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Bursa

Coordinates:40°11′N29°03′E/ 40.183°N 29.050°E/40.183; 29.050
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For other uses, seeBursa (disambiguation).
Bursa
City
Clockwise from top:Hüdavendigar Park;Green Mosque;Irgandı Bridge and Orhan Gazi Square; nostalgic tram on Cumhuriyet Avenue;Koza Han;andBursa – Mt. Uludağ gondola lift
Official logo of Bursa
Emblem of Bursa Metropolitan Municipality
Bursa is located in Marmara
Bursa
Bursa
Location of Bursa within theRegion of Marmarain Turkey
Bursa is located in Turkey
Bursa
Bursa
Bursa (Turkey)
Coordinates:40°11′N29°03′E/ 40.183°N 29.050°E/40.183; 29.050
CountryTurkey
RegionMarmara
ProvinceBursa
Government
•MayorMustafa Bozbey(CHP)
Area
• City10,422 km2(4,024 sq mi)
• Urban
1,290 km2(500 sq mi)
• Metro
17,806 km2(6,875 sq mi)
Elevation
100 m (300 ft)
Population
(2021 estimation)[1]
• City3,101,833
• Density300/km2(770/sq mi)
•Urban
1,999,998
• Urban density1,600/km2(4,000/sq mi)
•Metro
2,161,990
• Metro density120/km2(310/sq mi)
GDP
[2]
• City₺609 billion
US$37 billion (2022)
• Per capita₺ 192,098
US$ 11,591 (2022)
Time zoneUTC+3(TRT)
Postal code
16000
Area code(+90) 224
Licence plate16
Websitebursa.bel.tr
Official nameBursa andCumalıkızık:the Birth of theOttoman Empire
TypeCultural
Criteriai, ii, iv, vi
Designated2014(38th session)
Reference no.1452
RegionEurope

Bursa(Turkish pronunciation:[ˈbuɾsa]) is a city in northwesternTurkeyand the administrative center ofBursa Province.Thefourth-most populouscity in Turkey andsecond-most populousin theMarmara Region,Bursa is one of the industrial centers of the country. Most ofTurkey's automotive productiontakes place in Bursa. As of 2019, the Metropolitan Province was home to 3,056,120 inhabitants, 2,161,990 of whom lived in the 3 city urban districts (Osmangazi,YıldırımandNilüfer) plusGürsuandKestel.[1]

Bursa was the first major and second overall capital of theOttoman Statebetween 1335 and 1363. A more recent nickname isYeşil Bursa( "Green Bursa") referring to the parks and gardens located across the city, as well as to the vast, varied forests of the surrounding region.

Bursa has a rather orderly urban growth and borders a fertile plain. Themausoleumsof the earlyOttoman sultansare located in Bursa, and the city's main landmarks include numerous edifices built throughout the Ottoman period. Bursa also hasthermal baths,old Ottoman mansions, palaces, and several museums.Mount Uludağ,known inclassical antiquityas theMysian Olympusor alternativelyBithynian Olympus,towers over the city, and has a well-knownski resort.

Theshadow playcharactersKaragöz and Hacivatare based on historic personalities who lived and died in Bursa in the 14th century.[3]

History

[edit]
See also:Timeline of Bursa historyandProusa
Athena,bronze, 2nd century AD, atBursa Archaeological Museum

The earliest known human settlement near Bursa's current location was at Ilıpınar Höyüğü around 5200 BC.[4]It was followed by theancient Greekcity ofCius,whichPhilip V of Macedongranted toPrusias I,the King ofBithynia,in 202 BC. King Prusias rebuilt the city with the advice of generalHannibal of Carthage,who took refuge with Prusias after losing the war with theRoman Republicand renamed itPrusa(Ancient Greek:Προῦσα;sometimes rendered asPrussa). After 128 years of Bithynian rule,Nicomedes IV,the last King ofBithynia,bequeathed the entire kingdom to theRoman Empirein 74 BC. An earlyRoman Treasurewas found near Bursa in the early 20th century. Composed of a woman's silver toilet articles, it is now in theBritish Museum.[5]

Under Byzantine rule, the town became a garrison city in 562 AD, where imperial guards were stationed. Already by the mid-6th century, Bursa was known as a famous silk textile manufacturing centre.[6]

