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Brave New World

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Brave New World
First edition
AuthorAldous Huxley
Cover artistLeslie Holland
GenreScience fiction,dystopian fiction
PublisherChatto & Windus
Publication date
Feb. 4, 1932[1]
Publication placeUnited Kingdom
Pages311 (1932 ed.)
63,766 words[2]
AwardsLe Monde's 100 Books of the Century
OCLC20156268
TextBrave New Worldonline

Brave New Worldis adystopian novelby English authorAldous Huxley,written in 1931 and published in 1932.[3]Largely set in a futuristic World State, whose citizens are environmentally engineered into an intelligence-basedsocial hierarchy,the novel anticipates huge scientific advancements inreproductive technology,sleep-learning,psychological manipulationandclassical conditioningthat are combined to make adystopian societywhich is challenged by the story's protagonist. Huxley followed this book with a reassessment inessayform,Brave New World Revisited(1958), and with his final novel,Island(1962), theutopiancounterpart. This novel is often compared as an inversion counterpart toGeorge Orwell's1984(1949).

In 1999, theModern LibraryrankedBrave New Worldat number 5 on its list of the100 best English-language novels of the 20th century.[4]In 2003,Robert McCrum,writing forThe Observer,includedBrave New Worldchronologically at number 53 in "the top 100 greatest novels of all time",[5]and the novel was listed at number 87 onThe Big Readsurvey by theBBC.[6]Brave New Worldhas frequently been banned and challenged since its original publication. It has landed on the American Library Association list of top 100 banned and challenged books of the decade since the association began the list in 1990.[7][8][9]

Title[edit]

The titleBrave New Worldderives fromMiranda's speech inWilliam Shakespeare'sThe Tempest,Act V, Scene I:[10]

O wonder!
How many goodly creatures are there here!
How beauteous mankind is! O brave new world,
That has such people in 't.

— William Shakespeare,The Tempest,Act V, Scene I, ll. 203–206[11]

Shakespeare's use of the phrase is intended ironically, as the speaker is failing to recognise the evil nature of the island's visitors because of her innocence.[12]Indeed, the next speaker—Miranda's father Prospero—replies to her innocent observation with the statement"'Tis new to thee. "

Translations of the title often allude to similar expressions used in domestic works of literature: the French edition of the work is entitledLe Meilleur des mondes(The Best of All Worlds), an allusion to an expression used by the philosopherGottfried Leibniz[13]and satirised inCandide, Ou l'OptimismebyVoltaire(1759). The firstStandard Chinesetranslation, done by novelist Lily Hsueh and Aaron Jen-wang Hsueh in 1974, is entitled "Mỹ lệ tân thế giới" (Pinyin:Měilì Xīn Shìjiè,literally "Beautiful New World").

History[edit]

Huxley wroteBrave New Worldwhilst living inSanary-sur-Mer,France, in the four months from May to August 1931.[14][15][16]By this time, Huxley had established himself as a writer and social satirist. He was a contributor toVanity FairandVoguemagazines and had published a collection of his poetry (The Burning Wheel,1916) and four satirical novels,Crome Yellow(1921),Antic Hay(1923),Those Barren Leaves(1925) andPoint Counter Point(1928).Brave New Worldwas Huxley's fifth novel and firstdystopianwork.

A short passage inCrome YellowforeshadowsBrave New World,showing that Huxley had such a future in mind already in 1921. Mr. Scogan, one of the earlier book's characters, describes an "impersonal generation" of the future that will "take the place of Nature's hideous system. In vast state incubators, rows upon rows of gravid bottles will supply the world with the population it requires. The family system will disappear; society, sapped at its very base, will have to find new foundations; and Eros, beautifully and irresponsibly free, will flit like a gay butterfly from flower to flower through a sunlit world".

Huxley said thatBrave New Worldwas inspired by theutopiannovels ofH. G. Wells,includingA Modern Utopia(1905), and as a parody ofMen Like Gods(1923).[17][18]Wells' hopeful vision of the future gave Huxley the idea to begin writing a parody of the novels, which becameBrave New World.He wrote in a letter to Mrs. Arthur Goldsmith, an American acquaintance, that he had "been having a little fun pulling the leg of H. G. Wells" but then he "got caught up in the excitement of [his] own ideas".[19]Unlike the most popular optimistic utopian novels of the time, Huxley sought to provide a frightening vision of the future. Huxley referred toBrave New Worldas a "negative utopia", somewhat influenced by Wells's ownThe Sleeper Awakes(dealing with subjects like corporate tyranny and behavioural conditioning) and the works ofD. H. Lawrence.[20]

For his part Wells published, two years afterBrave New World,his UtopianShape of Things to Come.Seeking to rebut the argument of Huxley's Mustapha Mond—that moronic underclasses were a necessary "social gyroscope" and that a society composed solely of intelligent, assertive "Alphas" would inevitably disintegrate in internecine struggle—Wells depicted a stable egalitarian society emerging after several generations of a reforming elite having complete control of education throughout the world. In the future depicted in Wells' book, posterity remembers Huxley as "a reactionary writer".[21]The scientific futurism inBrave New Worldis believed to be appropriated fromDaedalus[22]byJ. B. S. Haldane.[23]

The events of theGreat Depressionin Britain in 1931, with its mass unemployment and the abandonment of the gold standard, persuaded Huxley to assert that stability was the "primal and ultimate need" if civilisation was to survive the present crisis.[24]TheBrave New Worldcharacter Mustapha Mond, Resident World Controller of Western Europe, is named after SirAlfred Mond.Shortly before writing the novel, Huxley visited theBillingham Manufacturing Plant,Mond's technologically advanced factory nearBillingham,north-east England, and it made a great impression on him.[24]: xxii 

Huxley used the setting and characters in his science fiction novel to express widely felt anxieties, particularly the fear of losing individual identity in the fast-paced world of the future. An early trip to the United States gaveBrave New Worldmuch of its character. Huxley was outraged by the culture of youth, commercial cheeriness, sexual promiscuity and the inward-looking nature of many Americans; he had also found the bookMy Life and WorkbyHenry Fordon the boat to America and he saw the book's principles applied in everything he encountered after leaving San Francisco.[25][24]: viii 

Plot[edit]

The novel opens in theWorld Statecity ofLondonin AF (AfterFord) 632 (AD 2540 in theGregorian calendar), where citizens are engineered throughartificial wombsand childhood indoctrination programmes into predeterminedclasses(orcastes) based on intelligence and labour. Lenina Crowne, a hatchery worker, is popular and sexually desirable, but Bernard Marx, a psychologist, is not. He is shorter in stature than the average member of his high caste, which gives him aninferiority complex.His work withsleep-learningallows him to understand, and disapprove of, his society's methods of keeping its citizens peaceful, which includes their constant consumption of a soothing, happiness-producing drug called "soma". Courting disaster, Bernard is vocal and arrogant about his criticisms, and his Boss contemplates exiling him toIcelandbecause of his nonconformity. His only friend is Helmholtz Watson, a gifted writer who finds it difficult to use his talents creatively in their pain-free society.

