maturity. Themonocultureformation of an herb layer carpet by this plant has been shown to dramatically alter forests, making them wetter, having fewer and fewer trees, and having more vines such as poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans). The overall herb layerbiodiversityis also drastically reduced, particularly in terms ofsedgesandforbs.Research has found that removing 80% of the garlic mustardinfestationplants did not lead to a particularly significant recovery of thatdiversity.Instead, it required around 100% removal. Given that not one of an estimated 76speciesthatpreyon the plant has been approved forbiological controlinNorth Americaand the variety of mechanisms the plant has to ensure its dominance without them (e.g. high seed production, self-fertility,allelopathy,spring growth that occurs before nearly all native plants, roots that break easily when pulling attempts are made, a complete lack of palatability for herbivores at all life stages, etc.) it is unlikely that such a high level of control can be established and maintained on the whole.[21][22][23][24][25][26]It is estimated that adequate control can be achieved with the introduction of two Europeanweevils,including one that ismonophagous.[27][28]TheUSDA's TAG group has blocked these introductions since 2004.[29]In addition to being invasive, garlic mustard also is a threat to native North AmericanPierisbutterflies[24][30]such asP. oleracea,as they preferentiallyovipositon it, although it is toxic to theirlarvae.
Invasive aggressive mustard species are known for being self-fertile, seeding very heavily with small seeds that have a lengthy lifespan coupled with a very high rate of viability and germination, and for being completely unpalatable to both herbivores and insects in areas to which they are not native. Garlic mustard is toxic to several rarer North AmericanPierisspecies.
Uses[edit]
This family includes important agricultural crops, among which many vegetables such ascabbage,broccoli,cauliflower,kale,Brussels sprouts,collard greens,Savoy,kohlrabi,andgai lan(Brassica oleracea),turnip,napa cabbage,mizuna,bok choyandrapini(Brassica rapa),rocket salad/arugula(Eruca sativa),garden cress(Lepidium sativum),watercress(Nasturtium officinale) andradish(Raphanus) and a few spices likehorseradish(Armoracia rusticana),wasabi(Eutrema japonicum), white, Indian and black mustard (Sinapis alba,Brassica junceaandB. nigrarespectively). Vegetable oil is produced from the seeds of several species such asBrassica napus(rapeseed oil), perhaps providing the largest volume of vegetable oils of any species.Woad(Isatis tinctoria) was used in the past to produce a blue textile dye (indigo), but has largely been replaced by the same substance from unrelated tropical species likeIndigofera tinctoria.[31]
Pringlea antiscorbutica,commonly known as Kerguelen cabbage, is edible, containing high levels ofpotassium.Its leaves contain a vitamin C-rich oil, a fact which, in the days of sailing ships, made it very attractive to sailors suffering fromscurvy,hence the species name's epithetantiscorbutica,which means "against scurvy" inLow Latin.It was essential to the diets of the whalers onKerguelenwhen pork, beef, orseal meatwas used up.
The Brassicaceae also includes ornamentals, such as species ofAethionema,Alyssum,Arabis,Aubrieta,Aurinia,Cheiranthus,Erysimum,Hesperis,Iberis,Lobularia,Lunaria,Malcolmia,andMatthiola.[7]Honesty(Lunaria annua) is cultivated for the decorative value of the translucent remains of the fruits after drying.[32]It can be a pest species in areas where it is not native.
The small Eurasian weedArabidopsis thalianais widely used asmodel organismin the study of themolecular biologyof flowering plants (Angiospermae).[33]
Some species are useful as food plants forLepidoptera,such as certain wild mustard and cress species, such asTurritis glabraandBoechera laevigatathat are utilized by severalNorth American butterflies.[34]
Gallery[edit]
-
Coast/sand-loving wallflowerErysimum ammophilum -
HonestyLunaria annua -
Western wallflowerErysimum capitatumvar. capitatum
References[edit]
- ^Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (2009)."An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III".Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society.161(2): 105–121.doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x.hdl:10654/18083.
- ^Chisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911)..Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 521.
- ^"Brassicaceae".The Plant List.
- ^Turini TA, Daugovish O, Koike ST, Natwick ET, Ploeg A, Dara SK, Fennimore SA, Joseph S, LeStrange M, Smith R, Subbarao KV, Westerdahl BB. Revised continuously.UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines Cole Crops.UC ANR Publication 3442. Oakland, CA.
- ^abcdAl-Shehbaz, I.A. (2012)."Neotropical Brassicaceae".Neotropikey—Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics.Retrieved2017-07-12.
- ^Metcalfe, C.R.; Chalk, L. (1950).Anatomy of Dicotyledons.Vol. 1: Leaves, Stem, and Wood in relation to Taxonomy, with notes on economic Uses. Oxford At The Clarendon Press. pp. 79–87.
- ^abcdRenate Schmidt; Ian Bancroft, eds. (2010).Genetics and Genomics of the Brassicaceae.Plant Genetics and Genomics: Crops and Models. Vol. 9. Springer Science & Business Media.
- ^abcde"Brassicaceae: Characters, Distribution and Types (With Diagram)".biologydiscussion.2016-08-30.Retrieved12 July2017.
- ^Naser A. Anjum; Iqbal Ahmad; M. Eduarda Pereira; Armando C. Duarte; Shahid Umar; Nafees A. Khan, eds. (2012).The Plant Family Brassicaceae: Contribution Towards Phytoremediation.Environmental Pollution. Springer Science & Business Media.ISBN9789400739123.