Bursa (from the Greek "Prusa" ) became the first major capital city of the earlyOttoman Empirefollowing its capture from theByzantinesin 1326. As a result, the city witnessed a considerable amount of urban growth such as the building of hospitals,caravanseraisandmadrasasthroughout the 14th century, with the first official Ottoman mint established in the city.[6]After conqueringEdirne(Adrianople) inEast Thrace,the Ottomans turned it into the new capital city in 1363, but Bursa retained its spiritual and commercial importance in the Ottoman Empire.[7]The Ottoman sultanBayezid Ibuilt theBayezid Külliyesi(Bayezid I theological complex) in Bursa between 1390 and 1395[8]and theUlu Cami (Grand Mosque)between 1396 and 1400.[9]After Bayezid was defeated in theBattle of Ankaraby the forces ofTimurin 1402, the latter's grandson,Muhammad Sultan Mirza,had the city pillaged and burned.[10]Despite this, Bursa remained as the most important administrative and commercial centre in the empire untilMehmed IIconqueredConstantinoplein 1453. The population of Bursa was 45,000 in 1487.

Historical population
YearPop.±%
148745,000—
192761,451+36.6%
1955128,875+109.7%
1980487,604+278.4%
20001,184,144+142.8%
20151,854,285+56.6%

[11]

During the Ottoman period, Bursa continued to be the source of most royalsilkproducts. Aside from the local silk production, the city imported raw silk fromIran,and occasionally fromChina,and was the main production centre for thekaftans,pillows,embroideryand other silk products for the Ottoman palaces until the 17th century.[12]Devshirme system was also implemented in Bursa and its surroundings where it was negotiated between the authorities and locals. For example, during the 1603-4 levy, the villagers of a Christian village calledEğerciler,in Bursa, declared that they were responsible for providing sheep to the capital, and the children of the village were very much needed as shepherds. They asserted that even though they were not obliged to give any children to the army, the officers took some anyway, and that they should be returned. The villagers’ claim that it was in tremendous need of future shepherds was taken seriously by the state, and a decree commanded the return of the children.[13]Bursa was also notable for its numeroushammams(bath) built during the reign ofSuleimansuch as the Yeni Kaplıca.[6]From 1867 until 1922, Bursa was the capital ofHüdavendigâr vilayet.As it was a significant cultural and trade hub, traders, most of whom were Armenians, became very wealthy.[14]The most influential study of Bursa'ssilk tradeand economic history is the work of OttomanistHalil İnalcık.[15]

In July 1915, thousands of Greek Orthodox Christians sought refuge in Bursa after having been forced out of their coastal villages by orders of theYoung Turk government.This worsened the situation of the native Greeks of Bursa, who had managed to survive through the attacks and boycotts of 1914. A short time later, deportation orders came for Bursa's Armenians. Protestant Armenians were initially spared from deportation, but villagers that tried to resist were massacred. Most of the deportees would perish in what became known as theArmenian Genocide.Subsequently, large numbers of Kurds and Circassians, as well as Syrians from the south, were settled in the homes and towns of the deported Christians, radically altering the demographic composition of the town and region.[16]According to Mustafa Zahit Oner, in the last days of theGreco-Turkish Warin 1922, the Greek Army attempted to burn the center of Bursa however they were stopped by the allied commanders and were only able to burn the train station together with Turkish civilians in it.[17]The Cretan artilleryman Vasilios Moustakis describes the event with the following words: "The Infantry had come through and set fire to the station. We saw an English general on horseback, who ordered the fire to be put out because if Bursa were burned, it would be harming Greece".[18]

Ottoman architecturein Bursa

Following the foundation of theRepublic of Turkeyin 1923, Bursa became one of the industrial centres of the country. The economic development of the city was followed by population growth, and Bursa became the4thmost populous city inTurkey.

The city has traditionally been a pole of attraction, and was a major centre for refugees from various ethnic backgrounds who immigrated toAnatoliafrom theBalkansduring the loss of theOttoman territories in Europebetween the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The most recent arrival ofBalkan Turkstook place between the 1940s and 1990s, when thePeople's Republic of Bulgariaexpelled approximately 150,000Bulgarian Turksto Turkey.[19]About one-third of these 150,000 Bulgarian Turkish refugees eventually settled in Bursa (especially in the Hürriyet neighbourhood). With the construction of new industrial zones in the period between 1980 and 2000, many people from theeastern provinces of Turkeycame and settled in Bursa.

