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Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists

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Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
Cover
The cover of theBulletin of the Atomic Scientistshas featured the famousDoomsday Clocksince it debuted in 1947, when it was set at seven minutes to midnight.
DisciplineScience policy
LanguageEnglish
EditedbyJohn Mecklin[1]
Publication details
Former name(s)
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists of Chicago
History1945–present
Publisher
Taylor and Francisfor the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (United States)
FrequencyBimonthly
2.092 (2020)
Standard abbreviations
ISO 4Bull. At. Sci.
Inde xing
CODENBASIAP
ISSN0096-3402(print)
1938-3282(web)
LCCN48034039
OCLCno.470268256
Links

TheBulletin of the Atomic Scientistsis anonprofit organizationconcerning science and global security issues resulting from accelerating technological advances that have negative consequences for humanity. TheBulletinpublishes content at both a free-access website and a bi-monthly, nontechnicalacademic journal.The organization has been publishing continuously since 1945, when it was founded byAlbert Einsteinand formerManhattan Projectscientists as theBulletin of the Atomic Scientists of Chicagoimmediately following theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.The organization is also the keeper of the symbolicDoomsday Clock,the time of which is announced each January.

Background[edit]

One of the driving forces behind the creation of theBulletinwas the amount of public interest surrounding atomic energy and rapid technological change at the dawn of theAtomic Age.In 1945 the public interest inatomic warfareandweaponryinspired contributors to theBulletinto attempt to inform those interested about the dangers of the nuclear arms race they knew was coming and about the destruction that atomic war could bring about.[2]To convey the particular peril posed by nuclear weapons, theBulletindevised theDoomsday Clockin 1947, with an original setting of seven minutes to midnight.[3]

The minute hand of the Clock first moved closer to midnight in response to changing world events in 1949, following the firstSovietnuclear test. The Clock has been set forward and back over the years as circumstances have changed; as of 2023,it is set at 90 seconds to midnight.[4]The Doomsday Clock is used to represent threats to humanity from a variety of sources: nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction, climate change,[5]and disruptive technologies.[6] In 2015, theBulletinunveiled its Doomsday Dashboard,[7]an interactive infographic that illustrates some of the data theBulletin'sScience and Security Board[8]takes into account when deciding the time of the Clock each year. As of August 2018, theBulletin'sBoard of Sponsors boasts 14 Nobel Laureates.[9]

In the 1950s, theBulletinwas involved in the formation of thePugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs,annual conferences of scientists concerned about nuclear proliferation, and, more broadly, the role of science in modern society.

History[edit]

TheBulletinwas founded in late 1945 by "scientific men who helped make the A-bomb".[10]The founder and first editor of theBulletin of the Atomic ScientistswasbiophysicistEugene Rabinowitch(1901–1973). He founded the magazine with physicistHyman Goldsmith.Rabinowitch was a professor of botany and biophysics at theUniversity of Illinoisand was also a founding member of the Continuing Committee for the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs.[11]In addition to Rabinowitch and Goldsmith, contributors have included:Morton Grodzins,Hans Bethe,Anatoli Blagonravov,Max Born,Harrison Brown,Stuart Chase,Brock Chisholm,E.U. Condon,Albert Einstein,E.K. Fedorov,Bernard T. Feld,James Franck,Ralph E. Lapp,Richard S. Leghorn,J. Robert Oppenheimer(first chairman of the board of the organization),[12]Lord Boyd Orr,Michael Polanyi,Louis Ridenour,Bertrand Russell,Nikolay Semyonov,Leó Szilárd,Edward Teller,A.V. Topchiev,Harold C. Urey,Paul Weiss,James L. Tuck,among many others.[13]

In 1949, the Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science incorporated as a not-for-profit501(c)(3)organization to serve as the parent organization and fundraising mechanism of theBulletin.In 2003, the board of directors voted to change the foundation's name to Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.

