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Bruno Bettelheim

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Bruno Bettelheim
Born(1903-08-28)August 28, 1903
DiedMarch 13, 1990(1990-03-13)(aged 86)
NationalityAustrian, American (since 1944)
CitizenshipUnited States
Alma materUniversity of Vienna
Known forAutismresearch
The Uses of Enchantment
Spouse(s)Gina Alstadt (1930–?; divorced)
Gertrude Weinfeld (1941–1984; her death; 3 children)[1]
Scientific career
FieldsChild psychology
InstitutionsUniversity of Chicago
Sonia Shankman Orthogenic School
Stanford University
Doctoral studentsBenjamin Drake Wright

Bruno Bettelheim(August 28, 1903 – March 13, 1990) was anAustrian-bornpsychologist,scholar,public intellectualand writer who spent most of his academic and clinical career in the United States. An early writer onautism,Bettelheim's work focused on the education ofemotionally disturbedchildren, as well as Freudian psychology more generally. In the U.S., he later gained a position as professor at theUniversity of Chicagoand director of theSonia Shankman Orthogenic School for Disturbed Children,and after 1973 taught atStanford University.[2]

Bettelheim's ideas, which grew out ofthose of Sigmund Freud,theorized that children with behavioral and emotional disorders were not born that way, and could be treated through extended psychoanalytic therapy, treatment that rejected the use ofpsychotropic drugsandshock therapy.[3]During the 1960s and 1970s he had an international reputation in such fields as autism,child psychiatry,andpsychoanalysis.[4][5]

Some of his work was discredited after his death due to fraudulent academic credentials, allegations of patient abuse, accusations ofplagiarism,and lack of oversight by institutions and the psychological community.

Background in Austria

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Bruno Bettelheim was born inVienna,Austria-Hungary,on August 28, 1903. When his father died, Bettelheim left his studies at theUniversity of Viennato look after his family's sawmill. Having discharged his obligations to his family's business, Bettelheim returned as a mature student in his thirties to the University of Vienna.[citation needed]Sources disagree about his education (seeMisrepresented credentialssection).

Bettelheim's first wife, Gina, took care of a troubled American child, Patsy, who lived in their home in Vienna for seven years, and who may have been on the autism spectrum.[6][7][8]

In the Austrian academic culture of Bettelheim's time, one could not study the history of art without mastering aspects ofpsychology.[citation needed]Candidates for the doctoral dissertation in the History of Art in 1938 at Vienna University had to fulfill prerequisites in the formal study of the role ofJungian archetypesin art, and in art as an expression of the unconscious.

List of personal effects of Bruno Bettelheim as a prisoner at Buchenwald concentration camp

Though Jewish by birth, Bettelheim grew up in a secular family. After theAnschluss(political annexation) ofAustriaon March 13, 1938, theNational Socialist (Nazi)authorities sentAustrian Jewsand political opponents to theDachauandBuchenwaldconcentration campswhere many were brutally treated, and tortured or killed. Bettelheim was arrested some two months later on May 28, 1938, and was imprisoned in both these camps for ten and half months before being released on April 14, 1939.[9][10]While at the Buchenwald camp, he met and befriended the social psychologistErnst Federn.As a result of an amnesty declared forAdolf Hitler's birthday (which occurred slightly later on April 20, 1939), Bettelheim and hundreds of other prisoners were released.[citation needed]Bettelheim drew on the experience of the concentration camps for some of his later work.

Life and career in the United States

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Bettelheim arrived by ship as a refugee in New York City in late 1939 to join his wife Gina, who had already emigrated. They divorced because she had become involved with someone else during their separation.[citation needed]He soon moved to Chicago, became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1944, and married an Austrian woman, Gertrude ('Trudi') Weinfeld, also an emigrant from Vienna.

Psychology

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TheRockefeller Foundationsponsored a wartime project to help resettle European scholars by circulating their resumes to American universities. Through this process, Ralph Tyler hired Bettelheim to be his research assistant at the University of Chicago from 1939 to 1941 with funding from theProgressive Education Associationto evaluate how high schools taught art. Once this funding ran out, Bettelheim found a job at Rockford College, Illinois, where he taught from 1942 to 1944.[2][5][11]

In 1943, he published the paper "Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme Situations" about his experiences in the concentration camps, a paper which was highly regarded by Dwight Eisenhower among others.[4]Bettelheim claimed he had interviewed 1,500 fellow prisoners, although this was unlikely.[4][12]He stated that the Viennese psychoanalystRichard Sterbahad analyzed him, as well as implying in several of his writings that he had written a PhD dissertation in the philosophy of education. His actual PhD was in art history, and he had only taken three introductory courses in psychology.[13]

Through Ralph Tyler's recommendation, theUniversity of Chicagoappointed Bettelheim as a professor of psychology, as well as director of theSonia Shankman Orthogenic Schoolfor emotionally disturbed children.[5]He held both positions from 1944 until his retirement in 1973. He wrote a number of books on psychology and, for a time, had an international reputation for his work onSigmund Freud,psychoanalysis,andemotionally disturbedchildren.

At the Orthogenic School, Bettelheim made changes and set up an environment formilieu therapy,in which children could form strong attachments with adults within a structured but caring environment. He claimed considerable success in treating some of the emotionally disturbed children. He wrote books on both normal and abnormalchild psychology,and became a major influence in the field, widely respected during his lifetime. He was noted for his study offeral children,who revert to the animal stage without experiencing the benefits of belonging to a community.[14]He discussed this phenomenon in the bookThe Informed Heart.[14]Even critics agree that, in his practice, Bettelheim was dedicated to helping these children using methods and practices that would enable them to lead happy lives.[15]It is based on his position that psychotherapy could change humans and that they can adapt to their environment provided they are given proper care and attention.[15]

Bettelheim was elected a Fellow of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciencesin 1971.[16]After retiring in 1973, he and his wife moved toPortola Valley, California,where he continued to write and taught atStanford University.His wife died in 1984.[17]