Geography

[edit]
Köppen map of Bursa Province and surrounding regions:[20]
  • BSk
  • Csa
  • Csb
  • Cfa
  • Dsb
  • Dsc

The area covered by Bursa corresponds to 1.41% ofTurkey's land area, which makes the city 27th in the country in terms of land area.[21]Bursa stands on the northwestern slopes ofMount Uludağ(known as theMysian Olympusin classical antiquity), on the banks of theNilüfer River,in the southernMarmara Region.It is the capital city ofBursa Province,which borders theSea of MarmaraandYalovato the north;KocaeliandSakaryato the northeast;Bilecikto the east; andKütahyaandBalıkesirto the south.

Climate

[edit]

Bursa has aMediterranean climate(Köppen climate classification:Csa) under theKöppenclassification, and a dry-hot summer subtropical climate (Csa) under theTrewarthaclassification. The city has hot, dry summers that last from June until September. Winters are cool and damp, also containing the most rainfall. There can be snow on the ground which will last for a week or two.Air pollutionis a chronic problem in Bursa.[22]

Climate data for Bursa (1991–2020, extremes 1928–2023)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 25.2
(77.4) 		26.9
(80.4) 		32.5
(90.5) 		36.2
(97.2) 		37.0
(98.6) 		41.3
(106.3) 		43.8
(110.8) 		42.6
(108.7) 		40.3
(104.5) 		37.3
(99.1) 		32.1
(89.8) 		27.3
(81.1) 		43.8
(110.8)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 9.8
(49.6) 		11.4
(52.5) 		14.6
(58.3) 		19.2
(66.6) 		24.4
(75.9) 		28.9
(84.0) 		31.5
(88.7) 		31.7
(89.1) 		27.6
(81.7) 		22.2
(72.0) 		16.6
(61.9) 		11.5
(52.7) 		20.8
(69.4)
Daily mean °C (°F) 5.4
(41.7) 		6.5
(43.7) 		9.0
(48.2) 		13.0
(55.4) 		18.1
(64.6) 		22.6
(72.7) 		25.1
(77.2) 		25.2
(77.4) 		20.8
(69.4) 		15.9
(60.6) 		10.7
(51.3) 		7.0
(44.6) 		14.9
(58.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 1.7
(35.1) 		2.4
(36.3) 		4.1
(39.4) 		7.4
(45.3) 		12.0
(53.6) 		16.2
(61.2) 		18.4
(65.1) 		18.7
(65.7) 		14.8
(58.6) 		10.8
(51.4) 		6.0
(42.8) 		3.3
(37.9) 		9.6
(49.3)
Record low °C (°F) −20.5
(−4.9) 		−19.6
(−3.3) 		−10.5
(13.1) 		−4.2
(24.4) 		0.8
(33.4) 		4.0
(39.2) 		8.3
(46.9) 		7.6
(45.7) 		3.3
(37.9) 		−1.0
(30.2) 		−8.4
(16.9) 		−17.9
(−0.2) 		−20.5
(−4.9)
Averageprecipitationmm (inches) 79.2
(3.12) 		78.2
(3.08) 		74.9
(2.95) 		68.6
(2.70) 		47.9
(1.89) 		42.8
(1.69) 		14.3
(0.56) 		17.5
(0.69) 		50.1
(1.97) 		84.4
(3.32) 		67.3
(2.65) 		93.9
(3.70) 		719.1
(28.31)
Average precipitation days 14.87 13.60 13.40 11.43 9.63 7.30 3.33 3.60 6.77 10.67 10.93 14.53 119.8
Average snowy days 5.08 3.71 1.46 0.08 0 0 0 0 0 0.04 0.42 2.42 13.21
Averagerelative humidity(%) 75.3 72.8 70.7 69.3 67.1 63.1 59.6 61.7 67.3 74.6 75.5 75.7 69.4
Mean monthlysunshine hours 83.7 90.4 124.0 165.0 217.0 264.0 300.7 275.9 217.0 145.7 111.0 77.5 2,071.9
Mean dailysunshine hours 2.7 3.2 4.0 5.5 7.0 8.8 9.7 8.9 7.0 4.7 3.7 2.5 5.6
Source 1:Turkish State Meteorological Service[23][24]
Source 2:NOAA(humidity),[25]Meteomanz[26]

Economy

[edit]
Bursa is one of the leading industrial and agricultural production centres in Turkey.