Purpose[edit]

TheBulletin of the Atomic Scientistsbegan as an emergency action undertaken by scientists who saw urgent need for an immediate educational program about atomic weapons.[14]The intention was to educate fellow scientists about the relationship between their world of science and the world of national and international politics. A second was to help the American people understand what nuclear energy and its possible applications to war meant. TheBulletincontributors believed the atom bomb would only be the first of many dangers.[14]The aim of theBulletinwas to carry out the long, sustained effort of educating people about the realities of the scientific age.

TheBulletin of the Atomic Scientistsseeks to educate citizens, policy makers, scientists, and journalists by providing non-technical, scientifically sound and policy-relevant information about nuclear weapons, climate change, and other global security issues. TheBulletinalso serves as a reliable, high-quality global forum for diverse international opinions on the best means of reducing reliance on nuclear weapons.[15]Since its inception in 1945, theBulletinhas sought to educate the American public of the continual danger posed by nuclear weapons and other global dangers, most recently adding climate change and disruptive technologies in the life sciences to the list of concerns.

TheBulletin'sleadership consists of three boards, and it wasannouncedon October 25, 2018, that California GovernorJerry Brownis joining the organization as executive chair.

Board of Sponsors[edit]

TheBulletin'sBoard of Sponsors is composed of accomplished science and security leaders from around the world. Members of the Board of Sponsors weigh in on critical issues, including the setting of the organization'sDoomsday Clock.As of October 2018, theBulletin'sBoard of Sponsors lists 14 Nobel Laureates.

Science and Security Board[edit]

TheBulletin'sScience and Security Board is composed of globally-recognized leaders who have specific areas of expertise in nuclear risk, climate change, and disruptive technologies. Members of the Science and Security Board provide theBulletinorganization and editorial staff with perspectives on trends and issues in their respective fields. Among their duties is the annual setting of the Doomsday Clock, with input from the Board of Sponsors.

Doomsday Clock[edit]

Main article:Doomsday Clock
TheBulletin's logo of the Doomsday Clock as of January 2024.

Once the Soviet Union developed atomic weapons, the concern surrounding the world's destruction was a great fear of the scientists working on theBulletin.The proximity of nuclear devastation was a popular interest and, as a result,Bulletinco-editor Hyman Goldsmith asked landscape artistMartyl Langsdorfto create a cover for the June 1947 magazine.[10]Langsdorf, who was married to Manhattan Project physicistAlexander Langsdorf,first considered using the symbol for uranium but then realized that a clock would better convey "a sense of urgency."[16]The resultant Doomsday Clock, which only has bullets labeling the numbers in the upper left hand corner, has been featured on the cover of theBulletinmany times since its creation.[17]

The proximity of the minute hand to midnight has been theBulletinleadership's way of warning the public about manmade threats to humanity; the Clock is a metaphor, not a prediction. That is, the time on the clock is not to be interpreted as actual time. When it began in 1947, the minute hand was 7 minutes to midnight; in 1953, when the Soviet Union continued to test more and more nuclear devices, it was 2 minutes to midnight.[18]This proximity to midnight of the Doomsday Clock during the early 1950s shows the concern that theBulletincontributors had about the Soviet Union and the nuclear arms race. The warnings of theBulletincontinued throughout the 1950s and 1960s, and the focus of the efforts shifted slightly from warning about the dangers of nuclear war to the necessity of disarmament. In 2007, the leadership began takinganthropogenic climate changeinto account in its Clock discussions. Throughout the history of the Doomsday Clock, it has moved closer to midnight, and farther away, depending upon the status of the world at that time.[18]The Doomsday Clock has been getting closer to midnight since 1991, when it was set to 17 minutes to midnight, after the United States and the Soviet Union reachedan agreement on nuclear arms reductions.

As of 23 January 2024,the Doomsday Clock stands at 90 seconds to midnight.[19]It is the closest approach to midnight, exceeding that of 1953, 2018 and 2020. The decision to move the hand of the Clock is made by theBulletin'sScience and Security Board, which meets in person twice a year, with subcommittees meeting more often; the announcement of the decision is made each January. Each November, just prior to the Science and Security Board's fall discussion, theBulletinhosts an annual dinner and meeting in Chicago;[20]both events are open to the public. Reflecting international events dangerous to humankind, the Clock's hand has been adjusted 25 times since its inception in 1947, when it was initially set to seven minutes to midnight (11:53pm).

