Samurai

Samurai(Hầu)orbushi( võ sĩ, [bɯ.ɕi]) were members of the warrior class inJapan.Originally warriors who served theKugeand imperial court in the late 12th century, they eventually came to play a major political role until their abolition in the late 1870s during theMeiji era.^[1]^[2]

Although they had predecessors in earlier military and administrative officers, the samurai truly emerged during theKamakura shogunate,ruling fromc.1185 to 1333. They became the ruling political class, with significant power but also significant responsibility. During the 13th century, the samurai proved themselves as adept warriors against the invadingMongols.During theSengoku Period,the term was vague and some samurai owned land, others were retainers or mercenaries.^[3]There was a great increase of the amount of men styling themselves samurai, by virture of bearing arms.^[4]During the peacefulEdo period,1603 to 1868, they were mainly the stewards and chamberlains of thedaimyoestates, roles they had also filled in the past. During the Edo period, they came to represent a hereditary class.^[5]On the other hand, from the mid-Edo period,chōnin(townsman)and farmers could be promoted to the samurai class by being adopted intogokeninfamilies or by serving indaikanoffices, and low-ranking samurai could be transferred to lower social classes, such aschōnin,by changing jobs.^[6]^[7]

In the 1870s, samurai families comprised 5% of the population.^{[citation needed]}As modern militaries emerged in the 19th century, the samurai were rendered increasingly obsolete and very expensive to maintain compared to the average conscript soldier. TheMeiji Restorationformally abolished the status, and most former samurai becameShizoku.This allowed them to move into professional and entrepreneurial roles. Their memory and weaponry remain prominent incontemporary Japanese popular culture.

Terminology

In Japanese, historical warriors are usually referred to asbushi(Võ sĩ,[bɯ.ɕi]),meaning 'warrior', orbuke(Võ gia),meaning 'military family'. According to translatorWilliam Scott Wilson:"In Chinese, the character hầu was originally a verb meaning 'to wait upon', 'accompany persons' in the upper ranks of society, and this is also true of the original term in Japanese,saburau.In both countries the terms were nominalized to mean 'those who serve in close attendance to the nobility', the Japanese termsaburaibeing the nominal form of the verb. "According to Wilson, an early reference to the wordsaburaiappears in theKokin Wakashū,the first imperial anthology of poems, completed in the early 900s.^[8]

Originally, the wordsamuraireferred to anyone who served the emperor, the imperial family, or the imperial court nobility, even in a non-military capacity.^[9]^[10]It was not until the 17th century that the term gradually became a title for military servants of warrior families, so that, according to Michael Wert, "a warrior of elite stature in pre-seventeenth-century Japan would have been insulted to be called a 'samurai'".^[11]

In modern usage,bushiis often used as a synonym forsamurai.^[12]^[13]^[14]

The changing definition of "samurai"

The definition of "samurai" varies from period to period. From theHeian periodto theEdo period,bushiwere people who fought with weapons for a living.^[9]^[10]In the Heian period, on the other hand, the definition of samurai referred to officials who served the emperor, the imperial family, and the nobles of the imperial court, the upper echelons of society. They were responsible for assisting the nobles in their daily duties, guarding the nobles, guarding the court, arresting bandits, and suppressing civil wars, much like secretaries, butlers, and police officers today.^[9]^[10]Samurai in this period referred to the Fifth(go-i)and Sixth Ranks(roku-i)of thecourt ranks.

During theKamakura period,the definition of samurai became synonymous withgokenin(Ngự người nhà),which refers tobushiwho owned territory and served theshogun.However, there were some samurai of exceptional status,hi-gokenin(Phi ngự người nhà),who did not serve the shogun. Subordinatebushiin the service of the samurai were calledrōtō, rōdō(Lang đảng)orrōjū(Lang 従).Some of therōtōwere given a territory and a family name, and assamuraihon or saburaibon(Hầu phẩm),they acquired a status equivalent to that of a samurai. In other words, a high-ranking person among thebushiwas called a samurai.^[9]^[10]

During theMuromachi period,as in the Kamakura period, the definition of samurai referred to high-rankingbushiin the service of the shogun.Bushiservingshugo daimyo(Bảo hộ đại danh,feudal lords)were not considered samurai. Of course, those who did not serve a particular lord, such as therōnin(Lãng nhân),who were vagabonds, thenobushi(Dã võ sĩ),who were armed peasants, and theashigaru(Đủ khinh),who were temporarily hired foot soldiers, were not considered samurai.^[9]^[10]