Bursa is the largest production centre of theTurkish automotive industry.[27]Factories ofmotor vehicleproducers likeFiat,RenaultandKarsan,as well asautomotiveparts producers likeBosch,Mako,Valeo,Johnson Controls,Delphihave been active in the city for decades. Thetextileandfoodindustries are equally strong, withCoca-Cola,Pepsi Colaand other beverage brands, as well as fresh andcanned foodindustries being present in the city's organized industrial zones.

Apart from its large automotive industry, Bursa also produces a substantial amount of dairy products (bySütaş),[28]processed food (byTat),[29]and beverages (byUludağ).[30]

Nilüfer Riverand Hüdavendigar Park

Traditionally, Bursa was famous for being the largest centre ofsilktrade in theByzantineand later theOttomanempires, during the period of the lucrativeSilk Road.The city is still a major centre for textiles in Turkey and is home to the Bursa International Textiles and Trade Centre (Bursa Uluslararası Tekstil ve Ticaret Merkezi,orBUTTIM). Bursa was also known for its fertile soil and agricultural activities, which have decreased in the recent decades due to the heavy industrialization of the city.

Bursa is a major centre for tourism. One of the most popularskiingresorts in Turkey is located onMount Uludağ,just next to the city proper. Bursa's thermal baths have been used for therapeutical purposes sinceRomantimes. Apart from the baths that are operated by hotels,Uludağ Universityhas aphysical therapycentre which also makes use of thermal water.

Transportation

[edit]
Tram type "Silkworm" is produced in Bursa by Turkish manufacturer Durmazlar.

Bursa has ametro(Bursaray),trams[31]and a bus system for inner-city public transport, while taxi cabs are also available. Bursa'sYenişehir Airportis 20 mi (32 km) away from the city centre. The citizens of Bursa also prefer Istanbul's airports such asIstanbul AirportandSabiha Gökçen International Airportfor flights to foreign countries, due to Istanbul's proximity to Bursa. There are numerous daily bus and ferry services between the two cities.

Bursa – Mt. Uludağgondola lift

The 8.8 km (5.5 mi) longBursa Uludağ Gondola(Turkish:Teleferik) connects Bursa with the ski resort areas 1,870 m (6,140 ft) high on the mountainUludağ.[32]

The only railway station in Bursa is theHarmancıkstation on theBalıkesir-Kütahyarailway, which was opened in 1930.

The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Bursa, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 62 min. 12% of public transit riders ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 18 min, while 31% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip on public transit is 8.1 km (5.0 mi), while 17% travel for over 12 km (7.5 mi) in a single direction.[33]

Education

[edit]
Bursa Technical University campus

Bursa has two public universities and one private university.Uludağ University,founded in 1975, is the oldest institution of higher education in the city. Founded first as the Bursa University then renamed Uludağ University in 1982,[34]the university has a student body of 47,000, one of the largest in Turkey.Bursa Technical University[35]is the second public university of Bursa and was established in 2010, beginning education in the 2011–2012 academic year.

The first private university in Bursa was theBursa Orhangazi University,[36]which started education in the 2012–2013 academic year. However, Orhangazi University was shut down by the Turkish government after the failed coup attempt of July 2016.

Istanbul Commerce Universityhas opened graduate programs in Bursa in 2013.[37]

The vocational high schools,Bursa Sports High School,[38]andBursa Agriculture Vocational High School,[39]are located inOsmangazidistrict.

Sports

[edit]
Timsah Arenais the home of Bursaspor, which won theSüper Lig(Super League) championship title at the end of the2009–10 season.

The city has one professional football club,Bursaspor,which formerly competed in theSüper Lig(Super League), the top-tier of Turkish football, untilfinishing 16that the end of the2018–19 Süper Ligseason and being relegated to theTFF First League.A few years earlier, Bursaspor had managed to become theTurkish championsat the end of the2009–10 Süper Ligseason, thereby becoming the second Anatolian club to ever win the Süper Lig championship title after Trabzonspor. Henceforth, Bursaspor was often considered to be one of the five biggest football clubs in Turkey, along withGalatasaray,Fenerbahçe, Beşiktaş and Trabzonspor. The club's relegation to the TFF First League at the end of the 2018–19 season was a major shock for its fans and became a first in the history of Turkish football. Never had a club which had won the Süper Lig championship title been relegated.