The Uses of Enchantment

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Bettelheim analyzedfairy talesin terms of Freudian psychology inThe Uses of Enchantment(1976). He discussed the emotional and symbolic importance offairy talesfor children, including traditional tales once considered too dark, such as those collected and published by theBrothers Grimm.Bettelheim suggested that traditional fairy tales, with the darkness of abandonment, death, witches, and injuries, allowed children to grapple with their fears in remote, symbolic terms. If they could read and interpret these fairy tales in their own way, he believed, they would get a greater sense of meaning and purpose. Bettelheim thought that by engaging with thesesocially evolvedstories, children would go through emotional growth that would better prepare them for their own futures. In the United States, Bettelheim won two major awards forThe Uses of Enchantment:theNational Book Critics Circle Awardfor Criticism[18] and theNational Book Awardin the category ofContemporary Thought.[19]

However, in 1991, well-supported charges of plagiarism were brought against Bettelheim'sThe Uses of Enchantment,primarily that he had copied from Julian Herscher's 1963A Psychiatric Study of Fairy Tales(revised ed. 1974).[20][21][22]

Death

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At the end of his life, Bettelheim had depression. He appeared to have had difficulties with depression for much of his life.[23]In 1990, widowed, in failing physical health, and experiencing the effects of a stroke which impaired his mental abilities and paralyzed part of his body, he took his own life.[24][25]He died on March 13, 1990, in Maryland.[26]

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Bettelheim was apublic intellectual,whose writing and many public appearances in popular media paralleled a growing post WWII interest inpsychoanalysis.[27]For instance, he appeared multiple times onThe Dick Cavett Showin the 70s to discuss theories ofautismand psychoanalysis.[28]Richard Pollak's biography of Bettelheim argues that such popular appearances shielded his unethical behavior from scrutiny.[29]

Bettelheim appeared as himself in the 1983Woody AllenmockumentaryZelig.

ABBCHorizondocumentary about Bettelheim was televised in 1987.[30]

Controversies and scientific fraud accusations

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Bettelheim's life and work have come under increasing scrutiny since his death, notably in a biography by Richard Pollak (1997).

Misrepresented credentials

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Though he spent most of his life working in psychology and psychiatry, Bettelheim's educational background in those fields is murky at best. Sources disagree whether Bettelheim's PhD was in art history[31][32]or in philosophy (aesthetics).[33][34]When he was hired at the University of Chicago,Ralph W. Tylerassumed that he had two PhDs, one in art history and the other in psychology.[5]He also believed, falsely, that Bettelheim was certified to conductpsychoanalysisthough Bettelheim never received such certification.[11]A posthumous review of his transcript showed that Bettelheim had only taken three introductory classes in psychology.[13]Bertram Cohler and Jacquelyn Sanders at the Orthogenic School believed Bettelheim had a PhD in art history.[5]In some of his own writings, Bettelheim implied that he had written a dissertation on the philosophy of education.[citation needed]

Determining Bettelheim's education is complicated by the fact that he routinely embellished or inflated aspects of his own biography. As an example, Bettelheim's first wife, Gina, took care of a troubled American child, Patsy, who lived in their home in Vienna for seven years. Although Bettelheim later claimed he himself had taken care of the child, there is general agreement that his wife actually provided most of the child care.[33][35]However sources disagree on whether Patsy was autistic.[7][8]Bettelheim later claimed that it was Patsy who inspired him to study autism[7]and embellished her into two or even several autistic children in his home.[4][33][36]

Additionally, when he applied for a position atRockford Collegein Illinois, he claimed in a résumé that he had earnedsumma cum laudedoctorates in philosophy, art history, and psychology, and he made claims that he had run the art department at Lower Austria's library, that he had published two books on art, that he had excavated Roman antiquities, and that he had engaged in music studies withArnold Schoenberg.When he applied at the University of Chicago for a professorship and as director of the Orthogenic School, he further claimed that he had training in psychology, experience raising autistic children, and personal encouragement from Sigmund Freud.[37]The University of Chicago biographical sketch of Bettelheim listed a single PhD but no subject area.[5]Posthumous biographies of Bettelheim have investigated these claims and have come to no clear conclusions about his credentials.[38][39]A review inThe Independent(UK) of Sutton's book stated that Bettelheim "despite claims to the contrary, possessed no psychology qualifications of any sort".[40]Another review inThe New York Timesby a different reviewer stated that Bettelheim "began inventing degrees he never earned".[4]A review in theChicago Tribunestated "as Pollak demonstrates, Bettelheim was a snake-oil salesman of the first magnitude."[33]

In a 1997Weekly Standardarticle Peter Kramer, clinical professor of psychiatry at Brown University, summarized: "There were snatches of truth in the tall tale, but not many. Bettelheim had earned a non-honors degree in philosophy, he had made acquaintances in the psychoanalytic community, and his first wife had helped raise a troubled child. But, from 1926 to 1938, —the bulk of the '14 years' at university—Bettelheim had worked as a lumber dealer in the family business."[8]

In his 1997 review of Pollak's book in theBaltimore Sun,Paul R. McHugh,then director of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Johns Hopkins, stated "Bettelheim—with boldness, energy and luck—exploited American deference to Freudo-Nietzschean mind-sets and interpretation, especially when intoned in accents Viennese."[32]

Richard Pollak's 1997 biography of Bettelheim

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In theNew York Review of Books,Robert Gottlieb describes Pollak as a "relentlessly negative biographer," but Gottlieb still writes: "The accusations against Bettelheim fall into several categories. First, he lied; that is, he both exaggerated his successes at the school and falsified aspects of his background, claiming a more elaborate academic and psychoanalytic history in Vienna than he had actually had. There is conclusive evidence to support both charges." Gottlieb goes on to say that Bettelheim arrived in the United States as a Holocaust survivor and refugee without a job nor even a profession, and writes: "I suspect he said what he thought it was necessary to say, and was then stuck with these claims later on, when he could neither confirm them (since they were false) nor, given his pride, acknowledge that he had lied."[23]

Richard Pollak's biography begins with a personal account, for his brother died in an accident while home from Bettelheim's school on holiday. While playing hide-and-go-seek in a hay loft, the brother fell through a chute covered with hay and hit the concrete floor on the level below. Years later, Pollak hoped to get some information about his brother's life and sought out Bettelheim. As Pollak recounts, "Bettelheim immediately launched into an attack. The boys' father, he said, was a simple-minded 'schlemiel.' Their mother, he insisted, had rejected Stephen at birth forcing him to develop 'pseudo-feeble-mindedness' to cope." He went on to angrily ask: "What is it about these Jewish mothers, Mr. Pollak?" Bettelheim furthermore insisted the brother had committed suicide and made it look like an accident. Pollak did not believe this.[4][33][41]