Bernard takes a holiday with Lenina outside the World State to a Savage Reservation inNew Mexico,in which the two observenatural-bornpeople, disease, the ageing process, other languages, and religious lifestyles for the first time. The culture of the village folk resembles the contemporary Native American groups of the region, descendants of theAnasazi,including thePuebloan peoplesofHopiandZuni.[26]Bernard and Lenina witness a violent public ritual and then encounter Linda, a woman originally from the World State who is living on the reservation with her son John, now a young man. She, too, visited the reservation on a holiday many years ago, but became separated from her group and was left behind. She had meanwhile become pregnant by a fellow holidaymaker (who is revealed to be Bernard's Boss, the Director of Hatcheries and Conditioning). She did not try to return to the World State, because of her shame at her pregnancy. Despite spending his whole life in the reservation, John has never been accepted by the villagers, and his and Linda's lives have been hard and unpleasant. Linda has taught John to read, although from the only book in her possession—a scientific manual—and another book John found: the complete works of Shakespeare. Ostracised by the villagers, John is able to articulate his feelings only in terms of Shakespearean drama, quoting often fromThe Tempest,King Lear,Othello,Romeo and JulietandHamlet.Linda now wants to return to London, and John, too, wants to see this "brave new world" that his mother so often praised. Bernard sees an opportunity to thwart plans to exile him, and gets permission to take Linda and John back. On their return to London, John meets the Director and calls him his "father", a vulgarity which causes a roar of laughter. The humiliated Director resigns in shame before he can follow through with exiling Bernard.

Bernard, as "custodian" of the "savage" John who is now treated as a celebrity, is fawned on by the highest members of society and revels in attention he once scorned. Bernard's popularity is fleeting, though, and he becomes envious that John only really bonds with the literary-minded Helmholtz. Considered hideous and friendless, Linda spends all her time using soma, which she craved for so long, while John refuses to attend social events organised by Bernard, appalled by what he perceives to be an empty society. Lenina and John are physically attracted to each other, but John's view of courtship and romance, based on Shakespeare's writings, is utterly incompatible with Lenina's freewheeling attitude to sex. She tries to seduce him, but he attacks her, before suddenly being informed that his mother is on her deathbed. He rushes to Linda's bedside, causing a scandal, as this is not the "correct" attitude to death. Some children who enter the ward for "death-conditioning" come across as disrespectful to John, and he attacks one physically. He then tries to break up a distribution of soma to a lower-caste group, telling them that he is freeing them. Helmholtz and Bernard rush in to stop the ensuing riot, which the police quell by spraying soma vapor into the crowd.

Bernard, Helmholtz, and John are all brought before Mustapha Mond, the "Resident World Controller for Western Europe", who tells Bernard and Helmholtz that they are to be exiled to islands for antisocial activity. Bernard pleads for a second chance, but Helmholtz welcomes the opportunity to be a true individual, and chooses theFalkland Islandsas his destination, believing thattheir bad weatherwill inspire his writing. Mond tells Helmholtz that exile is actually a reward. The islands are full of the most interesting people in the world, individuals who did not fit into the social model of the World State. Mond outlines for John the events that led to the present society and his arguments for a caste system and social control. John rejects Mond's arguments, and Mond sums up John's views by claiming that John demands "the right to be unhappy". John asks if he may go to the islands as well, but Mond refuses, saying he wishes to see what happens to John next.

Jaded with his new life, John moves to an abandoned hilltop lighthouse, near the village ofPuttenham,where he intends to adopt a solitaryasceticlifestyle in order to purify himself of civilization, practisingself-flagellation.This draws reporters and eventually hundreds of amazed sightseers,hoping to witnesshis bizarre behaviour.

For a while it seems that John might be left alone, after the public's attention is drawn to other diversions, but a documentary maker has secretly filmed John's self-flagellation from a distance, and when released the documentary causes an international sensation. Helicopters arrive with more journalists. Crowds of people descend on John's retreat, demanding that he perform his whipping ritual for them. From one helicopter a young woman emerges who is implied to be Lenina. John, at the sight of a woman he both adores and loathes, whips at her in a fury and then turns the whip on himself, exciting the crowd, whose wild behaviour transforms into a soma-fuelled orgy. The next morning John awakes on the ground and is consumed by remorse over his participation in the night's events.

That evening, a swarm of helicopters appears on the horizon, the story of last night's orgy having been in all the papers. The first onlookers and reporters to arrive find that John is dead, having hanged himself.

Characters[edit]

Bernard Marx,a sleep-learning specialist at the Central London Hatchery and Conditioning Centre. Although Bernard is an Alpha-Plus (the upper class of the society), he is a misfit. He is unusually short for an Alpha; an alleged accident with alcohol in Bernard's blood-surrogate before his decanting has left him slightly stunted. Unlike his fellow utopians, Bernard is often angry, resentful, and jealous. At times, he is also cowardly and hypocritical. His conditioning is clearly incomplete. He does not enjoy communal sports, solidarity services, or promiscuous sex. He does not particularly enjoy soma. Bernard is in love with Lenina and does not like her sleeping with other men, even though "everyone belongs to everyone else". Bernard's triumphant return to utopian civilisation with John the Savage from the Reservation precipitates the downfall of the Director, who had been planning to exile him. Bernard's triumph is short-lived; he is ultimately banished to an island for his non-conformist behaviour.