During theSengoku period,the traditional master-servant relationship in Japanese society collapsed, and the traditional definition of samurai changed dramatically, becoming synonymous withbushi.^[10]Jizamurai(Mà hầu)came from the powerfulmyōshu(Danh chủ),who owned farmland and held leadership positions in their villages, and became vassals ofsengoku daimyō(Chiến quốc đại danh).Their status was half farmer, halfbushi(samurai).^[15]On the other hand, it also referred to localbushiwho did not serve the shogun ordaimyo.According to Stephen Morillo, during this period the term refers to "a retainer of a lord - usually... the retainer of adaimyo "and that the termsamurai"marks social function and not class", and "all sorts of soldiers, including pikemen, bowmen, musketeers and horsemen were samurai".^[16]

During theAzuchi–Momoyama period(late Sengoku period), "samurai" often referred towakatō(Nếu đảng),the lowest-rankingbushi,as exemplified by the provisions of the temporary lawSeparation Edictenacted by Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1591. This law regulated the transfer of status classes:samurai (wakatō),chūgen(Trung gian),komono(Tiểu giả),andarashiko(Hoang tử).These four classes and theashigaruwerechōnin(Đinh người,townspeople)and peasants employed by thebushiand fell under the category ofbuke hōkōnin(Võ gia làm theo việc công người,servants of thebuke).^[17]<Võ sĩ ( ぶし ) ／ hầu ( さむらい )(in Japanese).Shūeisha.Archived fromthe originalon 19 July 2024.Retrieved19 July2024.</ref> In times of war, samurai (wakatō) andashigaruwere fighters, while the rest were porters. Generally, samurai (wakatō) could take family names, while someashigarucould, and only samurai (wakatō) were considered samurai class.^[17]^[18]Wakatō,like samurai, had different definitions in different periods, meaning a youngbushiin the Muromachi period and a rank belowkachi(Đồ sĩ)and aboveashigaruin the Edo period.

In the earlyEdo period,even somedaimyō(Đại danh,feudal lords)with territories of 10,000kokuor more called themselves samurai.^[6]At the beginning of theTokugawa shogunate,there was no clear distinction betweenhatamoto(Kỳ bổn)andgokenin,which referred to direct vassals of the shogun, but from the second half of the 17th century a distinction was made betweenhatamoto,direct vassals with territories of 10,000kokuor less who were entitled to an audience with the shogun, andgokenin,those without such rights. Samurai referred tohatamotoin the Tokugawa shogunate and tochūkoshō(Trung tiểu họ)or higher statusbushiin eachhan(Phiên,domains).During this period, mostbushicame to serve the shogun and thedaimyoof each domains, and as the distinction betweenbushiandchōninor peasants became stricter, the boundaries between the definitions of samurai andbushibecame blurred. Since then, the term "samurai" has been used to refer to "bushi".^[9]^[10]Officially, however, the high-rankingbushiwere called samurai and the low-ranking bushi were calledkachi(Đồ sĩ).Samurai andkachiwere represented by the wordshibun(Sĩ phân),a status that can be translated as warrior class,bushiclass, or samurai class. Samurai were entitled to an audience with their lord, were allowed to ride horses, and received rice from the land and peasants under their control, whilekachiwere not entitled to an audience with their lord, guarded their lord on foot, and received rice from the stores of the shogunate and each domain.Gokenin,the status ofkachi,were financially impoverished and supported themselves by making bamboo handicrafts and umbrellas and selling plants. Theshibunstatus of samurai andkachiwas clearly distinguished from thekeihai(Khinh bối)status of theashigaruandchūgenwho served them, but it was more difficult to rise fromkachito samurai than fromashigarutokachi,and the status gap between samurai, who were high-rankingbushi,andkachi,who were low-rankingbushi,was quite wide. During the Edo Period, samurai represented a hereditary social class defined by the right to bear arms and to hold public office, as well as high social status.^[5]From the mid-Edo period,chōninand farmers could be promoted to the samurai class by being adopted intogokeninfamilies, or by serving indaikanoffices, andkachicould be transferred to lower social classes, such aschōnin,by changing jobs.

History

Asuka and Nara periods

Following the death ofPrince Shōtokuand the victory against the Soga clan, Japan underwent widespread reform. One of the most important was that of theTaika Reform,issued byEmperor Kōtokuin 645. This edict allowed the Japanese aristocracy to adopt theTang dynastypolitical structure, bureaucracy, culture, religion, and philosophy.^[19]As part of theTaihō Codeof 702, and the laterYōrō Code,^[20]the population was required to report regularly for the census, a precursor for national conscription. With an understanding of how the population was distributed,Emperor Monmuintroduced a law whereby 1 in 3–4 adult males were drafted into the national military. These soldiers were required to supply their own weapons, and in return were exempted from duties and taxes.^[19]