As a review in theBaltimore Sunstates, "The stance of infallibility over matters Pollak knew to be untrue prompted him to wonder about the foundation of Bettelheim's commanding reputation."[32]

In a 1997 book review in theNew York Times,Sarah Boxer wrote (regarding the plagiarism allegations): "Mr. Pollak gives a damning passage-for-passage comparison of the two [Bettelheim's book and Heuscher's earlier book]."[4]

Richard Pollak's biography,The Creation of Dr. B,portrays Bettelheim as an anti-Semite even though he was raised in a secular Jewish household, and asserts that Bettelheim criticized in others the same cowardice he himself had displayed in the concentration camps.[42]

Pollak's biography also states that two women reported that Bettelheim had fondled their breasts and those of other female students at the school while he was ostensibly apologizing to each for beating her.[42][8]

A number of reviewers criticized Pollak's writing style, commenting that his book was motivated by "Vengeance, not malice"[33]or that his book was "curiously unnuanced",[4]but they still largely agreed with his conclusions.[4][42]

Plagiarism in Bettelheim'sUses of Enchantment

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In 1991,Alan Dundespublished an article in theJournal of American Folklorein which he claimed Bettelheim had engaged inplagiarismin his 1976The Uses of Enchantment.[20]He argued that Bettelheim had copied from a variety of sources, including Dundes' own 1967 paper on Cinderella, but most of all from Julius E. Heuscher's 1963 bookA Psychiatric Study of Fairy Tales(revised edition 1974).[4][21][22][43][44]

On the other hand, Jacquelyn Sanders, who worked with Bettelheim and later became director of the Orthogenic School, stated that she had read Dundes' article but disagreed with its conclusions: "I would not call that plagiarism. I think the article is a reasonable scholarly endeavor, and calling it scholarly etiquette is appropriate. It is appropriate that this man deserved to be acknowledged and Bettelheim didn't… But I would not fail a student for doing that, and I don't know anybody who would".[22]

Abusive treatment of students

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Many students and staff at the school have argued that Bettelheim was abusive, violent, and cruel to them and to others. There are multiple newspaper accounts of abuse, in letters,[45][46][47][48][49]editorials,[50]articles,[51][52]and memoirs.[53][54][55]A November 1990Chicago Tribunearticle states: "Of the 19 alumni of the Orthogenic School interviewed for this story, some are still bitterly angry at Bettelheim, 20 or 30 years after leaving the institution due to the trauma they had suffered under him. Others say their stays did them good, and they express gratitude for having had the opportunity to be at the school. All agree that Bettelheim frequently struck his young and vulnerable patients."[5]

A particularly evocative example came from Alida Jatich, who lived at the school from 1966 to 1972 from ages twelve to eighteen. She wrote an initially anonymous April 1990 letter to theChicago Readerin which she stated that she "lived in fear of Bettelheim's unpredictable temper tantrums, public beatings, hair pulling, wild accusations and threats and abuse in front of classmates and staff. One minute he could be smiling and joking, the next minute he could be exploding." She added, "In person, he was an evil man who set up his school as a private empire and himself as a demi-god or cultleader." Jatich said Bettelheim had "bullied, awed, and terrorized" the children at his school, their parents, school staff members, his graduate students, and anyone else who came into contact with him.[56]

Jacquelyn Sanders, who later became director of the Orthogenic School, said she thought it was a case of Bettelheim getting too much success too quickly. "Dr. B got worse once he started getting acclaim," she said. "He was less able to have any insight into his effect on these kids."[5]

Conversely, some staff who worked at the Orthogenic School have stated that they saw Bettelheim's behavior as beingcorporal punishment,in line with the standards of the time, and not abuse.[5][49][48][52]As an example, David Zwerdling, who was a counselor at the school for one year in 1969–70, wrote a Sept. 1990 response toThe Washington Postin which he stated, "I witnessed one occasion when an adolescent boy cursed at a female counselor. Incensed upon learning of this, Dr. Bettelheim proceeded to slap the boy two or three times across the face, while telling him sternly never to speak that way to a woman again. This was the only such incident I observed or heard of during my year at the school… until fairly recently, the near-consensus against corporal punishment in schools did not obtain." However, Zwerdling also noted, "He also was a man who, for whatever reasons, was capable of intense anger on occasion."[48]

Published books, memoirs, and biographies of Bettelheim have also taken up the question of his treatment of students.[57][58][41]

Institutional and professional non-responses

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Perhaps in part because of Bettelheim's professional and public stature, there was little effort during his lifetime to curtail his behavior or intervene on behalf of his victims. His work at theUniversity of Chicagoseems to have been given less formal oversight by the university than other research entities under their purview.[7]

ANewsweekarticle reported that Chicago-area psychiatrists had privately given him the nickname "Brutalheim," but did nothing to intervene effectively on behalf of students at the school.[59]

Professionals in the psychiatric and psychological communities likely knew there were allegations of abuse and maltreatment at the Orthogenic School.[60][49]Howard Gardner,a professor at theHarvard Graduate School of Education,wrote that many professionals knew of Bettelheim's behavior but did not confront him for various reasons ranging from "fear about Bettelheim's legendary capacity for retribution to the solidarity needed among the guild of healers to a feeling that, on balance, Bettelheim's positive attributes predominated and an unmasking would fuel more malevolent forces."[42]

Autism controversy

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Behavioral psychology and conditions in children and adolescents was little understood in the mid-twentieth century. The concept of "autism" was first used as a term forschizophrenia.[61]In the 1950s into the 1960s what may be understood asautismin children was regularly also referred to as "childhood psychosis and childhood schizophrenia". "Psychogenesis", the theory that childhood disorders had origins in early childhood events or trauma acting on the child from the outside was a prominent theory, and Bettelheim was a prominent proponent of a psychogenic basis for autism. For Bettelheim, the idea that outside forces cause individual behavior issues can be traced back to his earliest prominent article on the psychology of imprisoned persons.[62]Beginning in the 1960s and into the 1970s, "biogenesis", the idea that such conditions had an inner-organic or biological basis overtook psychogenesis.[63]