Present[edit]

In more recent years, articles of theBulletinhave focused on many topics, ranging from the dangers of radiation following theChernobyl disasterto the impact of the fall of the Soviet Union. In the wake of the Soviet Union's collapse, other articles have focused on issues such as military spending[21]and the continued funding of missile defense systems designed to thwart nuclear attacks but that in reality may not work.[22]With the ever-growing number of nuclear power plants and the demand for nuclear energy as asolution to climate change,the publication has focused a great deal on the costs and problems surrounding nuclear energy.[23]In 2015, theBulletin of the Atomic Scientistsunveiled the Nuclear Fuel Cost Calculator.[24]

Although the arms race and the Cold War, which were focuses of theBulletinfor many of the earlier years, are no longer occurring, the publication still focuses on the nuclear dangers that exist in the world today.[25]As more countries such as Pakistan and India have tested nuclear weapons, theBulletinhas focused on the dangers posed by these countries.[26]TheBulletin'sbi-monthly "Nuclear Notebook" is written byFederation of American Scientistsexperts Hans Kristensen and Matt Korda and tracks the number of nuclear weapons in the world by country.[27]Robert "Stan" Norris, who was a founding co-author of the Nuclear Notebook, retired from the Notebook in 2018, although he is still a senior fellow at FAS. In 2015, theBulletinadded the Nuclear Notebook Interactive,[28]an infographic that illustrates which countries have nuclear weapons and when they got them, and how many nuclear warheads they have in any given year. All nine nuclear-armed states are featured: the United States, Russia, China, India, Pakistan, France, Britain, Israel, and North Korea.

In the 21st century, articles have covered threats to humanity from a variety of sources. The potential dangers of nuclear weapons[29]and energy,[30]military and political developments in the Post-Cold War world, political unrest in the Middle East (and its attendant potential for proliferation risks of nuclear and chemical weapons), myriad negativeconsequences of climate change,cyber warfare, and changes wrought by emerging technologies[31]have all been examined in theBulletinin the most recent years. Examples include North Korea,[32]Middle East,[33]Syria,[34][35]Fukushima,[36]Cybersecurity,[37]and Climate Change.[38]

In January 2015, longtime executive director and publisherKennette Benedictretired.Rachel Bronsontook over as president and CEO of the organization.[39]The editor of theBulletinis John Mecklin.[40]

Next Generation Initiative[edit]

As part of theBulletin'swork to engage new audiences in issues related to nuclear threats, climate change, artificial intelligence, and biological threats, the publication launched its Next Generation Initiative to encourage young and emerging scholars to engage on these issues. Programs under the initiative have included writing workshops for graduate and undergraduate students, as well as the Voices of Tomorrow feature, which publishes articles and multimedia projects from emerging scholars and experts working in theBulletin'sinterest areas. Two Voices of Tomorrow authors, Emma Bastin and Yangyang Cheng, had their work republished inTeen Vogue.

The capstone of the initiative is the Leonard M. Rieser Award,[41]selected each December by theBulletin's editorial team from among the year's Voices of Tomorrow submissions. The recipient of the Rieser Award receives $1,000 and a subscription to theBulletin's bi-monthly magazine. In 2018, Erin Connolly and Kate Hewitt shared the award for their article "American students aren't taught nuclear weapons policy in school. Here's how to fix that problem."[42]Recent recipients include Yangyang Cheng,[43]Nikita Perumal[44]and Moritz Kütt.[45]

Online editions[edit]

TheBulletinhas had a public-access website available online for some years, with a subscription magazine that comes out 6 times per year and is currently published byTaylor & Francis Online.An e-newsletter is also available without charge by signing up via theBulletinwebsite.[46]

Backfiles of the subscription magazine are available in the John A. Simpson Collection.[47]The backfile from the first (1945) issue through the November 1998 issue of theBulletinhas also been made available free of charge via Google Books.[48]

November/December 2008 was the last print edition of theBulletin,which became all-digital only that year.[49]SAGE Publicationsbegan publishing theBulletin'ssubscription magazine in September 2010;Taylor & Francistook over from Sage in January 2016.[50]

Inde xing[edit]

The journal is indexed in theJournal Citation Reports,which states that the journal has a 2016impact factorof 0.452, ranking it 71st out of 83 journals in the category "International Relations" and 32nd out of 41 journals in the category "Social Issues".[51]

Awards[edit]

See also[edit]

Notes and references[edit]

The records of theBulletinare kept at the Special Collections Research Center of theUniversity of ChicagoLibrary.

