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Brazilian battleshipMinas Geraes

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For the aircraft carrier, seeBrazilian aircraft carrier Minas Gerais.

Minas Geraesat sea in 1909–1910
History
Brazil
NameMinas Geraes
NamesakeThe state ofMinas Gerais[3]
Ordered1906[3]
BuilderArmstrong Whitworth[3]
Cost$8,863,842[7]
Yard number791[1]
Laid down17 April 1907[3]
Launched10 September 1908[3][4]
Completed5 January 1910[1][2]
Commissioned18 April 1910[5]
Decommissioned16 May 1952
Stricken31 December 1952[5][6]
FateScrapped 1954[5][6]
General characteristics
Class and typeMinas Geraes-classbattleship
Displacement
Length
  • 543 ft (166 m) overall
  • 530 ft (160 m) at waterline
Beam83 ft (25 m)
Draft25 ft (7.6 m)
Propulsion
Speed21 knots (24 mph; 39 km/h)
Range10,000 nmi (12,000 mi; 19,000 km) at 10 knots (12 mph; 19 km/h)
Complement900[A]
Armament
Armor
  • Belt:9 inches (230 mm)
  • Belt extremities: 6–4 in (150–100 mm)
  • Casemate: 9 inches (230 mm)
  • Turrets: 12–9 in (300–230 mm)
  • Conning tower: 12 inches (300 mm)

Minas Geraes,spelledMinas Geraisin some sources,[B]was adreadnoughtbattleshipof theBrazilian Navy.Named in honor of thestateofMinas Gerais,the ship waslaid downin April 1907 as thelead shipofits class,making the country the third to have a dreadnought under construction and igniting anaval arms race between Brazil, Argentina, and Chile.

Two months after its completion in January 1910,Minas Geraeswas featured inScientific American,which described it as "the last word in heavy battleship design and the... most powerfully armed warship afloat".[8]In November 1910,Minas Geraeswas the focal point of theRevolt of the Lash.The mutiny, triggered by racism and physical abuse, spread fromMinas Geraesto other ships in the Navy, including itssisterSão Paulo,the elderlycoastal defense shipDeodoro,and the recently commissioned cruiserBahia.Led byJoão Cândido Felisberto,the mutineers threatened to bombard the Brazilian capital ofRio de Janeiroif their demands were not met. As it was not possible to end the situation militarily—the only loyal troops nearby being smalltorpedo boatsand army troops confined to land—theNational Congress of Brazilconceded to the rebels' demands, including a grant of amnesty, peacefully ending the mutiny.

When Brazil entered theFirst World Warin 1917, Britain'sRoyal Navydeclined Brazil's offer ofMinas Geraesfor duty with theGrand Fleetbecause the ship was outdated; it had not been refitted since entering service, sorange-findersand afire-control systemhad not been added.São Paulounderwent modernization in the United States in 1920; in 1921,Minas Geraesreceived the same treatment. A year later,Minas Geraessailed to counterthe firstof theTenente revolts.São Pauloshelled the rebels' fort, and they surrendered shortly thereafter;Minas Geraesdid not fire its guns. In 1924, mutineers seizedSão Pauloand attempted to persuade the crews ofMinas Geraesand several other ships to join them, but were unsuccessful.

Minas Geraeswas modernized at the Rio de Janeiro Naval Yard in the 1930s, and underwent further refitting from 1939 to 1943. During theSecond World War,the ship was anchored inSalvadoras the main defense of the port, as it was too old to play an active part in the war. For the last nine years of its service life,Minas Geraesremained largely inactive, and was towed to Italy forscrappingin March 1954.