Currently, many of Bettelheim's theories in which he attributesautism spectrumconditions to parenting style are considered to be discredited, aside from the controversies relating to his academic and professional qualifications.[64][65][66]

Autism spectrum conditions are currently regarded as perhaps having multiple forms with a variety of genetic, epigenetic, and brain development causes influenced by such environmental factors as complications during pregnancy, viral infections, and perhaps even air pollution.[64][67][65][66][7][68][69]

The two biographies by Sutton (1995) and Pollak (1997) awakened interest and focus on Bettelheim's actual methods as distinct from his public persona.[7][68][4]Bettelheim's theories on the causes ofautismhave been largely discredited, and his reporting rates of cure have been questioned, with critics stating that his patients were not actually autistic.[33][7][70]In a favorable review of Pollak's biography, Christopher Lehmann-Haupt ofThe New York Timeswrote, "What scanty evidence remains suggests that his patients were not even autistic in the first place."[68]

In 1997 the psychiatristPeter Kramerwrote, "The Ford Foundation was willing to underwrite innovative treatments for autistic children, so Bettelheim labeled his children autistic. Few actually met the definition of the newly minted syndrome."[8]

Bettelheim believed that autism did not have an organic basis, but resulted when mothers withheld appropriate affection from their children and failed to make a good connection with them. Bettelheim also blamed absent or weak fathers. One of his most famous books,The Empty Fortress(1967), contains a complex and detailed explanation of this dynamic in psychoanalytical and psychological terms. These views were disputed at the time by mothers of autistic children and by researchers.[71]He derived his thinking from the qualitative investigation of clinical cases.[citation needed]He also related the world of autistic children to conditions in concentration camps.

It appears that Leo Kanner first came up with the term "refrigerator mother," although Bettelheim did a lot to popularize the term. "Although it now seems beyond comprehension that anyone would believe that autism is caused by deep-seated issues arising in early childhood relationships, virtually every psychiatric condition was attributed to parent-child relationships in the 1940s and 1950s, when Freudian psychoanalytic theory was in its heyday."[72]

InA Good Enough Parent,published in 1987, he had come to the view that children had considerable resilience and that most parents could be "good enough" to help their children make a good start.[73][unreliable source?]

Prior to this, Bettelheim subscribed to and became an early prominent proponent of the "refrigerator mother"theory of autism: the theory that autistic behaviors stem from the emotional frigidity of the children's mothers. He adapted and transformed the Orthogenic School at the University of Chicago as a residential treatmentmilieufor such children, who he felt would benefit from a "parentectomy".This marked the apex of autism viewed as a disorder of parenting.[69][74]

A 2002 book on autism spectrum stated, "At the time, few people knew that Bettelheim had faked his credentials and was using fictional data to support his research."[75]Michael Rutterhas observed, "Many people made a mistake in going from a statement which is undoubtedly true—that there is no evidence that autism has been caused by poor parenting—to the statement that it has been disproven. It has not actually been disproven. It has faded away simply because, on the one hand, of a lack of convincing evidence and on the other hand, an awareness that autism was a neurodevelopmental disorder of some kind."[76]

In a 1997 review of two books on Bettelheim, Molly Finn wrote "I am the mother of an autistic daughter, and have considered Bettelheim a charlatan sinceThe Empty Fortress,his celebrated study of autism, came out in 1967. I have nothing personal against Bettelheim, if it is not personal to resent being compared to a devouring witch, an infanticidal king, and an SS guard in a concentration camp, or to wonder what could be the basis of Bettelheim's statement that 'the precipitating factor in infantile autism is the parent's wish that his child should not exist.' "[7]

Although Bettelheim foreshadowed the modern interest in the causal influence of genetics in the sectionParental Background,he consistently emphasised nurture over nature. For example: "When at last the once totally frozen affects begin to emerge, and a much richer human personality to evolve, then convictions about the psychogenic nature of the disturbance become stronger still.";On Treatability,p. 412. The rates of recovery claimed for the Orthogenic School are set out inFollow-up Data,with a recovery good enough to be considered a 'cure' of 43%, pp. 414–15.

Subsequently, medical research has provided greater understanding of the biological basis of autism and other illnesses. Scientists such asBernard Rimlandchallenged Bettelheim's view of autism by arguing that autism is aneurodevelopmentalissue. As late as 2009, the "refrigerator mother" theory retained some prominent supporters,[24][77]including the prominent Irish psychologistTony Humphreys.[78]His theory still enjoys widespread support in France.[79][dubiousdiscuss]

In his bookUnstrange Minds(2007), Roy Richard Grinker wrote:

Two other books on autism, published at about the same time [as Bettelheim'sEmpty Fortress(1967)], got little mention in the press: Bernard Rimland'sAutism: The Syndrome and Its Implications for a Neural Theory of Behavior(1964), which outlined the biological and neurological aspects of autism, and Clara Clairborne Park'sThe Siege(1967), a beautifully written memoir of raising an autistic child. Though they were more accurate depictions of autism, they couldn't compete with Bettelheim. He was simply too good a writer, and with his Viennese accent—the sign of an authentic expert in psychology—too good a self promoter.[80]

Jordynn Jack writes that Bettelheim's ideas gained currency and became popular in large part because society already tended to blame a mother first and foremost for her child's difficulties.[81]

Remarks about Jews and the Holocaust

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Bettelheim's experiences during theHolocaustshaped his personal and professional life for years after. His first publication was "Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme Situations" derived from his experiences atDachauandBuchenwald.[82]His later work frequently compared emotionally disturbed childhood to prison or confinement, and according to Sutton, his professional work attempted to operationalize the lessons about human nature he learned during his confinement.[83]

Bettelheim became one of the most prominent defenders ofHannah Arendt's bookEichmann in Jerusalem.He wrote a positive review forThe New Republic.[84]This review prompted a letter from a writer,Harry Golden,who alleged that both Bettelheim and Arendt suffered from "an essentially Jewish phenomenon… self-hatred".[85][86]