John,the illicit son of the Director and Linda, born and reared on the Savage Reservation ( "Malpais" ) after Linda was unwittingly left behind by her errant lover. John ( "the Savage" or "Mr. Savage", as he is often called) is an outsider both on the Reservation—where the natives still practice marriage, natural birth, family life and religion—and the ostensibly civilised World State, based on principles of stability and happiness. He has read nothing but the complete works ofWilliam Shakespeare,which he quotes extensively, and, for the most part, aptly, though his allusion to the "Brave New World" (Miranda's words inThe Tempest) takes on a darker and bitterly ironic resonance as the novel unfolds. John is intensely moral according to a code that he has been taught by Shakespeare and life in Malpais but is also naïve: his views are as imported into his own consciousness as are thehypnopedicmessages of World State citizens. The admonishments of the men of Malpais taught him to regard his mother as a whore; but he cannot grasp that these were the same men who continually sought her out despite their supposedly sacred pledges of monogamy. Because he is unwanted in Malpais, he accepts the invitation to travel back to London and is initially astonished by the comforts of the World State. He remains committed to values that exist only in his poetry. He first spurns Lenina for failing to live up to his Shakespearean ideal and then the entire utopian society: he asserts that its technological wonders and consumerism are poor substitutes for individual freedom, human dignity and personal integrity. After his mother's death, he becomes deeply distressed with grief, surprising onlookers in the hospital. He then withdraws himself from society and attempts to purify himself of "sin" (desire), but is unable to do so. He finds himself gathering a lot of trouble for both his body and mind. He soon does not realise what is real or what is fake, what he does and what he does not do. Soon, everything he thinks about or feels just becomes blurred and unrecognizable. Finally he hangs himself in despair.

Helmholtz Watson,a handsome and successful Alpha-Plus lecturer at the College of Emotional Engineering and a friend of Bernard. He feels unfulfilled writing endless propaganda doggerel, and the stifling conformism andphilistinismof the World State make him restive. Helmholtz is ultimately exiled to theFalkland Islands—a cold asylum for disaffected Alpha-Plus non-conformists—after reading a heretical poem to his students on the virtues of solitude and helping John destroy some Deltas' rations of soma following Linda's death. Unlike Bernard, he takes his exile in his stride and comes to view it as an opportunity for inspiration in his writing. His first name derives from the German physicistHermann von Helmholtz.

Lenina Crowne,a young, beautiful foetus technician at the Central London Hatchery and Conditioning Centre. Lenina Crowne is a Beta who enjoys being a Beta. She is a vaccination worker with beliefs and values that are in line with a citizen of the World State. She is part of the 30% of the female population that are not freemartins (sterile women). Lenina is promiscuous and popular but somewhat quirky in her society: she had a four-month relation with Henry Foster, choosing not to have sex with anyone but him for a period of time. She is basically happy and well-conditioned, using soma to suppress unwelcome emotions, as is expected. Lenina has a date with Bernard, to whom she feels ambivalently attracted, and she goes to the Reservation with him. On returning to civilisation, she tries and fails to seduce John the Savage. John loves and desires Lenina but he is repelled by her forwardness and the prospect of pre-marital sex, rejecting her as an "impudent strumpet".Lenina visits John at the lighthouse but he attacks her with a whip, unwittingly inciting onlookers to do the same. Her exact fate is left unspecified.

Mustapha Mond,Resident World Controller of Western Europe, "His Fordship" Mustapha Mond presides over one of the ten zones of the World State, the global government set up after the cataclysmic Nine Years' War and great Economic Collapse. Sophisticated and good-natured, Mond is an urbane and hyperintelligent advocate of the World State and its ethos of "Community, Identity, Stability". Among the novel's characters, he is uniquely aware of the precise nature of the society he oversees and what it has given up to accomplish its gains. Mond argues that art, literature, and scientific freedom must be sacrificed to secure the ultimateutilitariangoal of maximising societal happiness. He defends the caste system, behavioural conditioning, and the lack of personal freedom in the World State: these, he says, are a price worth paying for achieving social stability, the highest social virtue because it leads to lasting happiness.

Fanny Crowne,Lenina Crowne's friend (they have the same last name because only ten thousand last names are in use in a World State comprising two billion people). Fanny voices the conventional values of her caste and society, particularly the importance of promiscuity: she advises Lenina that she should have more than one man in her life because it is unseemly to concentrate on just one. Fanny then warns Lenina away from a new lover whom she considers undeserving, yet she is ultimately supportive of the young woman's attraction to the savage John.

Henry Foster,one of Lenina's many lovers, is a perfectly conventional Alpha male, casually discussing Lenina's body with his coworkers. His success with Lenina, and his casual attitude about it, infuriate the jealous Bernard. Henry ultimately proves himself every bit the ideal World State citizen, finding no courage to defend Lenina from John's assaults despite having maintained an uncommonly longstanding sexual relationship with her.

Benito Hoover,another of Lenina's lovers. She remembers that he is particularly hairy when he takes his clothes off.

TheDirector of Hatcheries and Conditioning (DHC),also known asThomas "Tomakin",is the administrator of the Central London Hatchery and Conditioning Centre, where he is a threatening figure who intends to exile Bernard to Iceland. His plans take an unexpected turn when Bernard returns from the Reservation with Linda (see below) and John, a child they both realise is actually his. This fact, scandalous and obscene in the World State, not because it was extramarital (which all sexual acts are), but because it was procreative, leads the Director to resign his post in shame.

Linda,John's mother, decanted as a Beta-Minus in the World State, originally worked in the DHC's Fertilizing Room, and subsequently lost during a storm while visiting the New Mexico Savage Reservation with the Director many years before the events of the novel. Despite following her usual precautions, Linda became pregnant with the Director's son during their time together and was therefore unable to return to the World State by the time that she found her way to Malpais. Having been conditioned to the promiscuous social norms of the World State, Linda finds herself at once popular with every man in the pueblo (because she is open to all sexual advances) and also reviled for the same reason, seen as a whore by the wives of the men who visit her and by the men themselves (who come to her nonetheless). Her only comforts there aremescalbrought by Popé as well aspeyotl.Linda is desperate to return to the World State and to soma, wanting nothing more from her remaining life than comfort until death.

TheArch-Community-Songster,the secular equivalent of theArchbishop of Canterburyin the World State society. He takes personal offense when John refuses to attend Bernard's party.

TheDirector of Crematoria and Phosphorus Reclamation,one of the many disappointed, important figures to attend Bernard's party.