Background

[edit]
Main articles:South American dreadnought race,Argentine–Chilean naval arms race,andMinas Geraes-class battleship
View of theMinas Geraesfrom above one of the gun turrets

Beginning in the late 1880s, Brazil's navy fell into obsolescence, helped along by an1889 revolution,which deposedEmperorDomPedro II,andnaval revolts in 1891 and 1893–94.[9]By the turn of the 20th century it was lagging behind the Chilean and Argentine navies in quality and total tonnage,[10][C]despite Brazil having nearly three times the population of Argentina and almost five times the population of Chile.[12]

At the turn of the twentieth century, soaring demand forcoffeeandrubberbrought prosperity to the Brazilian economy.[13]The government of Brazil used some of the extra money from this economic growth to finance a large naval building program in 1904,[3]which authorized the construction of a large number of warships, including three battleships.[14]The Minister of the Navy, AdmiralJúlio César de Noronha,signed a contract with Armstrong Whitworth for three battleships on 23 July 1906.[15]While the first designs for these ships were derived from the Norwegian coastal defense shipNorgeand the British (originally Chilean)Swiftsureclass,[D]the contracted ships were to followArmstrong Whitworth's Design 439 (Design 188 inVickers' files). They would displace 11,800 long tons (12,000 tonnes), have a speed of 19 knots (22 mph; 35 km/h), and be protected by belt armor of 9 inches (23 cm) and deck armor of 1.5 in (3.8 cm). Each ship would be armed with twelve 10-inch (25 cm) guns mounted in six twin turrets. These turrets would be mounted in a hexagonal configuration, similar to the later GermanNassau-classbattleships.[17]

Two of these ships were laid down by Armstrong inElswick(Minas GeraesandRio de Janeiro), while the other wassubcontractedout to Vickers inBarrow(São Paulo). The newdreadnoughtconcept, which premiered in December 1906 upon the completion ofthe namesake shipin December 1906, rendered the Brazilian ships obsolete.[18]The money authorized for naval expansion was redirected by new Minister of the Navy, Rear AdmiralAlexandrino Faria de Alencar,to building two dreadnoughts, with plans for a third dreadnought after the first was completed, two scout cruisers (which became theBahiaclass), ten destroyers (theParáclass), and three submarines (theFocaclass).[19]The three battleships on which construction had just begun were demolished beginning on 7 January 1907, and the design of the new dreadnoughts was approved by the Brazilians on 20 February 1907.[18]

Even though the greater cost of these ships meant that only two ships could begin immediately, plans went ahead.[20]Minas Geraes,thelead ship,was laid down by Armstrong on 17 April 1907, whileSão Paulofollowed thirteen days later at Vickers.[21]The news shocked Brazil's neighbors, especially Argentina, whoseMinister of Foreign Affairsremarked that eitherMinas GeraesorSão Paulocould destroy the entire Argentine and Chilean fleets.[22]In addition, Brazil's order meant that they had laid down a dreadnought before many of the other major maritime powers, such as Germany, France or Russia,[E]and the two ships made Brazil just the third country to have dreadnoughts under construction, behind the United Kingdom and the United States.[24]In particular, the United States now actively attempted to court Brazil as an ally; caught up in the spirit, U.S. naval journals began using terms like "Pan Americanism" and "Hemispheric Cooperation". Newspapers and journals around the world, particularly in Britain and Germany,speculatedthat Brazil was acting as a proxy for a naval power which would take possession of the two dreadnoughts soon after completion, as they did not believe that a previously insignificant geopolitical power would contract for such powerful armament.[25]

Early career

[edit]
Minas Geraes'superstructure andforemain guns in 1910; note the presence ofwing turretson either side of the superstructure

Minas Geraeswaschristenedby Senhora Regis de Oliveira, the wife of the Brazilian minister to Great Britain,[26]andlaunchedatNewcastle-on-Tyneon 10 September 1908.[4]Duringfitting-out,it was moved to Vickers'Walker Yard,and thousands turned out to see the incomplete ship squeeze barely underneath and through overhead andswing bridges.[27]After completion,Minas Geraeswas handed over by Armstrong on 5 January to the Brazilian Commission on behalf of the Brazilian government, while the ship's company was mustered on deck.[2]The BritishRoyal Navycarried out its gunnery trials at the request of Armstrong's and with the agreement of the Brazilian government.[28]Although the idea of havingsuperfiringturrets was not new—the AmericanSouth Carolina-classbattleships were also designed and built in this fashion around the same time—the trials attracted interest from a few nations, who sent representatives to observe. They wanted to resolve two major questions: the effect that firing the upper superfiring turrets would have on the crewmen in the lower guns, and whether smoke from the discharge of the lower guns would hinder the targeting capabilities of the upper turret. The tests resolved both questions satisfactorily.[8]