Bettelheim would later speak critically ofJewishpeople who were killed during theHolocaust.He has been criticized for promoting the myth that Jews went "like sheep to the slaughter"and for blamingAnne Frankand her family for their own deaths due to not owning firearms, fleeing, or hiding more effectively.[87][88]In an introduction he wrote to an account byMiklos Nyiszli,Bettelheim stated, discussing Frank, that "Everybody who recognized the obvious knew that the hardest way to go underground was to do it as a family; that to hide as a family made detection by the SS most likely. The Franks, with their excellent connections among gentile Dutch families should have had an easy time hiding out singly, each with a different family. But instead of planning for this, the main principle of their planning was to continue as much as possible with the kind of family life they were accustomed to."[89]

Bibliography

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Major works by Bettelheim

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  • 1943 "Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme Situations",Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,38: 417–452.
  • 1950 Bettleheim, Bruno and Janowitz, Morris,Dynamics of Prejudice: A Psychological & Sociological Study of Veterans,Harper & Bros.
  • 1950Love Is Not Enough: The Treatment of Emotionally Disturbed Children,Free Press, Glencoe, Ill.
  • 1954Symbolic Wounds: Puberty Rites and the Envious Male,Free Press, Glencoe, Ill.
  • 1955Truants From Life: The Rehabilitation of Emotionally Disturbed Children,Free Press, Glencoe, Ill.
  • 1959 "Joey: A 'Mechanical Boy'",Scientific American,200, March 1959: 117–126. (About a boy who believes himself to be a robot.)
  • 1960The Informed Heart: Autonomy in a Mass Age,The Free Press, Glencoe, Ill.
  • 1962Dialogues with Mothers,The Free Press, Glencoe, Ill.
  • 1967The Empty Fortress: Infantile Autism and the Birth of the Self,The Free Press, New York
  • 1969The Children of the Dream,Macmillan, London & New York (About the raising of children in akibbutzenvironment.)
  • 1974A Home for the Heart,Knopf, New York. (About Bettelheim's Orthogenic School at the University of Chicago for schizophrenic and autistic children.)
  • 1976The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales,Knopf, New York.ISBN0-394-49771-6
  • 1979Surviving and Other Essays,Knopf, New York (Includes the essay "The Ignored Lesson ofAnne Frank".)
  • 1982On Learning to Read: The Child's Fascination with Meaning(with Karen Zelan), Knopf, New York
  • 1982Freud and Man's Soul,Knopf, 1983,ISBN0-394-52481-0
  • 1987A Good Enough Parent: A Book on Child-Rearing,Knopf, New York
  • 1990Freud's Vienna and Other Essays,Knopf, New York
  • 1993, Bettelheim, Bruno and Rosenfeld, Alvin A, "The Art of the Obvious" Knopf.
  • 1994 Bettelheim, Bruno & Ekstein, Rudolf: "Grenzgänge zwischen den Kulturen. Das letzte Gespräch zwischen Bruno Bettelheim undRudolf Ekstein[de]".In: Kaufhold, Roland (ed.) (1994):Annäherung an Bruno Bettelheim.Mainz (Grünewald): 49–60.

Critical reviews of Bettelheim (works and person)

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  • Angres, Ronald:"Who, Really, Was Bruno Bettelheim?",personal essay,Commentary,90, (4), October 1990: 26–30.
  • Bernstein, Richard:"Accusations of Abuse Haunt the Legacy of Dr. Bruno Bettelheim",The New York Times,November 4, 1990: "The Week in Review" section.
  • Bersihand, Geneviève (1977).Bettelheim[Bettelheim]. Champigny-sur-Marne: R. Jauze. p. 199.ISBN2-86214-001-5.
  • Dundes, Alan:"Bruno Bettelheim's Uses of Enchantment and Abuses of Scholarship".The Journal of American Folklore,Vol. 104, N0. 411. (Winter, 1991): 74–83.
  • Ekstein, Rudolf (1994): "Mein Freund Bruno (1903–1990). Wie ich mich an ihn erinnere". In: Kaufhold, Roland (ed.) (1994):Annäherung an Bruno Bettelheim.Mainz (Grünewald), S. 87–94.
  • Eliot, Stephen:Not the Thing I Was: Thirteen Years at Bruno Bettelheim's Orthogenic School,St. Martin's Press, 2003.
  • Federn, Ernst (1994): "Bruno Bettelheim und das Überleben im Konzentrationslager". In: Kaufhold, Roland (ed.) (1999):Ernst Federn: Versuche zur Psychologie des Terrors.Gießen (Psychosozial-Verlag): 105–108.
  • Finn M (1997)."In the case of Bruno Bettelheim".First Things(74): 44–8.
  • Fisher, David James:Psychoanalytische Kulturkritik und die Seele des Menschen. Essays über Bruno Bettelheim(co-editor: Roland Kaufhold), Gießen (Psychosozial-Verlag)
  • Fisher, David James:Bettelheim: Living and Dying,Contemporary Psychoanalytic Studies, Amsterdam, New York: Brill/Rodopi, 2008.
  • Frattaroli, Elio: "Bruno Bettelheim's Unrecognized Contribution to Psychoanalytic Thought",Psychoanalytic Review,81:379–409, 1994.
  • Heisig, James W.: "Bruno Bettelheim and the Fairy Tales",Children's Literature,6, 1977: 93–115.
  • Kaufhold, Roland (ed.): Pioniere der psychoanalytischen Pädagogik: Bruno Bettelheim, Rudolf Ekstein, Ernst Federn und Siegfried Bernfeld, psychosozial Nr. 53 (1/1993)
  • Kaufhold, Roland (Ed.):Annäherung an Bruno Bettelheim.Mainz, 1994 (Grünewald)
  • Kaufhold, Roland (1999): "Falsche Fabeln vom Guru?" Der "Spiegel" und sein Märchen vom bösen Juden Bruno Bettelheim ",Behindertenpädagogik,38. Jhg., Heft 2/1999, S. 160–187.
  • Kaufhold, Roland: Bettelheim, Ekstein, Federn:Impulse für die psychoanalytisch-pädagogische Bewegung.Gießen, 2001 (Psychosozial-Verlag).
  • Kaufhold, Roland/Löffelholz, Michael (Ed.) (2003): "'So können sie nicht leben' – Bruno Bettelheim (1903–1990)".Zeitschrift für Politische Psychologie1-3/2003.
  • Lyons, Tom W. (1983),The Pelican and After: A Novel about Emotional Disturbance,Richmond, Virginia: Prescott, Durrell, and Company. This is a roman à clef novel in which the author lived at the Orthogenic School for almost twelve years. The novel's head of the institution is a "Dr. V."
  • Marcus, Paul:Autonomy in the Extreme Situation. Bruno Bettelheim, the Nazi Concentration Camps and the Mass Society,Praeger, Westport, Conn., 1999.
  • Pollak, Richard:The Creation of Dr. B: A Biography of Bruno Bettelheim,Simon & Schuster, New York, 1997.
  • Raines, Theron (2002).Rising to the light: a portrait of Bruno Bettelheim(1 ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf.ISBN0-679-40196-2.
  • Redford, Roberta Carly (2010)Crazy: My Seven Years At Bruno Bettelheim's Orthogenic School,Trafford Publishing, 364 pages.
  • Sutton, Nina:Bruno Bettelheim: The Other Side of Madness,Duckworth Press, London, 1995. (Translated from the French by David Sharp in collaboration with the author. Subsequently, published with the titleBruno Bettelheim, a Life and a Legacy.)
  • Zipes, Jack:"On the Use and Abuse of Folk and Fairy Tales with Children: Bruno Bettelheim's Moralistic Magic Wand", in Zipes, Jack:Breaking the Magic Spell: Radical Theories of Folk and Fairy Tales,University of Texas Press, Austin, 1979.