TheWarden,an Alpha-Minus, the talkative chief administrator for the New Mexico Savage Reservation. He is blond, short, broad-shouldered, and has a booming voice.[27]

Darwin Bonaparte,a "big game photographer" (i.e. filmmaker) who films John flogging himself. Darwin Bonaparte became known for two works: "feely of the gorillas' wedding",[28]and "Sperm Whale's Love-life".[28]He had already made a name for himself[29]but still seeks more. He renews his fame by filming the savage, John, in his newest release "The Savage of Surrey".[30]His name alludes toCharles DarwinandNapoleon Bonaparte.

Dr. Shaw,Bernard Marx's physician who consequently becomes the physician of both Linda and John. He prescribes a lethal dose of soma to Linda, which will stop her respiratory system from functioning in a span of one to two months, at her own behest but not without protest from John. Ultimately, they all agree that it is for the best, since denying her this request would cause more trouble for Society and Linda herself.

Dr. Gaffney,Provostof Eton, an Upper School for high-caste individuals. He shows Bernard and John around the classrooms, and the Hypnopaedic Control Room (used for behavioural conditioning through sleep learning). John asks if the students read Shakespeare but the Provost says the library contains only reference books because solitary activities, such as reading, are discouraged.

Miss Keate,Head MistressofEtonUpper School. Bernard fancies her, and arranges an assignation with her.[31]

Others[edit]

  • Freemartins,women who have been deliberately made sterile by exposure to male hormones during foetal development but are still physically normal except for "the slightest tendency to grow beards". In the book, government policy requires freemartins to form 70% of the female population.

Of Malpais[edit]

  • Popé, a native of Malpais. Although he reinforces the behaviour that causes hatred for Linda in Malpais by sleeping with her and bringing hermescal,he still holds the traditional beliefs of his tribe. In his early years John attempted to kill him, but Popé brushed off his attempt and sent him fleeing. He gave Linda a copy of the Complete Works of Shakespeare. (Historically,Popéor Po'pay was aTewareligious leader who led thePueblo Revoltin 1680 againstSpanishcolonial rule.)
  • Mitsima, an elder tribalshamanwho also teaches John survival skills such as rudimentary ceramics (specificallycoil pots,which were traditional to Native American tribes) and bow-making.
  • Kiakimé, a native girl whom John fell for, but is instead eventually wed to another boy from Malpais.
  • Kothlu, a native boy with whom Kiakimé is wed.

Background figures[edit]

These are non-fictional and factual characters who lived before the events in this book, but are of note in the novel:

  • Henry Ford,who has become amessianicfigure to theWorld State."Our Ford" is used in place of "Our Lord", as a credit to popularising the use of theassembly line.
  • Sigmund Freud,"Our Freud" is sometimes said in place of "Our Ford" because Freud's psychoanalytic method depends implicitly upon the rules of classical conditioning,[citation needed]and because Freud popularised the idea that sexual activity is essential to human happiness. (It is also strongly implied that citizens of the World State believe Freud and Ford to be the same person.)[32]
  • H. G. Wells,"Dr. Wells", British writer andutopian socialist,whose bookMen Like Godswas a motivation forBrave New World."All's well that ends Wells", wrote Huxley in his letters, criticising Wells for anthropological assumptions Huxley found unrealistic.
  • Ivan Petrovich Pavlov,whose conditioning techniques are used to train infants.
  • William Shakespeare,whose banned works are quoted throughout the novel by John, "the Savage". The plays quoted includeMacbeth,The Tempest,Romeo and Juliet,Hamlet,King Lear,Troilus and Cressida,Measure for MeasureandOthello.Mustapha Mond also knows them because as a World Controller he has access to a selection of books from throughout history, including theBible.
  • Thomas Robert Malthus,19th century British economist, believed the people of the Earth would eventually be threatened by their inability to raise enough food to feed the population. In the novel, the eponymous character devises the contraceptive techniques (Malthusian belt) that are practiced by women of the World State.
  • Reuben Rabinovitch, the Polish-Jew character on whom the effects of sleep-learning,hypnopædia,are first observed.
  • John Henry Newman,19th century Catholic theologian and educator, believed university education the critical element in advancing post-industrial Western civilization. Mustapha Mond and The Savage discuss a passage from one of Newman's books.
  • Alfred Mond,British industrialist, financier and politician. He is the namesake of Mustapha Mond.[33]
  • Mustafa Kemal Atatürk,the founder and first President ofRepublic of Turkey.Naming Mond after Atatürk links up with their characteristics; he reigned during the timeBrave New Worldwas written and revolutionised the 'old' Ottoman state into a new nation.[33]

Sources of names and references[edit]

The limited number of names that the World State assigned to its bottle-grown citizens can be traced to political and cultural figures who contributed to the bureaucratic, economic, and technological systems of Huxley's age, and presumably those systems inBrave New World.[34]

  • Soma: Huxley took the name for the drug used by the state to control the population after the Vedic ritual drinkSoma,inspired by his interest in Indianmysticism.
  • Malthusian belt: A contraceptive device worn by women. When Huxley was writingBrave New World,organizations such as theMalthusian Leaguehad spread throughout Europe, advocating contraception. Although the controversial economic theory ofMalthusianismwas derived froman essaybyThomas Malthusabout the economic effects of population growth, Malthus himself was an advocate of abstinence rather than contraception.

Reception[edit]

Upon its publication,Rebecca WestpraisedBrave New Worldas "The most accomplished novel Huxley has yet written",[35]Joseph Needhamlauded it as "Mr. Huxley's remarkable book",[36]andBertrand Russellalso praised it, stating, "Mr. Aldous Huxley has shown his usual masterly skill inBrave New World."[37]Brave New Worldalso received negative responses from other contemporary critics, although his work was later embraced.[38]

In an article in the 4 May 1935 issue of theIllustrated London News,G. K. Chestertonexplained that Huxley was revolting against the "Age of Utopias". Much of the discourse on man's future before 1914 was based on the thesis that humanity would solve all economic and social issues. In the decade following the war the discourse shifted to an examination of the causes of the catastrophe. The works ofH. G. WellsandGeorge Bernard Shawon the promises of socialism and a World State were then viewed as the ideas of naive optimists. Chesterton wrote:

After the Age of Utopias came what we may call the American Age, lasting as long as the Boom. Men like Ford or Mond seemed to many to have solved the social riddle and made capitalism the common good. But it was not native to us; it went with a buoyant, not to say blatant optimism, which is not our negligent or negative optimism. Much more than Victorian righteousness, or even Victorian self-righteousness, that optimism has driven people into pessimism. For the Slump brought even more disillusionment than the War. A new bitterness, and a new bewilderment, ran through all social life, and was reflected in all literature and art. It was contemptuous, not only of the old Capitalism, but of the old Socialism.Brave New Worldis more of a revolution against Utopia than against Victoria.[39]

Similarly, in 1944 economistLudwig von MisesdescribedBrave New Worldas asatireof utopian predictions ofsocialism:"Aldous Huxley was even courageous enough to make socialism's dreamed paradise the target of his sardonic irony."[40]

Common misunderstandings[edit]

See also:Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder,Eugenics § In science fiction,andIsland (Huxley novel)

Various authors assume that the book was first and foremost acautionary taleregardinghuman geneticenhancement,[41][42][43]indeed about – as an infamous report ofBushassociateLeon Kassstates –: "producing improved [,][...] perfect or post-human" people.[44]In fact, the title itself has become a mere stand-in used to "evoke the general idea of a futuristic dystopia".[45] And yet, all this appears to be one big misunderstanding of Huxley's much more nuanced motives, as geneticist Derek So notes.[45]: 318 A more careful reading of the actual text, he argues, shows us that:

there does not seem to be any genetic testing inBrave New World,and most of the methods described involve hormones and chemicals rather than heritable interventions. Although Huxley wrote that "eugenicsanddysgenicswere practiced systematically ", this seems to refer only to selective breeding and not to any kind of direct manipulation on the genetic level. (The Bokanovsky process does represent a form of cloning, but this is not ethically equivalent toGGE,and references toBrave New Worldmay lead some readers to confuse the two technologies.) [...] While it's true that the upper castes inBrave New Worldare smarter than the others, this is more because of the deliberate impairment of the lower castes than because the upper castes are "perfect". Rather than reducing the number of individuals born with genetic disorders or handicaps, Huxley's dystopia involves dramatically increasing their number. [...] Quite the opposite: Huxley thought thatBrave New Worldmight come about if wedidn'tstart selecting better children.[45]: 318-9 

Overall, Derek So notes that "Huxley was much more worried about totalitarianism than about the new biotechnologies per se that he alluded to in Brave New World."[45][46] Despite claims to the contrary then, Huxley remained a committed eugenicist all throughout his life,[47]much like his comparably famous brother Julian, and one just as keen on stressing itshumanistic underpinnings.[48]

The World State and Fordism[edit]

The World State is built upon the principles of Henry Ford'sassembly line:mass production, homogeneity, predictability, and consumption of disposable consumer goods. While the World State lacks any supernatural-based religions, Ford himself is revered as the creator of their society but not as a deity, and characters celebrate Ford Day and swear oaths by his name (e.g., "By Ford!" ). In this sense, some fragments of traditional religion are present, such as Christian crosses, which had their tops cut off to be changed to a "T", representing theFord Model T.In England, there is an Arch-Community-Songster of Canterbury, obviously continuing theArchbishop of Canterbury,and in AmericaThe Christian Science Monitorcontinues publication asThe Fordian Science Monitor.The World State calendar numbers years in the "AF" era— "Anno Ford" —with the calendar beginning in AD 1908, the year in which Ford's first Model T rolled off his assembly line. The novel's Gregorian calendar year is AD 2540, but it is referred to in the book as AF 632.[49]

From birth, members of every class areindoctrinatedby recorded voices repeating slogans while they sleep (called "hypnopædia" in the book) to believe their own class is superior, but that the other classes perform needed functions. Any residual unhappiness is resolved by anantidepressantandhallucinogenic drugcalled soma.

The biological techniques used to control the populace inBrave New Worlddo not includegenetic engineering;Huxley wrote the book before the structure ofDNAwas known. However,Gregor Mendel's work with inheritance patterns in peas had been rediscovered in 1900 and theeugenicsmovement, based onartificial selection,was well established.Huxley's familyincluded a number of prominent biologists includingThomas Huxley,half-brother andNobel LaureateAndrew Huxley,and his brotherJulian Huxleywho was a biologist and involved in the eugenics movement. Nonetheless, Huxley emphasises conditioning over breeding (nurture versus nature); human embryos and fetuses are conditioned through a carefully designed regimen of chemical (such as exposure to hormones and toxins), thermal (exposure to intense heat or cold, as one's future career would dictate), and other environmental stimuli, although there is an element ofselective breedingas well.

Comparisons with George Orwell'sNineteen Eighty-Four[edit]

Further information:Brave New World comparisons

In a letter toGeorge OrwellaboutNineteen Eighty-Four,Huxley wrote "Whether in actual fact the policy of the boot-on-the-face can go on indefinitely seems doubtful. My own belief is that the ruling oligarchy will find less arduous and wasteful ways of governing and of satisfying its lust for power, and these ways will resemble those which I described in Brave New World."[50]He went on to write "Within the next generation I believe that the world's rulers will discover that infant conditioning and narco-hypnosis are more efficient, as instruments of government, than clubs and prisons, and that the lust for power can be just as completely satisfied by suggesting people into loving their servitude as by flogging and kicking them into obedience."[50]

Social criticNeil Postmancontrasted the worlds ofNineteen Eighty-FourandBrave New Worldin the foreword of his 1985 bookAmusing Ourselves to Death.He writes:

What Orwell feared were those who would ban books. What Huxley feared was that there would be no reason to ban a book, for there would be no one who wanted to read one. Orwell feared those who would deprive us of information. Huxley feared those who would give us so much that we would be reduced to passivity and egoism. Orwell feared that the truth would be concealed from us. Huxley feared the truth would be drowned in a sea of irrelevance. Orwell feared we would become a captive culture. Huxley feared we would become a trivial culture, preoccupied with some equivalent of the feelies, the orgy porgy, and the centrifugal bumblepuppy. As Huxley remarked inBrave New World Revisited,the civillibertariansand rationalists who are ever on the alert to oppose tyranny "failed to take into account man's almost infinite appetite for distractions." In1984,Huxley added, people are controlled by inflicting pain. InBrave New World,they are controlled by inflicting pleasure. In short, Orwell feared that what we hate will ruin us. Huxley feared that what we love will ruin us.