  1. ^"John Mecklin to succeed Mindy Kay Bricker as Editor of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.December 10, 2013. Archived fromthe originalon March 4, 2016.RetrievedDecember 12,2013.
  2. ^Boyer, Paul S.(1985).By the Bomb's Early Light.Pantheon. p.70.ISBN978-0-394-52878-6.
  3. ^Wall, C. Edward (October 1975). "The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists".Serials Review.1(4): 11–15.doi:10.1080/00987913.1975.10762958.
  4. ^"Doomsday Clock set at 90 seconds to midnight".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.January 24, 2023.RetrievedJanuary 24,2023.
  5. ^Benedict, Kennette (July 18, 2013)."Existential Threats, Fast and Slow".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.RetrievedJuly 18,2013.
  6. ^Goldenberg, Suzanne (January 10, 2012)."Doomsday Clock ticks one minute closer to midnight".The Guardian.
  7. ^"Doomsday Dashboard".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
  8. ^"Science and Security Board".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.March 9, 2016.
  9. ^"Board of Sponsors".The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.March 30, 2017. Archived fromthe originalon May 9, 2018.RetrievedSeptember 21,2018.
  10. ^ab"What about the H-Bomb?".Hanford Daily Sentinel.Vol. 154, no. 70.United Press.March 24, 1950. p. 3.RetrievedJune 19,2024– viaNewspapersviaWikipedia Library.
  11. ^Grodzins, Morton;Rabinowitch, Eugene,eds. (1963).The Atomic Age: Scientists in National and World Affairs.New York: Basic Book Publishing. p. xv.
  12. ^Widener, Alice (May 16, 1963)."For Your Information — Pugwash Editorial".Shreveport Journal.Vol. 69. p. 8.RetrievedJune 19,2024– viaNewspapers.
  13. ^The Atomic Age,pp. xv–xviii
  14. ^abThe Atomic Age,p. vii
  15. ^"Would the United States ever actually use nuclear weapons?".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.September 17, 2013. Archived fromthe originalon November 13, 2013.RetrievedSeptember 18,2013.
  16. ^"Doomsday Clock FAQ".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
  17. ^Benedict, Kennette (January 26, 2018)."Doomsday Clockwork".The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.Archived fromthe originalon April 2, 2015.RetrievedApril 1,2015.
  18. ^abBulletin Staff."Doomsday Clock Timeline".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
  19. ^Starkey, Sarah (January 23, 2024)."Doomsday Clock remains at 90 seconds to midnight".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists(Press release).RetrievedJanuary 23,2024.
  20. ^"Annual Dinner and Meeting".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
  21. ^Kingston, Reif (October 25, 2013)."Pentagon Pushes for Billions to Refurbish Nuclear Bombs".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived fromthe originalon October 29, 2013.RetrievedOctober 25,2013.
  22. ^Podvig, Pavel (April 2, 2013)."Shooting Down the Star Wars Myth".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived fromthe originalon August 6, 2013.RetrievedApril 30,2013.
  23. ^Miller, John (September 11, 2013)."A False Fix for Climate Change".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived fromthe originalon October 29, 2013.RetrievedSeptember 11,2013.
  24. ^"Introducing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle Cost Calculator".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.May 31, 2015. Archived fromthe originalon October 19, 2017.RetrievedDecember 16,2023.
  25. ^Siddharth Mallavarapu; Jaime Aguirre Gómez; Robert Mtonga."Nuclear Detonations: Contemplating Catastrophe".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.RetrievedSeptember 12,2013.
  26. ^Vishwanathan, Arun (August 9, 2013)."Nuclear Signals in South Asia".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived fromthe originalon October 18, 2013.RetrievedAugust 9,2013.
  27. ^Hans Kristensen; Robert S. Norris."Nuclear Notebook".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.RetrievedMay 17,2013.
  28. ^"Nuclear Notebook".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
  29. ^Siddharth Mallavarapu; Jaime Aguirre Gómez; Robert Mtonga."Nuclear Detonations: Contemplating Catastrophe".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.RetrievedSeptember 20,2013.