References

[edit]
  1. ^Andrews, Deborah; Turner, Roland (1990).The Annual Obituary.St. James Press.ISBN978-1-55862092-6.
  2. ^abJohn F. Ohles ed., 1978,Biographical Dictionary of American Educators,Vol. 1, London, England and Westport,CT:Greenwood Press.
  3. ^Fountain, John W. (March 14, 1990)."Dr. Bruno Bettleheim, child psychology expert".Chicago Tribune.RetrievedMay 12,2019.
  4. ^abcdefghijkBoxer, Sarah (January 26, 1997)."The Man He Always Wanted to Be".The New York Times.RetrievedDecember 2,2016.Bruno Bettelheim's new biographer lays his cards on the table right away: he thinks Bettelheim was a pathological liar.
  5. ^abcdefghiRon Grossman, November 11, 1990, "Solving The Puzzle That Was Bruno Bettelheim",Chicago Tribune."Yet the [University of Chicago]'s official biographical sketch credits Bettelheim with only one Ph.D., and doesn't specify a field."
  6. ^Winn 1997"He was familiar with this disease because his first wife, Gina, had cared for an autistic child in their home for several years.
  7. ^abcdefghFinn 1997.
  8. ^abcdePeter D. Kramer, April 7, 1997The battle over Bettelheim,Weekly Standard.
  9. ^Silberman 2015,pp.202–3.
  10. ^Samuel Totten, Paul R. Bartrop, 2008,Dictionary of Genocide,Volume 1: A–L, "Bettelheim, Bruno (1903–1990)," with contributions by Steven Leonard Jacobs, Westport,CT,U.S. and London, UK: Greenwood.
  11. ^abMorris Finder, 2004,Educating America: How Ralph W. Tyler Taught America to Teach,forew. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Westport, CT, London: Praeger, p. 41.
  12. ^Silberman 2015,pp.199–208:"The closest he ever came to meeting Freud was walking past his house."
  13. ^abRon Grossman, January 23, 1997,Genius or Fraud? Bettelheim's Biographers Can't Seem To Decide,Chicago Tribune,"…he evidently gambled that because of the war no one would be able to check on his credentials…"
  14. ^abPoplau, Ronald W. (2018).A Living Classroom: Ideas for Student Creativity and Community Service.Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 74.ISBN978-1-4758-4854-0.
  15. ^abZipes, Jack (2002).Breaking the Magic Spell: Radical Theories of Folk and Fairy Tales.Le xing ton: University Press of Kentucky. p. 179.ISBN0-8131-9030-4.
  16. ^"B"(PDF),Book of Members, 1780–2010,American Academy of Arts and Sciences,retrievedJune 24,2011
  17. ^Merkin, Daphne (September 2, 2014).The Fame Lunches: On Wounded Icons, Money, Sex, the Brontës, and the Importance of Handbags.Macmillan. p. 38.ISBN978-0-37414037-3.
  18. ^"All Past National Book Critics Circle Award Winners and Finalists"ArchivedJune 4, 2019, at theWayback Machine.National Book Critics Circle.Retrieved 2019-05-09.
  19. ^ "National Book Awards – 1977".National Book Foundation.Retrieved 2019-05-09.
    There was a "Contemporary" or "Current" award category from 1972 to 1980.
  20. ^abDundes, Alan:"Bruno Bettelheim's Uses of Enchantment and Abuses of Scholarship".The Journal of American Folklore,Vol. 104, No. 411. (Winter, 1991): pp. 74–83.
  21. ^abBettelheim Plagiarized Book Ideas, Scholar Says: Authors: The late child psychologist is accused of 'wholesale borrowing' for study of fairy tales,Los Angeles Times,Anne C. Roark, Feb. 7, 1991. The article includes a contrast-and-compare between Bettelheim and a passage from Julius Heuscher's book.
  22. ^abcBettelheim Accused of Plagiarizing Book,Chicago Tribune,Sharman Stein, February 7, 1991.
  23. ^abRobert Gottlieb, Feb 27, 2003,"The Strange Case of Dr. B.",The New York Review.
  24. ^abSeverson, Katherine De Maria; Aune, James Arnt; Jodlowski, Denise (2007)."Bruno Bettelheim, Autism, and the Rhetoric of Scientific Authority".In Osteen, Mark (ed.).Autism and Representation.Routledge research in cultural and media studies. Routledge. pp. 65–77.ISBN978-0-415-95644-4.RetrievedAugust 28,2009.
  25. ^Osgood, Nancy J. (July 1992).Suicide in later life.Le xing ton Books (published 1992). p. 4.ISBN978-0-669-21214-3.RetrievedJanuary 29,2010.
  26. ^John W. Fountain, March 14, 1990,Dr. Bruno Bettelheim, Child Psychology Expert,Chicago Tribune.
  27. ^Silverman, Chloe."From Disorders of Affect to Mindblindness: Framing the History of Autism Spectrum Disorders".The Society for Critical Exchange.RetrievedMay 8,2019.
  28. ^"The Dick Cavett Show - Guests".dickcavettshow.Archived fromthe originalon October 9, 2020.RetrievedMay 8,2019.
  29. ^In Print: the abominable Dr. Bettelheim,Chicago Reader,Cara Jepsen, Jan. 16, 1997.
  30. ^"Horizon - BBC Two England - 2 February 1987".BBC Genome.February 2, 1987.RetrievedJuly 16,2018.
  31. ^Beck, Joan (1997)."Setting the record straight about a 'fallen guru'".Chicago Tribune.RetrievedMay 7,2019.
  32. ^abcMcHugh, Paul R. (January 19, 1997)."Bruno Bettelheim: a cautionary life".Baltimore Sun.Archived from the original on April 2, 2019.RetrievedMay 7,2019.{{cite news}}:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  33. ^abcdefgWinn 1997.
  34. ^Lehmann-Haupt, Christopher (January 13, 1997)."An Icon of Psychology Falls From His Pedestal".The New York Times.RetrievedMay 7,2019.
  35. ^Silberman 2015,p.201.
  36. ^Silberman 2015,p.203,last ¶.
  37. ^Beck 1997.
  38. ^Sutton, Nina (1997).Bettelheim, a life and a legacy(pbk ed.). WestView Press.ISBN0-81339099-0.