The writerChristopher Hitchens,who published several articles on Huxley and a book on Orwell, noted the difference between the two texts in the introduction to his 1999 article "Why Americans Are Not Taught History",

We dwell in a present-tense culture that somehow, significantly, decided to employ the telling expression "You're history" as a choice reprobation or insult, and thus elected to speak forgotten volumes about itself. By that standard, the forbidding dystopia of George Orwell'sNineteen Eighty-Fouralready belongs, both as a text and as a date, withUrandMycenae,while thehedonistnihilismof Huxley still beckons toward a painless, amusement-sodden, and stress-free consensus. Orwell's was a house of horrors. He seemed to strain credulity because he posited a regime that would go to any lengths to own and possess history, to rewrite and construct it, and to inculcate it by means of coercion. Whereas Huxley... rightly foresaw that any such regime could break because it could not bend. In 1988, four years after 1984, theSoviet Unionscrapped its official history curriculum and announced that a newly authorized version was somewhere in the works. This was the precise moment when the regime conceded its own extinction. For true blissed-out and vacant servitude, though, you need an otherwise sophisticated society where no serious history is taught.[51]

Brave New World Revisited[edit]

In 1946, Huxley wrote in the foreword of the new edition ofBrave New World:

If I were now to rewrite the book, I would offerthe Savagea third alternative. Between the Utopian and primitive horns of his dilemma would lie the possibility of sanity... In this community economics would be decentralist andHenry-Georgian,politicsKropotkinesqueand co-operative. Science and technology would be used as though, like theSabbath,they had been made for man, not (as at present and still more so in the Brave New World) as though man were to be adapted and enslaved to them. Religion would be the conscious and intelligent pursuit of man's Final End, the unitive knowledge of immanentTaoorLogos,the transcendentGodheadorBrahman.And the prevailing philosophy of life would be a kind of HigherUtilitarianism,in which the Greatest Happiness principle would be secondary to the Final End principle—the first question to be asked and answered in every contingency of life being: "How will this thought or action contribute to, or interfere with, the achievement, by me and the greatest possible number of other individuals, of man's Final End?"[52]

First UK edition

Brave New World Revisited(Harper & Brothers,US, 1958;Chatto & Windus,UK, 1959),[53]written by Huxley almost thirty years afterBrave New World,is a non-fiction work in which Huxley considered whether the world had moved toward or away from his vision of the future from the 1930s. He believed when he wrote the original novel that it was a reasonable guess as to where the world might go in the future. InBrave New World Revisited,he concluded that the world was becoming likeBrave New Worldmuch faster than he originally thought.

Huxley analysed the causes of this, such asoverpopulation,as well as all the means by which populations can be controlled. He was particularly interested in the effects ofdrugsandsubliminal suggestion.Brave New World Revisitedis different in tone because of Huxley's evolving thought, as well as his conversion to HinduVedantain the interim between the two books.

The last chapter of the book aims to propose action which could be taken to prevent a democracy from turning into thetotalitarianworld described inBrave New World.In Huxley's last novel,Island,he again expounds similar ideas to describe a utopian nation, which is generally viewed as a counterpart toBrave New World.[54]

Censorship[edit]

According toAmerican Library Association,Brave New Worldhas frequently been banned and challenged in the United States due to insensitivity, offensive language, nudity, racism, conflict with a religious viewpoint, and being sexually explicit.[55]It landed on the list of the top ten most challenged books in 2010 (3) and 2011 (7).[55]The book also secured a spot on the association's list of the top one hundred challenged books for 1990–1999 (54),[7]2000–2009 (36),[8]and 2010–2019 (26).[9]

The following include specific instances of when the book has been censored, banned, or challenged:

  • In 1932, the book wasbanned in Irelandfor its language, and for supposedly being anti-family and anti-religion.[56][57]
  • In 1965, aMarylandEnglish teacher alleged that he was fired for assigningBrave New Worldto students. The teacher sued for violation ofFirst Amendmentrights but lost both his case and theappeal,with the appeals court ruling that the assignment of the book was not the reason for his firing.[58]
  • The book was banned in India in 1967, with Huxley accused of being a "pornographer".[59]
  • In 1980, it was removed from classrooms inMiller,Missouri among other challenges.[60]
  • The version ofBrave New World Revisitedpublished in China lacks explicit mentions of China itself.[61]

Influences and allegations of plagiarism[edit]

The English writerRose MacaulaypublishedWhat Not: A Prophetic Comedyin 1918.What Notdepicts a dystopian future where people are ranked by intelligence, the government mandates mind training for all citizens, and procreation is regulated by the state.[62]Macaulay and Huxley shared the same literary circles and he attended her weekly literary salons.

Bertrand Russellfelt Brave New World borrowed from his 1931 book "The Scientific Outlook", and wrote in a letter to his publisher that Huxley's novel was "merely an expansion of the two penultimate chapters of 'The Scientific Outlook.'"[63]

H. G. Wells' novelThe First Men in the Moon(1901) used concepts that Huxley added to his story. Both novels introduce a society consisting of a specialized caste system, new generations are produced in jars and bottles where their designated caste is decided before birth by tempering with the fetus' development, and individuals are drugged down when they are not needed.[64]

George Orwellbelieved thatBrave New Worldmust have been partly derived from the 1921 novelWeby Russian authorYevgeny Zamyatin.[65]However, in a 1962 letter to Christopher Collins, Huxley says that he wroteBrave New Worldlong before he had heard ofWe.[66]According toWetranslator Natasha Randall, Orwell believed that Huxley was lying.[67] Kurt Vonnegutsaid that in writingPlayer Piano(1952), he "cheerfully ripped off the plot ofBrave New World,whose plot had been cheerfully ripped off from Yevgeny Zamyatin'sWe".[68]

In 1982,Polishauthor Antoni Smuszkiewicz, in his analysis of Polish science-fictionZaczarowana gra( "The Magic Game" ), presented accusations ofplagiarismagainst Huxley. Smuszkiewicz showed similarities betweenBrave New Worldand two science fiction novels written earlier by Polish authorMieczysław Smolarski,namelyMiasto światłości( "The City of Light", 1924) andPodróż poślubna pana Hamiltona( "Mr Hamilton's Honeymoon Trip", 1928).[69]Smuszkiewicz wrote in his open letter to Huxley: "This work of a great author, both in the general depiction of the world as well as countless details, is so similar to two of my novels that in my opinion there is no possibility of accidental analogy."[70]