Minas Geraesleft the Tyne on 5 February 1910 and traveled toPlymouthbefore beginning a voyage to the United States on 8 February.[29]When the ship reachedNorfolk, Virginia,it escorted the American armored cruiserNorth Carolina,which was carrying the body of the formerBrazilian ambassador to the United StatesJoaquim Nabuco(who had died inWashington, D.C.,on 17 January) to Rio de Janeiro.[30]The two ships set sail on 17 March 1910 and reached Rio de Janeiro one month later,[31]whereMinas Geraeswascommissionedinto the Brazilian Navy on 18 April.[5]

Soon afterMinas Geraes'arrival in Brazil, the country's prosperity began to wane, and a severe depression hit the Brazilian economy.[3]The economic hardship, the racism prevalent in all branches of the Brazilian armed forces,[32]and the severe discipline enforced on all navy ships spawned a mutiny known as theRevolt of the Lash,orRevolta da Chibata,among sailors on the most powerful ships.[33]

  • Launch of the Minas Geraes
    Launch of theMinas Geraes
  • Invitation to the launch of Minas Geraes on 10 September 1908
    Invitation to thelaunchofMinas Geraeson 10 September 1908
  • Minas Geraes painted in 1908 by Charles de Lacy for Armstrong Whitworth, from printed booklet available at launch
    Minas Geraespainted in 1908 byCharles de Lacyfor Armstrong Whitworth, from printed booklet available at launch
  • Arrangements of Guns and Armour of Minas Geraes c. 1910
    Arrangements of Guns and Armour ofMinas Geraes c.1910

Revolt of the Lash

[edit]
Main article:Revolt of the Lash
Afro-Brazilianandpardosailors pose for a photographer on boardMinas Geraes,probably during the ship's visit to the United States in early 1913.

The initial spark was provided on 16 November 1910 whenAfro-BraziliansailorMarcelino Rodrigues Menezeswas brutally flogged 250 times for insubordination. The sailor's back was later described byJosé Carlos de Carvalho,a retired navycaptainassigned to be the Brazilian government's representative to the mutineers, as "a mullet sliced open for salting."[34]Many Afro-Brazilian sailors were sons of former slaves, or were former slaves freed under theLei Áurea(abolition) but forced to enter the navy. They had been planning a revolt for some time, and Menezes became the catalyst. The revolt began aboardMinas Geraesat around 10 pm on 22 November; the ship's commander and several loyal crewmen were murdered in the process. Soon after,São Paulo,the new cruiserBahia,the coast-defense shipDeodoro,the minelayerRepública,thetraining shipBenjamin Constant,and the torpedo boatsTamoioandTymbiraall revolted with relatively little violence. The first four ships represented the newest and strongest ships in the navy;Minas Geraes,São Paulo,andBahiahad been completed and commissioned only months before.Deodorowas twelve years old and had recently undergone arefit.The crews of the smaller warships made up only two percent of the mutineers, and some moved to the largest ships after the revolt began.[35]

The ships were well-supplied with foodstuffs, ammunition, and coal, and the only demand of mutineers—led byJoão Cândido Felisberto—was the abolition of what they called slavery: they objected to low pay, long hours, inadequate training, and punishments includingbolo(being struck on the hand with aferrule) and the use of whips or lashes (chibata), which eventually became a symbol of the revolt. By the 23rd, the National Congress had begun discussing the possibility of a generalamnestyfor the sailors. SenatorRuy Barbosa,long an opponent of slavery, lent a large amount of support, and the measure unanimously passed theFederal Senateon 24 November. The measure was then sent to theChamber of Deputies.[36]

Humiliated by the revolt, naval officers and the president of Brazil were staunchly opposed to amnesty, so they quickly began planning to assault the rebel ships. The officers believed such an action was necessary to restore the service's honor. The rebels, believing an attack was imminent, sailed their ships out ofGuanabara Bayand spent the night of 23–24 November at sea, only returning during daylight. Late on the 24th, the President ordered the naval officers to attack the mutineers. Officers crewed some smaller warships and the cruiserRio Grande do Sul,Bahia's sister ship with ten 4.7-inch guns. They planned to attack on the morning of the 25th, when the government expected the mutineers would return to Guanabara Bay. When they did not return and the amnesty measure neared passage in the Chamber of Deputies, the order was rescinded. After the bill passed 125–23 and the president signed it into law, the mutineers stood down on the 26th.[37]