  30. ^Barzashka, Ivanka (October 31, 2013)."Converting a civilian enrichment plant into a nuclear weapons material facility".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.RetrievedOctober 31,2013.
  31. ^Gubrud, Mark (September 20, 2013)."US Killer Robot Policy: Full Speed Ahead".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.RetrievedSeptember 20,2013.
  32. ^Duff-Brown, Beth (April 5, 2013)."Interview with Siegfried Hecker: North Korea complicates the long-term picture".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.Archived fromthe originalon August 24, 2013.RetrievedSeptember 6,2013.
  33. ^Salsabili, Mansour; Eiran, Ehud; Malin, Martin B.; Khalil, Ayman (June 21, 2013)."Banning WMD from the Middle East".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.Archived fromthe originalon August 20, 2013.RetrievedSeptember 6,2013.
  34. ^Walker, Paul (September 13, 2013)."How to Destroy Chemical Weapons".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived fromthe originalon May 21, 2022.RetrievedSeptember 13,2013.
  35. ^Blair, Charles (August 26, 2013)."The Chemical Weapons of Syria".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.Archived fromthe originalon September 10, 2013.RetrievedSeptember 6,2013.
  36. ^Suzuki, Tatsujiro."Suzuki's Fukushima Updates".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.RetrievedOctober 26,2013.
  37. ^Brenner, Joel (September–October 2013)."Eyes Wide Shut: The Growing Threat of Cyber Attacks on Industrial Control Systems"(PDF).Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.69(5): 15–20.Bibcode:2013BuAtS..69e..15B.doi:10.1177/0096340213501372.S2CID145812935.Archived(PDF)from the original on August 8, 2017.
  38. ^Carlson, Robert (December 11, 2013)."From National Security to Natural Security".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived fromthe originalon December 12, 2013.RetrievedDecember 11,2013.
  39. ^Bronson, Rachel (March 17, 2015)."A Message to our Community".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived fromthe originalon April 2, 2015.RetrievedMarch 30,2015.
  40. ^"Bulletin Staff".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.RetrievedJuly 20,2013.
  41. ^Bulletin Staff."Leonard M. Rieser Award".The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
  42. ^"American students aren't taught nuclear weapons policy in school. Here's how to fix that problem".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.June 11, 2018.RetrievedMarch 27,2021.
  43. ^Cheng, Yangyang (April 4, 2017)."Let science be science again".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
  44. ^"The value in activism: Reflections from the Columbia University climate sit-in".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.May 12, 2016. Archived fromthe originalon July 12, 2017.RetrievedJuly 26,2017.
  45. ^"Arms-control lessons from the Volkswagen scandal".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.November 5, 2015. Archived fromthe originalon July 12, 2017.RetrievedJuly 26,2017.
  46. ^"Newsletter".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.RetrievedSeptember 7,2013.
  47. ^"John A. Simpson Archive".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.RetrievedJuly 20,2013.
  48. ^"1945–1998Bulletinbackfile available via Google Books ".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.December 10, 2008. Archived fromthe originalon December 12, 2008.
  49. ^"Bulletin magazine goes all-digital in 2009".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.November 19, 2008. Archived fromthe originalon December 19, 2008.
  50. ^Staff writer (December 15, 2015)."The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists will now publish with Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group".Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived fromthe originalon February 2, 2016.RetrievedJanuary 24,2016.
  51. ^"Journals Ranked by Impact: International Relations and Social Issues".2016 Journal Citation Reports.Web of Science(Social Sciences ed.).Thomson Reuters.2017.

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