Kate Lohnes, writing forEncyclopædia Britannica,notes similarities betweenBrave New Worldand other novels of the era could be seen as expressing "common fears surrounding the rapid advancement of technology and of the shared feelings of many tech-skeptics during the early 20th century". Other dystopian novels followed Huxley's work, includingC.S. Lewis'sThat Hideous Strength(1945) and Orwell'sNineteen Eighty-Four(1949).[71]

Legacy[edit]

In 1999, theModern LibraryrankedBrave New Worldfifth on its list of the100 best English-language novels of the 20th century.[4]In 2003,Robert McCrumwriting forThe ObserverincludedBrave New Worldchronologically at number 53 in "the top 100 greatest novels of all time",[5]and the novel was listed at number 87 on theBBC's surveyThe Big Read.[6]

On 5 November 2019,BBC NewslistedBrave New Worldon its list of the100 most influential novels.[72]In 2021,Brave New Worldwas one of six classic science fiction novels by British authors selected byRoyal Mailto feature on aseries of UK postage stamps.[73]

Adaptations[edit]

Theatre[edit]

  • Brave New World(opened 4 September 2015) in co-production by Royal & Derngate, Northampton and Touring Consortium Theatre Company which toured the UK. The adaptation was by Dawn King, composed byThese New Puritansand directed byJames Dacre.

Radio[edit]

Film[edit]