During the revolt, the ships were noted by many observers to be well handled, despite a previous belief that the Brazilian Navy was incapable of effectively operating the ships even before being split by a rebellion. João Cândido Felisberto ordered all liquor thrown overboard, and discipline on the ships was recognized as exemplary. The 4.7-inch guns were often used for shots over the city, but the 12-inch guns were not, which led to a suspicion among the naval officers that the rebels were incapable of using the weapons. Later research and interviews indicate thatMinas Geraes'guns were fully operational, and whileSão Paulo's could not be turned after salt water contaminated thehydraulicsystem, British engineers still on board the ship after the voyage from the United Kingdom were working on the problem. Still, historians have never ascertained how well the mutineers could handle the ships.[38]

The crews of the torpedo boats remained loyal to the government,[39]and army troops moved to the presidential palace and the coastline, but neither group could stop the mutineers;[32]a major problem for the authorities was that many of the men who manned Rio de Janeiro's harbor defenses were sympathetic to the mutineers' cause.[39]The additional possibility of the capital being bombarded forced theNational Congress of Brazilto give in to the rebels' demands.[32]The demands included the abolition of flogging, improved living conditions, and the granting ofamnestyto all mutineers.[32][39]The government also issued official pardons and a statement of regret. Its submission resulted in the rebellion's end on 26 November, when control of the four ships was handed back to the navy.[32]

In 1913,Minas Geraestook the Brazilian Minister of Foreign Affairs,Lauro Müller,to the United States, reciprocating the visitU.S. Secretary of StateElihu Roothad paid to Brazil seven years earlier.[40]

First World War

[edit]
Minas Geraes'gun trials; this picture was taken when ten 12-inch guns were trained to port to fire a fullbroadside.AScientific Americanarticle of 1910 remarked that this was "the greatest broadside ever fired from a battleship".[8]
See also:Brazil during the First World War

Even though theFirst World Wardid not touch Brazilian soil, it had crushing effects on Brazil's economy.[41]Prices for rubber and coffee plummeted; the war had only a small need for rubber, and Britain allowed no coffee into Europe as space on merchant ships was reserved for "essential items". In addition, coffee was declared to becontraband,so every Brazilian shipment to theCentral Powerswas subject to search and seizure; even shipments to some neutral countries were barred to ensure that no coffee would get through. Despite these restrictions, neutral[F]Brazil was pro-Allied for the first three years of the war because of its sizable merchant fleet; as merchantmen from Allied countries were sunk, Brazilian ships were able to take over routes that had been vacated. This policy exposed them to attack by German submarines, and after the German declaration ofunrestricted submarine warfarein February 1917, several Brazilian ships were sunk, driving the country closer to declaring war on the Central Powers.[41]

Brazil revoked its neutrality in the war between the United States and Germany on 1 June 1917, but did not declare war. At the same time, all German merchant ships interned in Brazilian harbors, 45 in all, were boarded and seized; most were unusable due to neglect or sabotage. On 28 June, Brazil revoked its neutrality between all of the Allied and Central Powers, allowing Brazilian merchantmen to travel in Allied convoys, but again stopped short of declaring war.[43]

The Brazilian Navy was sent out to patrol the South Atlantic with French, British and American naval units, although none of its ships had anti-submarine capabilities and, not being at war with the Central Powers, its ships were not supposed to engage any threat outside territorial waters.[44]Another Brazilian merchant ship,Macao,[45][46]was sunk by German submarineU-93off Spain on 18 October, and eight days later Brazil declared war.[44]

Brazil offered to sendMinas GeraesandSão Pauloto serve with theBritish Grand Fleet,but this offer was declined because both ships were in poor condition and lacked modernfire-control systems.Neither of the two dreadnoughts had undergone any form of refitting since their original construction in Britain.[47]Fourteen ofSão Paulo's eighteen boilers failed when sailing to New York in June 1918 for a modernization.[48]

Inter-war period

[edit]
Sketches of aMinas Geraes–class ship from the 1923Brassey's Naval and Shipping Annual,depicting the ships after their 1920s refits in the United States