Bursaspor plays its home games at theTimsah Arena(meaning "Crocodile Arena",crocodilebeing the mascot of the team), which has a seating capacity of 45,000.

The city has a professionalbasketballteam in theTurkish Basketball League,Tofaş S.K.,which is among the most successful teams. The club plays its games at theTofaş Nilüfer Sports Hall.

Politics

[edit]
Bursa district Municipalities
Local elections, 2024
AKP
9 / 17
CHP
6 / 17
IYIP
2 / 17

The current mayor of the Bursa Metropolitan MunicipalityMustafa Bozbeyis elected from the main opposition party (CHP) in March 2024.

Alinur Aktaşfrom theJustice and Development Party(AKP) was in office between 2019 and 2024, the AKP coalition won 49.6% of the vote against the CHP coalition which got 47% of the vote.[40]

Main sights

[edit]

Ulu Cami (Grand Mosque)

[edit]
TheGrand Mosqueand Orhan Gazi Square in Bursa

Ulu Camiis the largest mosque in Bursa and a landmark of earlyOttoman architecture,which incorporated many elements fromSeljukarchitecture.

Ordered by SultanBayezid I,the mosque was designed and built by architect Ali Neccar in 1396–1400. It is a large and rectangular building, with a total of twenty domes that are arranged in four rows of five, and are supported by 12 columns. Supposedly the twenty domes were built instead of the twenty separate mosques which SultanBayezid Ihad promised for winning theBattle of Nicopolisin 1396. The mosque has twominarets.

Bursa Atatürk Museum

Inside the mosque, there are 192 monumental wall inscriptions written by the famouscalligraphersof that period. There is also a fountain (şadırvan) where worshipers can performritual ablutionsbefore prayer; the dome over the şadırvan is capped by a skylight which creates a soft, serene light below; thus playing an important role in the illumination of the large building.

Yeşil Mosque

The horizontally spacious and dimly lit interior is designed to feel peaceful and contemplative. The subdivisions of space formed by multiple domes and pillars create a sense of privacy and even intimacy. This atmosphere contrasts with the later Ottoman mosques (see for example the works ofSuleiman the Magnificent's chief architect,Mimar Sinan.) The mosques that were built after theconquest of Constantinople(Istanbul) by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, and influenced by the design of the 6th century Byzantine basilica ofHagia Sophia,had increasingly elevated and large central domes, which create a vertical emphasis that is intended to be more overwhelming; to convey the divine power of Allah, the majesty of the Ottoman Sultan, and the governmental authority of the Ottoman State.

Botanical Park of Bursa
The village ofCumalıkızık,near Bursa, is aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site withOttomanera historic houses.

Places of interest

[edit]

A brief list of the places of interest in and around Bursa is presented below. For a longer list, see theplaces of interest in Bursa.

Mosques and külliye complexes

[edit]

Bazaars andcaravanserais

[edit]

Other historic monuments

[edit]

Museums

[edit]

Parks and gardens

[edit]

Hot springs and thermal baths

[edit]
  • Keramet hot spring
  • Çekirge hot spring
  • Armutlu hot spring
  • Oylat hot spring
  • Gemlik hot spring
  • Çelik Palas thermal bath

Beaches

[edit]
  • Kumla beach
  • Kurşunlu beach
  • Orhangazi beach
  • Mudanya beach
  • Manastir beach
  • Kapakli beach

Jewish community

[edit]

Bursa, initially home to a smallRomaniote Jewishcommunity, underwent a demographic shift with the arrival ofSephardic Jewswho wereexpelled from the Iberian Peninsulain the late 15th century. The Sephardic majority quickly absorbed the Romaniotes, leading to a cultural and numerical dominance.Judaeo-Spanishbecame the daily language, and the community paid itspoll taxthrough the representative, thekahya.[43]

Throughout the Ottoman period, most Jews resided in Kuruçeşme, Bursa's Jewish quarter, home to threesynagogues.Etz Chaim (Eṣ Ḥayyim), the oldest, predatedOttoman conquest,while the Gerush and Mayor synagogues were established by Sephardic newcomers. Despite the 1851 fire destroying Etz Chaim, the other two remain, along with the Berut synagogue. Bursa also had a Jewish cemetery until recently.[43]