- ^abWoods, Harry Arthur.Ecological and Environmental Physiology of Insects.Ecological and Environmental Physiology Series. Vol. 3. Oxford biological.
- ^abHall, J.C.; Sytsma, K.J.; Iltis, H.H. (2002). "Phylogeny of Capparaceae and Brassicaceae based on chloroplast sequence data".American Journal of Botany.89(11): 1826–1842.doi:10.3732/ajb.89.11.1826.PMID21665611.S2CID39584525.
- ^Su, Jun-Xia; Wang, Wei; Zhang, Li-Bing; Chen, Zhi-Duan (June 2012)."Phylogenetic placement of two Enigma tic genera, Borthwickia and Stixis, based on molecular and pollen data, and the description of a new family of Brassicales, Borthwickiaceae"(PDF).Taxon.61(3): 601–611.doi:10.1002/tax.613009.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2017-08-03.
- ^Al-Shehbaz, Ihsan A. (2012). "A generic and tribal synopsis of the Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)".Taxon.61(5): 931–954.doi:10.1002/tax.615002.
- ^Edger, Patrick P.; Tang, Michelle; Bird, Kevin A.; Mayfield, Dustin R.; Conant, Gavin; Mummenhoff, Klaus; Koch, Marcus A.; Pires, J. Chris (2014)."Secondary Structure Analyses of the Nuclear rRNA Internal Transcribed Spacers and Assessment of Its Phylogenetic Utility across the Brassicaceae (Mustards)".PLOS One.9(7): e101341.Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j1341E.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0101341.PMC4077792.PMID24984034.
- ^Brassicaceae Burnett.Plants of the World Online.Retrieved 16 October 2023.
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- ^Broadhurst, Catherine L.; Chaney, Rufus L. (2016)."Growth and Metal Accumulation of an Alyssum murale Nickel Hyperaccumulator Ecotype Co-cropped with Alyssum montanum and Perennial Ryegrass in Serpentine Soil".Frontiers in Plant Science.7(451): 451.doi:10.3389/fpls.2016.00451.PMC4824781.PMID27092164.
- ^Winde, I; Wittstock, U. (2011). "Insect herbivore counteradaptations to the plant glucosinolate-myrosinase system".Phytochemistry.72(13): 1566–75.Bibcode:2011PChem..72.1566W.doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2011.01.016.PMID21316065.
- ^Eubanks, HM.D., Hoffmann, J.H., Lewis, E.E., Liu, J., Melnick, R., Michaud, J.P., Ode, P., Pell, J.K., 2017. Biological Control Journal. Elsevier.https:// journals.elsevier /Biological-Control
- ^Becker, R., Gerber E., Hinz H., Katovich E., Panke B., Reardon R., Renz R., Van Riper L., 2013. Biology and Biological Control of Garlic Mustard. The Forest Technology Enterprise Team.https:// fs.fed.us/foresthealth/technology/pdfs/FS_garlicmustard.pdf
- ^UF IFAS, 2017. Biological Control. University of Florida.https://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/manage/control-methods/biological-control/
- ^abDriesche, F.V.; Blossey, B.; Hoodle, M.; Lyon, S.; Reardon, R., 2010. Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the Eastern United States. USDA Forest Service. Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team.http://wiki.bugwood.org/Archive:BCIPEUS
- ^Davis, Adam. 2009. Munching on Garlic Mustard—A New Weevil in the Works. United States Department of Agriculture—AgResearch Magazine.https://agresearchmag.ars.usda.gov/2009/jul/weevil/
- ^Blossy, B., Ode, P., Pell, J.K., 1999. Development of Biological Control for Garlic Mustard. Cornell University.https:// dnr.illinois.gov/grants/documents/wpfgrantreports/1998l06w.pdf
- ^Landis, Doug."Management Options".Integrated Pest Management.Michigan State University.Retrieved10 September2017.
- ^Reardon, Richard."FHTET Biological Control Program—Sponsored Projects"(PDF).FHTET Biological Control Program.USDA Forest Service.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2022-10-09.Retrieved10 September2017.
- ^Becker, R. (2017)."Implementing Biological Control of Garlic Mustard—Environment and Natural Resources Trust Fund 2017 RFP"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 2017-09-04.
- ^Davis, S., 2015. Evaluating threats to the rare butterfly, Pieris "virginiensis".Wright State University.https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=wright1431882480&disposition=inlineArchived2017-08-20 at theWayback Machine
- ^Guarino, Carmine; Casoria, Paolo; Menale, Bruno (2000). "Cultivation and use of isatis tinctoria L. (Brassicaceae) in Southern Italy".Economic Botany.54(3): 395–400.doi:10.1007/bf02864789.S2CID42741171.
- ^Binney, Ruth (2012).The Gardener's Wise Words and Country Ways.David & Charles.ISBN978-0715334232.
- ^Koornneef, Maarten; Meinke, David (2010)."The development of Arabidopsis as a model plant"(PDF).The Plant Journal.61(6): 909–921.doi:10.1111/j.1365-313x.2009.04086.x.PMID20409266.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2022-10-09.Retrieved2017-08-12.
- ^Hilty, John (2017)."Smooth Rock Cress".Illinois Wildflowers.Dr. John Hilty.Retrieved17 April2018.
External links[edit]
- BrassiBase,a collection of resources on Brassicaceae biology
Further reading[edit]
- Arias, Tatiana; Pires, J. Chris (October 2012). "A fully resolved chloroplast phylogeny of the brassica crops and wild relatives (Brassicaceae: Brassiceae): Novel clades and potential taxonomic implications".Taxon.61(5): 980–988.doi:10.1002/tax.615005.