São Paulo's refit was finished on 17 January 1920 and it returned to Brazil; on 15 JulyMinas Geraesdeparted for New York for its own refit.[49][50]Beginning on 22 August,[51]the day it arrived,[52]and finishing on 4 October 1921,[51]the battleship was dramatically modernized, withSperryfire-control equipment andBausch and Lombrange-finders for the twosuperfiringturretsforeandaft.A vertical armorbulkheadwas fitted inside the main turrets, and the secondary battery of 4.7 in (120 mm) guns was reduced from 22 to 12; five guns incasemateswere removed from each side. A few modernAAguns were fitted: two3 "/50 caliber gunsfromBethlehem Steelwere added on the aft superstructure, 37 mm (1.5 in) guns were added near each turret, and 3-pounder guns were removed from the tops of turrets.[49]While being refitted on 16 September 1921, a squad of Brazilian sailors stood at attention on the rear deck of the ship as the remains of the crew of theZR-2dirigible disaster passed by on the British light cruiserHMSDauntless.[53]

In July 1922,Minas GeraesjoinedSão Pauloin helping to quash the first of theRevolução Tenentista(English:Tenente revolts), in which the garrison of Rio de Janeiro'sFort Copacabanarebelledand began bombarding the city.São Pauloshelled the fort, and the rebels surrendered shortly thereafter;Minas Geraesdid not fire its guns.[54]

Aerial view ofMinas Geraesafter modernization.

In 1924,Minas Geraeswas involved in another mutiny, but remained on the side of the government. First LieutenantHercolino Cascardo,seven second lieutenants and others commandeeredSão Pauloin Rio de Janeiro's harbor on 4 November 1924. Their goal was to force the government to release prisoners who had participated in the 1922 Tenente revolts from confinement aboard theprison shipCuibaba;the mutineers' demands were not met.São Paulo's boilers were then fired, and the ship "steamed menacingly" aroundMinas Geraesin an attempt to entice its and other ships to join the rebellion.São Paulowas only able to sway the crew of one oldtorpedo boatto its cause. Its crew, angry thatMinas Geraeswould not join them, shot a six-pounder atMinas Geraes,wounding a cook. The mutineers then sailed out of the harbor, exchanging shots with forts at the entrance along the way, and set course forMontevideo,Uruguay. The condensers failed along the way, and they reached Montevideo on 10 November making only 9 knots (10 mph; 17 km/h). The rebellious members of the crew disembarked and were grantedasylum,while the remainder re-hoisted thecolorsof Brazil.[6][55][56]

Between June 1931 and April 1938,Minas Geraeswas totally reconstructed and modernized at theRio de Janeiro Naval Yard.It was converted from its old coal–oil combination to all-oil firing. All eighteen of the original Babcock & Wilcox boilers were replaced by six newJohn I. Thornycroft & Companyboilers. The former No. 1 boiler room and all twelve of the side coal bunkers were converted to fuel oil storage tanks; the upper coal bunkers were removed. In addition,Minas Geraes'dynamoswere replaced with newturbogenerators.The most striking aesthetic change was the trunking of the boiler uptakes into a single funnel. The fire-control systems that had been fitted after the First World War were also modernized in favor ofZeissrange-finders. The guns were overhauled; two extra 4.7 in (120 mm) guns were added making 14 total, and six 20 mm (0.79 in) Madsen guns were installed, including two on the top of 'X' turret. The maximum elevation of the 12-inch guns was increased from 13° to 18°.[49][57]

Second World War and later career

[edit]
Minas GeraesinSalvadorduring 1942, after its major refit

As in the First World War, Brazil was neutral during the early years of theSecond World War.German attacks on Brazilian merchant ships pushed the country into war on the Allied side; Brazil declared war on 21 August 1942, taking effect on 31 August.[58]

Apart from three destroyers launched in 1940 and four submarines from the inter-war years,[59][G]Brazil's warships were old and mostly obsolete pre-First World War vessels.[59]The mainstays of the fleet,Minas Geraes,São Paulo,Bahia,andRio Grande do Sul,were all over thirty years old.[59][62]AlthoughMinas Geraeshad been further refitted from 1939 to 1943, the ship was still too old and in too poor a condition for any active role in the Second World War; instead, the dreadnought was anchored as a floating battery in the port ofSalvadorfor the duration of the war.[6][59]