  39. ^Pollak, Richard (1997).The creation of Dr. B: A biography of Bruno Bettelheim.New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 478.ISBN0-684-80938-9.[permanent dead link]
  40. ^Nicholas Tucker, 8 December 1995Turbulent dreams of a damaged saint,The IndependentUK (review ofBruno Bettelheim: A Life and a Legacyby Nina Sutton).
  41. ^abSetting The Record Straight About A 'Fallen Guru',Chicago Tribune,Joan Beck, Editorial, April 3, 1997. '…claimed he had summa cum laude degrees in three disciplines…'
  42. ^abcdHoward Gardner, Jan. 19, 1997The Confidence Man: The creation of dr. B.: A Biography of Bruno Bettelheim. By Richard Pollak. Simon & Schuster: 478 pp.,Los Angeles Timesreview. "…indicts those of his time who knew the man but kept their reservations to themselves."
  43. ^A Psychiatric Study of Fairy Tales: Their Origin, Meaning and Usefulness,Julius E. Heuscher, illus. Melba Bennett, Springfield,IL:Thomas, 1963, 224 pp.
  44. ^A Psychiatric Study of Fairy Tales: Their Origin, Meaning and Usefulness;enlarged, thoroughly rev. 2nd ed., Julius E. Heuscher, Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, April 1974, 422 pp.
  45. ^Alida Jatich, Oct. 29, 1990.A Personal View Of Bruno Bettelheim,Chicago Tribune'Whenever Bettelheim called a young person "autistic" or "psychotic" or "homicidal" or "suicidal" or anything else, the staff believed him regardless of all evidence to the contrary. To them, the truth was whatever Bettelheim said it was, and their job was to get me and the other youngsters to accept it.'
  46. ^Chicago Reader,Letters to the Editor,The Cult of Bettelheim,"By WB A former counselor," July 5, 1990.
  47. ^Roberta Redford, Nov. 20, 1990Letter to the Editor,The New York Times,'Bettelheim Became the Very Evil He Loathed,' written Nov. 9. "I would like to believe that at the beginning his motives were pure. By the time I knew him, he was a megalomaniac, twisted and out of control. We were terrified of him, and lived for those days when he was out of town."
  48. ^abcCharles Pekow, Aug. 26, 1990,The Other Dr. Bettelheim,The Washington Posteditorial. "…we could never tell when he would attack us for any arbitrary reason…" See'The Other Dr. Bettelheim',Sept. 6, 1990, andThe Bettelheim We Know (Cont'd.),Oct. 6, 1990, for the contrasting views of some counselors.
  49. ^abcAlida Jatich April 5, 1990Chicago Reader,Letters to the Editor,Brutal Bettelheim,name withheld. Alida Jatich, April 4, 1991The Monster of the Midway.The author lived at the "Orthogenic School" from 1966–72, and in her second letter acknowledges authorship of the first.
  50. ^Joan Beck, Oct. 1, 1990,Bettelheim Led Us Cruelly Down Wrong Road for Children,Chicago Tribuneeditorial. "But autism is almost certainly caused by a genetic defect, not a cold style of mothering. (Even a quick look at children who are abused or neglected by parents should make it obvious that autism is a completely different kind of problem.)"
  51. ^Bernstein, Richard:"Accusations of Abuse Haunt the Legacy of Dr. Bruno Bettelheim",The New York Times,November 4, 1990: "The Week in Review" section. "…not only of a tyrant but of a hypocrite as well."
  52. ^abAngres, Ronald:"Who, Really, Was Bruno Bettelheim?",personal essay, Commentary, 90, (4), October 1, 1990: 26–30.
  53. ^Kenneth A. Kavale, Mark P. Mostert, 2004,The Positive Side of Special Education: Minimizing Its Fads, Fancies, and Follies,ScareCrow Education (imprint of The Rowman & Littlefield), p. 132.
  54. ^Stephen Eliot, 2003Not The Thing I Was: Thirteen Years at Bruno Bettelheim's Orthogenic School,New York: St. Martin's Press, as listed for Toronto Public Library.
  55. ^Roberta Carly Redford, 2010,Crazy: My Seven Years at Bruno Bettelheim's Orthogenic School,Trafford Publishing, 364 pp. The author was a student at the school from 1967 to 1974, ages 16 to 23.
  56. ^Bernstein, Richard (November 4, 1990)."Ideas & Trends; Accusations of Abuse Haunt the Legacy of Dr. Bruno Bettelheim".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.RetrievedJuly 28,2024.
  57. ^Adam Feinstein,A History of Autism Conversations,Wiley Blackwell, p. 71
  58. ^And They Call it Help: The Psychiatric Policing of America's Children,Louise Armstrong, Addison-Wesley, 1993, Chapter 3 "Bart Simpson Meets Bruno Bettelheim." See pages 75 and following for Alida Jatich's reports of abuse at the school. See pages 77 and following for the overall nonresponse from the Chicago psychiatric community. See pages 80 and following for more of Jatich's recounts of her experiences and her thoughts regarding why more people didn't speak up.
  59. ^Newsweek,"'Beno Brutalheim'?," Nina Darnton, Sept. 10, 1990.
  60. ^Late-Talking Children: A Symptom of a Stage?,Stephen M. Camarata, MIT Press, 2014. From "Ch. 4: Lessons from Autism: Charlatans, False Cures, and Questionable Cures", page 81 quotes a paragraph fromNewsweekmagazine.
  61. ^Herman, Ellen."Childhood Psychosis or Schizophrenia".The Autism History Project.University of Oregon.RetrievedFebruary 29,2020.
  62. ^Herman, Ellen."Bruno Bettelheim," Schizophrenia as a Reaction to Extreme Situations, "1956".The Autism History Project.University of Oregon.RetrievedFebruary 29,2020.
  63. ^Herman, Ellen."Psychogenesis".The Autism History Project.University of Oregon.RetrievedFebruary 29,2020.