Television[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

  1. ^"CABELL PUTS STYLE ABOVEIDEA IN a BOOK; Author Confesses He Cannot Define Style, but Calls It 'Very Nearly Most Important.' NEVER AWAITS INSPIRATION in Interview He Recalls Newspaper Days at $25 a Week and Says Recognition Came Slowly".The New York Times.
  2. ^"Brave New World Book Details".fAR BookFinder.Retrieved28 November2016.
  3. ^"Brave New World by Aldous Huxley".British Library.Retrieved16 October2022.
  4. ^ab"100 Best Novels".Random House. 1999.Retrieved23 June2007.This ranking was by theModern Library Editorial Boardof authors.
  5. ^abMcCrum, Robert (12 October 2003)."100 greatest novels of all time".Guardian.London.Retrieved10 October2012.
  6. ^ab"BBC - The Big Read - Top 100".BBC.April 2003.Retrieved29 December2022.
  7. ^abOffice of Intellectual Freedom (26 March 2013)."100 most frequently challenged books: 1990-1999".American Library Association.Archivedfrom the original on 10 October 2020.Retrieved17 June2021.
  8. ^abOffice of Intellectual Freedom (26 March 2013)."Top 100 Banned/Challenged Books: 2000-2009".American Library Association.Archivedfrom the original on 24 September 2020.Retrieved17 June2021.
  9. ^abOffice of Intellectual Freedom (9 September 2020)."Top 100 Most Banned and Challenged Books: 2010-2019".American Library Association.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2020.Retrieved17 June2021.
  10. ^Anon."Brave New World".In Our Time.British Broadcasting Corporation.Retrieved9 April2009.
  11. ^Bate, Jonathan;Rasmussen, Eric (2007).William Shakespeare: Complete Works.The Royal Shakespeare Company.Chief Associate Editor: Héloïse Sénéchal.Macmillan Publishers Ltd.p. 47.ISBN978-0-230-00350-7.
  12. ^Ira Grushow (October 1962). "Brave New World and The Tempest".College English.24(1): 42–45.doi:10.2307/373846.JSTOR373846.
  13. ^Martine de Gaudemar (1995).La Notion de nature chez Leibniz: colloque.Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 77.ISBN978-3-515-06631-0.
  14. ^Meckier, Jerome (1979). "A Neglected Huxley" Preface ": His Earliest Synopsis of Brave New World".Twentieth Century Literature.25(1): 1–20.doi:10.2307/441397.ISSN0041-462X.JSTOR441397.
  15. ^Murray, Nicholas (13 December 2003)."Nicholas Murray on his life of Huxley".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Retrieved13 April2020.
  16. ^"A. Huxley in Sanary 1 - Introduction".sanary.Archived fromthe originalon 11 January 2017.Retrieved27 September2019.
  17. ^Wickes, George; Fraser, Raymond (1960)."Aldous Huxley, The Art of Fiction No. 24".Paris Review.Spring 1960 (23).ISSN0031-2037.Archived fromthe originalon 22 September 2010.Retrieved24 August2022.
  18. ^Huxley, Aldous(1969). "letter to Mrs. Kethevan Roberts, 18 May 1931". In Smith, Grover (ed.).Letters of Aldous Huxley.New York and Evanston: Harper & Row. p. 348.I am writing a novel about the future – on the horror of the Wellsian Utopia and a revolt against it. Very difficult. I have hardly enough imagination to deal with such a subject. But it is none the less interesting work.
  19. ^Heje, Johan (2002). "Aldous Huxley". In Harris-Fain, Darren (ed.).British Fantasy and Science-Fiction Writers, 1918–1960.Detroit: Gale Group. p. 100.ISBN0-7876-5249-0.
  20. ^Lawrence biographerFrances Wilsonwrites that "the entire novel is saturated in Lawrence" and cites "Lawrence's New Mexico" in particular. Wilson, Frances (2021).Burning Man: The Trials of D.H. Lawrence,New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, pp. 404–405.
  21. ^Nathaniel Ward "The visions of Wells, Huxley and Orwell—why was the Twentieth Century impressed by Distopias rather than Utopias?" in Ophelia Ruddle (ed.) Proceedings of the 2003 Annual Multidisciplinary Round Table on Twentieth Century Culture "
  22. ^Haldane, J.B.S.(1924).Daedalus; or, Science and the Future.
  23. ^Dyson, Freeman (1976).Disturbing the Universe.Basic Books. Chapter 15.
  24. ^abcBradshaw, David (2004). "Introduction". InHuxley, Aldous(ed.).Brave New World(Print ed.). London, UK: Vintage.
  25. ^Huxley, Aldous.Brave New World(Vintage Classics ed.).[page needed]
  26. ^Meckier, Jerome (2002)."Aldous Huxley's Americanization of the" Brave New World ""(PDF).Twentieth Century American Literature.48(4): 439.JSTOR3176042.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved30 December2021.
  27. ^Huxley, Aldous (1932).Brave New World.New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 101.ISBN978-0-06-085052-4.
  28. ^abHuxley, Aldous (1932).Brave New World.New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 253.ISBN978-0-06-085052-4.
  29. ^Huxley, Aldous (1932).Brave New World.New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 252.ISBN978-0-06-085052-4.
  30. ^Huxley, Aldous (1932).Brave New World.New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 254.ISBN978-0-06-085052-4.
  31. ^Her name is a in-joke reference toJohn Keate,the notorious 19th century flogging headmaster of Eton.
  32. ^chapter 3, "Our Ford-or Our Freud, as, for some inscrutable reason, he chose to call himself whenever he spoke of psychological matters–Our Freud had been the first to reveal the appalling dangers of family life"
  33. ^abNaughton, John (22 November 2013)."Aldous Huxley: the prophet of our brave new digital dystopia | John Naughton".The Guardian.Retrieved7 October2018.
  34. ^Meckier, Jerome (2006)."Onomastic Satire: Names and Naming inBrave New World".In Firchow, Peter Edgerly; Nugel, Bernfried (eds.).Aldous Huxley: modern satirical novelist of ideas.Lit Verlag. pp. 187ff.ISBN3-8258-9668-4.OCLC71165436.Retrieved28 January2009.
  35. ^The Daily Telegraph,5 February 1932. Reprinted in Donald Watt, "Aldous Huxley: The Critical Heritage. London; Routledge, 2013ISBN1136209697(pp. 197–201).
  36. ^Scrutiny,May 1932. Reprinted in Watt, (pp. 202–205).
  37. ^"We Don't Want to be Happy", in:The New Leader(11 March 1932), reprinted in: Donald Watt,Aldous Huxley: The Critical Heritage(1975), pp. 210–13.
  38. ^Huxley, Aldous.Brave New World.Harper Perennial Modern Classics; Reprint edition (17 October 2006), P.S. Edition,ISBN978-0-06-085052-4— "About the Book." — "Too Far Ahead of Its Time? The Contemporary Response toBrave New World(1932) "p. 8-11
  39. ^G.K. Chesterton, review inThe Illustrated London News,4 May 1935
  40. ^Ludwig von Mises (1944).Bureaucracy,New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, p 110
  41. ^McGee G. (2000).The Perfect Baby: Parenthood in the New World of Cloning and Genetics.Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield
  42. ^Elliott C. (2003).Better Than Well: American Medicine Meets the American Dream.New York: W.W. Norton
  43. ^Spar D. (2006).The Baby Business: How Money, Science and Politics Drive the Commerce of Conception.Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press
  44. ^2003. President's Council on Bioethics. Beyond Therapy. Washington, DC: President's Council on Bioethics
  45. ^abcdSo, Derek (2019). "The Use and Misuse of Brave New World in the CRISPR Debate."CRISPR J.2(5):316-323. doi:10.1089/crispr.2019.0046. PMID 31599683.
  46. ^Fletcher J. (1988).The Ethics of Genetic Control: Ending Genetic Roulette.Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.
  47. ^Kevles DJ. (1985).In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity.New York: Knopf
  48. ^Woiak, Joanne (2007). "Designing a Brave New World: Eugenics, Politics, and Fiction."The Public Historian,29(3), 105–129.https://doi.org/10.1525/tph.2007.29.3.105
  49. ^"Brave New World | Summary, Context, & Reception | Britannica".britannica.Retrieved29 May2023.
  50. ^ab"Letters of Note: 1984 v. Brave New World".8 February 2020. Archived fromthe originalon 8 February 2020.Retrieved8 February2020.
  51. ^Christopher Hitchens,"Goodbye to All That: Why Americans Are Not Taught History."Harper's Magazine.November 1998, pp. 37–47.
  52. ^Huxley, Aldous (2005).Brave New World and Brave New World Revisited.Harper Perennial Modern Classics. p.7.ISBN978-0060776091.
  53. ^"Brave New World Revisited – HUXLEY, Aldous | Between the Covers Rare Books".Betweenthecovers. Archived fromthe originalon 9 June 2011.Retrieved1 June2010.
  54. ^Schermer, M. H. N. (June 2007)."Brave New World versus Island — Utopian and Dystopian Views on Psychopharmacology".Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy.10(2): 119–128.doi:10.1007/s11019-007-9059-1.ISSN1386-7423.PMC2779438.PMID17486431.
  55. ^abOffice of Intellectual Freedom (26 March 2013)."Top 10 Most Challenged Books Lists".American Library Association.Archivedfrom the original on 28 July 2017.Retrieved17 June2021.
  56. ^"Banned Books".Classiclit.about. 2 November 2009. Archived fromthe originalon 2 October 2010.Retrieved1 June2010.
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  58. ^Karolides, Nicholas J.; Bald, Margaret; Sova, Dawn B. (2011).120 Banned Books: Censorship Histories of World Literature(Second ed.). Checkmark Books. p. 472.ISBN978-0-8160-8232-2.In 1965, a teacher of English in Maryland claimed that the local school board had violated his First Amendment rights by firing him after he assignedBrave New Worldas a required reading in his class. The district court ruled against the teacher inParker v. Board of Education,237 F. Supp. 222 (D.Md) and refused his request for reinstatement in the teaching position. When the case was later heard by the circuit court,Parker v. Board of Education,348 F.2d 464 (4th Cir. 1965), the presiding judge affirmed the ruling of the lower court and included in the determination the opinion that the nontenured status of the teacher accounted for the firing and not the assignment of a particular book.
  59. ^Sharma, Partap (1975). Razdan, C. K. (ed.).Bare breasts and Bare Bottoms: Anatomy of Film Censorship in India.Bombay:Jaico Publishing House.pp. 21–22.
  60. ^Sakmann, Lindsay."LION: Banned Books Week: Banned BOOKS in the Library".library.albright.edu.Retrieved18 June2020.
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  64. ^Aldous Huxley and Utopia
  65. ^Orwell, George(4 January 1946)."Review".Orwell Today.Tribune.
  66. ^Russell, Robert (1999).Zamiatin's We.Bristol: Bristol Classical Press. p. 13.ISBN978-1-85399-393-0.
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General bibliography[edit]

External links[edit]

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