Minas Geraeswas inactive for much of the rest of its career.Decommissionedon 16 May 1952, it was used as a stationary headquarters for the Commander-in-Chief of the Brazilian Navy until 17 December of that year. The ship was removed from the naval register on 31 December,[6]and sold to the Italianship breakingcompany SA Cantiere Navale de Santa Maria.Minas Geraeswas taken under tow on 1 March 1954 and arrived inGenoaon 22 April;[6]the old dreadnought, which had been in service for more than forty years, wasbroken upfor scrap later that year.[1]

Explanatory footnotes

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  1. ^This is the number of crewmen the ship carried early in its career; with subsequent modifications, refits and modernizations, the figure would have varied.
  2. ^Geraeswas the spelling when the ship was commissioned, but later changes toPortuguese orthographydeprecated it in favor ofGerais.
  3. ^Chile's naval tonnage was 36,896 long tons (37,488 t), Argentina's 34,425 long tons (34,977 t), and Brazil's 27,661 long tons (28,105 t).[11]For an account of the Argentinian–Chilean naval arms races, see Scheina,Naval History,45–52.
  4. ^Incidentally, theSwiftsureclass, namedConstituciónandLibertadbefore being bought by the British, were the two Chilean warships sold as part of the 1902 Argentinian–Chilean pacts that ended their naval arms race.[16]
  5. ^Although Germany laid downNassautwo months afterMinas Geraes,Nassauwas commissioned first.[23]
  6. ^Brazil officially declared its neutrality on 4 August 1914.[42]
  7. ^Of the four modern submarines, there was a mine-laying submarine (Humaita) completed in 1927 and three submarines (Tupi,TamoioandTimbira) completed in 1937; all were built by Italy. According to author Robert Schenia, these "were of limited operational value".[60]In addition, fiveJuruena-class destroyerswere laid down in Britain in 1939, but were appropriated for use by theRoyal Navyat the start of the war. Another three destroyers, of theMarcílio Diasclass,were built in Brazil (and so were not appropriated); these were launched in 1940.[61]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^abc"Minas Gerais(6103887) ".Miramar Ship Index.Retrieved28 April2009.
  2. ^ab"Naval and Military Intelligence,"The Times,Official Appointments and Notices, 6 January 1910, 4, issue 39162, col. D.
  3. ^abcdefgScheina, "Brazil," 404.
  4. ^ab"Launch of a Brazilian Battleship,"The Times,news section, 11 September 1908, 8, issue 38749, col. B.
  5. ^abcd"Minas Geraes",Navios De Guerra Brasileiros.
  6. ^abcdefWhitley,Battleships,29
  7. ^Office of Naval Intelligence,Information Concerning Some of the Principal Navies of the World; A Series of Tables Compiled to Answer Popular Inquiry,Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1912,21.
  8. ^abc"The Brazilian BattleshipMinas Geraes",Scientific American102, no. 12, 19 March 1910, 240–241 (New York: Munn & Co., Inc.)ISSN0036-8733doi:10.1038/scientificamerican03191910-239Bibcode:1910SciAm.102..239Check bibcode: length (help).
  9. ^Barman,Citizen Emperor,403; Topliss, "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts," 240; Livermore, "Battleship Diplomacy," 32; Martins, "Colossos do mares," 75.
  10. ^Livermore, "Battleship Diplomacy," 32; Martins, "Colossos do mares," 75.
  11. ^Livermore, "Battleship Diplomacy," 32.
  12. ^Scheina, "Brazil," 403; Livermore, "Battleship Diplomacy," 32.
  13. ^Scheina, "Brazil," 403.
  14. ^Scheina,Naval History,80; English,Armed Forces,108.
  15. ^Topliss, "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts," 240–245.