Though never a major center, Bursa's Jewish population fluctuated. Dubious data suggests 683 families in 1571/72, dropping to 141 by 1696/97. By 1883, there were 2,179 Jews, with an influx of 400 fromAkkermanin 1887. Pre-World War I,the population reached 3,500, but emigration reduced it to 140 by the early 21st century.[43]

Engaged in the local economy, Bursa's Jews were shop owners and involved in guilds. In the 16th and 17th centuries, they excelled in textile manufacturing, silk trade,goldsmithing,and finance. Despite economic struggles in the 18th and 19th centuries, a 1886 report highlighted poverty.[43]

Bursa faced blood libels in 1592 and 1865. Despite its size, the community produced renownedhalakhicscholars across centuries. Modern schooling arrived in 1886 withAlliance Israélite Universelle,but it closed in 1923 during the secularization program. Jewish children then attended Turkish schools for a modern education.[43]

[edit]

Twin towns – Sister cities

[edit]
See also:List of twin towns and sister cities in Turkey

Bursa istwinnedwith:[44]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ab"Bursa (Metropolitan Province, Turkey) - Population Statistics, Charts, Map and Location".
  2. ^"TÜRKiYE STATiSTiK KURUMU".cip.tuik.gov.tr.
  3. ^"Karagöz'ün Tarihçesi".
  4. ^Roodenberg, J. J. (1995).The Ilıpınar Excavations I.the University of Michigan: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Institut in het Nabije Oosten te Istanbul.ISBN9062580734.
  5. ^"British Museum - Collection search: You searched for Bursa, tomb".British Museum.Retrieved25 May2015.
  6. ^abcDumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E. (2007).Cities of the Middle East and North Africa.ABC-CLIO. p. 101.ISBN9781576079195.
  7. ^"In 1363 the Ottoman capital moved from Bursa to Edirne, although Bursa retained its spiritual and economic importance."Ottoman Capital Bursa.Official website of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey. Retrieved 19 December 2014.
  8. ^"Bayezid I Complex".ArchNet. Archived fromthe originalon 2011-05-25.Retrieved2009-06-28.
  9. ^"Great Mosque of Bursa".ArchNet. Archived fromthe originalon 2011-09-19.Retrieved2009-06-28.
  10. ^Mohammad Habib, Khaliq Ahmad Nizami,A Comprehensive History Of India Vol.-V:The Delhi Sultanat(1970), p. 128
  11. ^The city in the Islamic world,Volume 1, ed.Salma Khadra Jayyusi,Renata Holod, Attilio Petruccioli, André Raymond, page 362.
  12. ^Chen, Yuan Julian (2021-10-11)."Between the Islamic and Chinese Universal Empires: The Ottoman Empire, Ming Dynasty, and Global Age of Explorations".Journal of Early Modern History.25(5): 422–456.doi:10.1163/15700658-bja10030.ISSN1385-3783.S2CID244587800.
  13. ^Yılmaz, Gülay (2015-12-01)."The Devshirme System and the Levied Children of Bursa in 1603-4".Belleten(in Turkish).79(286): 901–930.doi:10.37879/belleten.2015.901.ISSN0041-4255.
  14. ^"Armenian trade networks".
  15. ^Lowry, Heath W. (2003).Ottoman Bursa in Travel Accounts.Indiana University. p. 1.
  16. ^Ryan Gingeras (2016).Fall of the Sultanate: The Great War and the End of the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1922.Oxford University Press. pp. 171–.ISBN978-0-19-967607-1.OCLC1026510365.
  17. ^Anadolu'da Yunan Zulüm ve Vahşeti(in Turkish). Mustafa Zahit Öner. İstanbul, Türkiye: DBY Yayınları. 2021. pp. 265–267.ISBN978-625-7760-27-0.OCLC1236894121.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: others (link)
  18. ^Μουστάκης, Βασίλειος Δ. (2000).Λόγια του κανονιέρη. 1079 μέρες συνοδοιπόροι με το θάνατο!(in Greek). New York, USA. p. 64.Στον σταθμό, είχαν περάσει τα Πεζικά και είχαν βάλει φωτιά. Είδαμε έναν έφιππο, Άγγλο στρατηγό, που διέταξε να σβήσουν τη φωτιά, γιατί αν καιγόταν η Προύσα, θα ήταν εις βάρος της Ελλάδος{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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Further reading

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See also:Bibliography of the history of Bursa
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Wikimedia Commons has media related toBursa.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide forBursa.
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