  64. ^abWorkshop on U.S. Data to Evaluate Changes in the Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs),US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), February 1, 2011, Background: What Do We Know About ASD Prevalence?, M. Yeargin-Allsopp, p. 7, 'There are likely multiple forms of ASDs with multiple causes that are poorly understood.'
  65. ^abWhy are the French still blaming mothers for autism?,Philly. Michael Yudell: Tuesday, January 31, 2012.
  66. ^abAddress to Florida Autism Task Force on World Autism Day,Autistic Self Advocacy Network (ASAN), Ari Ne'eman, April 2, 2008. '…the past few decades have resulted in a decrease in the stigmatization of parents of autistic children, as a result of the medical community moving away from the odious and damaging inaccuracy that autism is the result of "refrigerator mothers." '
  67. ^Autism spectrum disorder, Cause,Mayo Clinic Staff, June 3, 2014. 'Genetic problems.Several different genes appear to be involved…Environmental factors.Researchers are currently exploring whether such factors as viral infections, complications during pregnancy or air pollutants play a role in triggering autism spectrum disorder.'
  68. ^abcChristopher Lehmann-Haupt, Jan. 13, 1997An Icon of Psychology Falls From His Pedestal,The New York Times,Books, review ofThe Creation of Dr. Bby Richard Pollak.
  69. ^abSeparating Fact from Fiction in the Etiology and Treatment of Autism,Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice,James Herbert, Ian Sharp, Brandon Gaudiano (all three authors from Hahnemann University in Philadelphia, Penn.), Vol. 1: No. 1, Spring-Summer 2002. "…no controlled research has been produced to support the refrigerator mother theory of autism. For example, Allen, DeMeyer, Norton, Pontus, and Yang (1971) did not find differences between parents of autistic and mentally retarded children and matched comparison children on personality measures."
  70. ^Ann Hulbert, 2003,Raising America: Experts, Parents, and a Century of Advice about Children,Random House. "An evocative case history approach like his allowed for fudging of samples, methods, and final results, and Bettelheim did so quite brazenly."
  71. ^Lehmann-Haupt, Christopher 13 Jan. 1997, "An Icon of Psychology Falls From His Pedestal,"The New York Times.
  72. ^Lisa D. Benaron, 2009,Autism,Greenwood Press, p. 4.
  73. ^ Amazon reviews
  74. ^Millon, Theodore;Krueger, mRobert F.; Simonsen, Erik, eds. (2011).Contemporary Directions in Psychopathology. Scientific Foundations of the DSM-V and ICD-11.New York City:Guilford Press.p.555.ISBN978-1-60623-533-1.
  75. ^Valerie Paradiz, 2002,Elijah's Cup: A Family's Journey into the Community and Culture of High-Functioning Autism and Asperger's Syndrome,rev. ed., Free Press; UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2005, pp. 72–73: "At the time, few people knew that Bettelheim had faked his credentials and was using fictional data to support his research. In 1944, with a forged resumé that suggested a stellar academic career in psychoanalysis in Austria, Bettelheim had made his way into a post as the director of the Orthgenic School for Disturbed Children at the University of Chicago."
  76. ^Feinstein, Adam (2010).A History of Autism: Conversations with the Pioneers.Oxford, UK: Blackwell's. p. 68.
  77. ^Feinstein, Adam."'Refrigerator mother' tosh must go into cold storage ".Autism connect. Archived fromthe originalon September 27, 2007.RetrievedJuly 29,2007.
  78. ^Humphreys, Tony (February 3, 2012). "Core connection: A diagnosis of Asperger's syndrome does little to help a child troubled by unhappy relationships".Irish Examiner.p. 7.
  79. ^Heurtevent, David (January 2, 2012)."Introduction to Autism in France: A Really Silly Psychiatric System!".Support The Wall – Autism.Archived fromthe originalon December 20, 2012.RetrievedFebruary 25,2012.
  80. ^Roy Richard Grinker, 2007,Unstrange Minds: Remapping the World of Autism: A Father, a Daughter, and a Search for New Answers,New York: Basic Books (Perseus Books).
  81. ^Jordynn Jack, 2014,Autism and Gender: From Refrigerator Mothers to Computer Geeks,University of Illinois Press.
  82. ^Bettelheim, Bruno (1943). "Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme Situations".Journal of Abnormal Psychology.38(4): 417–52.doi:10.1037/h0061208.
  83. ^Sutton, Nina (1997).Bettelheim: A Life and a Legacy.Westview Press.ISBN978-0-81339099-4.
  84. ^The New Republic,June 15, 1963
  85. ^The New Republic,July 20, 1963
  86. ^Ezra, Michael (2007)."The Eichmann Polemics: Hannah Arendt and Her Critics".Democratiya(book review). London. Archived from the original on January 20, 2009.RetrievedFebruary 20,2009.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  87. ^Tec, Nechama(Winter 2013)."Did Jews Go Like Sheep to the Slaughter?".Reform Judaism Magazine.RetrievedDecember 5,2018.
  88. ^Middleton-Kaplan, Richard (2014). "The Myth of Jewish Passivity". In Henry, Patrick (ed.).Jewish Resistance Against the Nazis.Washington, DC:Catholic University of America Press.p. 10.ISBN978-0-81322589-0.
  89. ^Nyiszli, Miklos (2011) [1960].Auschwitz: A Doctor's Eyewitness Account.Arcade. p. xiii.ISBN978-1-62872926-9.

Bibliography

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