  16. ^Scheina,Naval History,52, 349.
  17. ^Topliss, "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts," 244–246.
  18. ^abTopliss, "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts," 246.
  19. ^Scheina,Naval History,81;Journal of the American Society of Naval Engineers,"Brazil," 883.
  20. ^Whitley,Battleships,24.
  21. ^Scheina, "Brazil," 404; Scheina,Naval History,321; Topliss, "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts," 249.
  22. ^Martins, "Colossos do mares," 76.
  23. ^Scheina, "Brazil," 404; Campbell, "Germany," 145.
  24. ^Scheina, "Brazil," 403; Whitley,Battleships,13.
  25. ^Scheina, "Brazil," 404; Martins, "Colossos do mares," 77.
  26. ^"Launch Greatest Warships,"New York Times,11 September 1908, 5.
  27. ^"New Brazilian Battleship,"Times(London), 17 August 1909, 10b.
  28. ^Tupper,Reminiscences,185.
  29. ^"Naval and Military Intelligence,"The Times,7 February 1910, 4f; "Naval and Military Intelligence,"The Times,9 February 1910, 8c.
  30. ^Martins, "Colossos do mares," 76; "Minas Geraes Fogbound,"The New York Times,3 March 1910, 13; Whitley,Battleships,27–28.
  31. ^Whitley,Battleships,27–28.
  32. ^abcdeSmallman,Fear & Memory,28
  33. ^Smallman,Fear & Memory,28; Scheina,Latin America's Wars,74.
  34. ^Morgan, "The Revolt of the Lash," 41.
  35. ^Love,Revolt,20, 28–31, 35–36; Morgan, "Revolt of the Lash," 32–38.
  36. ^Morgan, "The Revolt of the Lash," 40–42.
  37. ^Morgan, "The Revolt of the Lash," 44–46.
  38. ^Morgan, "The Revolt of the Lash," 39–40, 48–49, 52.
  39. ^abcScheina,Latin America's Wars,74
  40. ^"Brazilian Envoy Host on Warship,"New York Times,12 July 1913, 7; "Tell Brazil's Envoy of Trade Problems,"New York Times,18 June 1913, 14.
  41. ^abScheina,Latin America's Wars,pp. 35–36
  42. ^Scheina,Latin America's Wars,35–36.
  43. ^Scheina,Latin America's Wars,36
  44. ^abScheina,Latin America's Wars,35, 37–38
  45. ^Helgason, Guðmundur."Ships hit during WWI: Macao".German and Austrian U-boats of World War I - Kaiserliche Marine - Uboat.net.Retrieved28 April2009.
  46. ^"Macao(5603380) ".Miramar Ship Index.Retrieved12 June2009.
  47. ^Roderick Barman, "Brazil in the First World War",History Today64, no. 3 (March 2014), 26.
  48. ^Whitley,Battleships,28
  49. ^abcWhitley,Battleships,27
  50. ^"Brazilian Dreadnought Coming Here,"The New York Times,17 July 1920,3 (PDF).
  51. ^abWhitley,Battleships,26
  52. ^"Brazilian Battleship Arrives,"The New York Times,11 (PDF).
  53. ^"British Cruiser Brings Home Dead of ZR-2".New York Tribune.New York. 17 September 1921. p. 11.
  54. ^Guilherme Poggio,Um encouraçado contra o forte: 2ª Parte,Poder Naval Online, n.d., accessed 10 June 2009 [,archived versionaccessed 12 April 2009].
  55. ^Mike Bennighof,"Brazil's Dreadnoughts,"Avalanche Press, October 2006, accessed 16 April 2006.
  56. ^Scheina,Latin America's Wars,129
  57. ^Gardiner and Chesneau, 416
  58. ^Scheina,Latin America's Wars,162–164
  59. ^abcdScheina,Latin America's Wars,164
  60. ^Schenia,Latin America's Wars,164.
  61. ^Gardiner and Chesneau,Conway's,416–17.
  62. ^Gardiner and Gray (1984), pp. 404–405

References

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Further reading

[edit]
  • Martins Filho, João Roberto. "The BattleshipMinas Geraes(1908) "in Bruce Taylor (editor),The World of the Battleship: The Lives and Careers of Twenty-One Capital Ships of the World's Navies, 1880–1990.Barnsley: Seaforth Publishing, 2018.ISBN0870219065
  • Topliss, David (1988). "The Brazilian Dreadnoughts, 1904–1914".Warship International.XXV(3): 240–289.ISSN0043-0374.
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