The Taihō Code classified most of the Imperial bureaucrats into 12 ranks, each divided into two sub-ranks, 1st rank being the highest adviser to the emperor. Those of 6th rank and below were referred to as "samurai" and dealt with day-to-day affairs and were initially civilian public servants, in keeping with the original derivation of this word fromsaburau,a verb meaning 'to serve'.^[21]Military men, however, would not be referred to as "samurai" for many more centuries.^{[citation needed]}

Heian period

In the earlyHeian period,during the late 8th and early 9th centuries,Emperor Kanmusought to consolidate and expand his rule in northernHonshūand made military campaigns against theEmishi,who resisted the governance of theKyoto-based imperial court. Emperor Kanmu introduced the title ofsei'i-taishōgun(Chinh di đại tướng quân), orshōgun,and began to rely on the powerfulregional clansto conquer the Emishi. Skilled in mounted combat and archery (kyūjutsu), these clan warriors became the emperor's preferred tool for putting down rebellions; the most well-known of which wasSakanoue no Tamuramaro.Though this is the first known use of the titleshōgun,it was a temporary title and was not imbued with political power until the 13th century. At this time (the 7th to 9th centuries), officials considered them to be merely a military section under the control of theImperial Court.

Ultimately, Emperor Kanmu disbanded his army. From this time, the emperor's power gradually declined. While the emperor was still the ruler, powerful clans around Kyoto assumed positions as ministers, and their relatives bought positions asmagistrates.To amass wealth and repay their debts, magistrates often imposed heavy taxes, resulting in many farmers becoming landless.^{[citation needed]}Through protective agreements and political marriages, the aristocrats accumulated political power, eventually surpassing thetraditional aristocracy.^[22]

Some clans were originally formed by farmers who had taken up arms to protect themselves from the imperial magistrates sent to govern their lands and collect taxes. These clans formed alliances to protect themselves against more powerful clans.

Taira no Masakado,who rose to prominence in the early 10th century, was the first of the local warrior class to revolt against the imperial court.^[23]He had servedFujiwara no Tadahiraas a young man, but eventually won a power struggle within theTaira clanand became a powerful figure in theKanto region.In 939,Fujiwara no Haruaki,a powerful figure in theHitachi province,fled to Masakado. He was wanted for tyranny byFujiwara no Korechika,anKokushi(Quốc tư,imperial court official)who oversaw the province of Hitachi, and Fujiwara no Korechika demanded that Masakado hand over Fujiwara no Haruaki. Masakado refused, and war broke out between Masakado and Fujiwara no Korechika, with Masakado becoming an enemy of the imperial court. Masakado proclaimed that the Kanto region under his rule was independent of the Imperial Court and called himself theShinnō(Tân hoàng,New Emperor).In response, the imperial court sent a large army led byTaira no Sadamorito kill Masakado. As a result, Masakado was killed in battle in February 940. He is still revered as one of the three greatonryō(Oán linh,vengeful spirits)of Japan.^[23]^[24]

The Heian period saw the appearance of distinctiveJapanese armorand weapons. Typical examples are thetachi(long sword) andnaginata(halberd) used in close combat, and theō-yoroianddō-marustyles of armor. High-ranking samurai equipped withyumi(bows) and who fought on horseback woreō-yoroi,while lower-ranking samurai equipped withnaginataand who fought on foot woredō-maru.^[25]

The regency political system by Fujiwara clan and cloistered rule by cloistered emperors

The shoguns of Heian period had no real political power, and the imperial court was in charge of politics. From the mid-9th century to the mid-11th century, theFujiwara clancontrolled political power. They excluded other clans from the political center and monopolized the highest positions in the court, such asSesshō(Nhiếp chính,Imperial Regent for Minor Emperors),Kampaku(Quan bạch,Imperial Regent fo Adult Emperors),andDaijō-daijin(Quá chính đại thần,Chancellor of the Realm),reaching their peak at the end of the 10th century underFujiwara no MichinagaandFujiwara no Yorimichi.^[26]^[27]

Later, in the mid-11th century,Emperor Go-Sanjoweakened the power of theSesshōandKampakuby presiding over politics himself, and when the next emperor,Shirakawa,abdicated and became acloistered emperorand began acloistered rule,theSesshōandKampakulost their real political authority and became nominal, effectively ending the Fujiwara regime.^[26]^[27]

TheGosannen Warin the 11th century

Late Heian period and the rise of samurai

During the reigns ofEmperor ShirakawaandEmperor Toba,theTaira clanbecameKokushi(Quốc tư),or overseers of various regions, and accumulated wealth by taking samurai from various regions as their retainers. In the struggle for the succession of Emperor Toba,Emperor SutokuandEmperor Go-Shirakawa,each with his samurai class on his side, fought theHōgen rebellion,which was won by Emperor Go-Shirakawa, who hadTaira no KiyomoriandMinamoto no Yoshitomoon his side. Later, Taira no Kiyomori defeated Minamoto no Yoshitomo in theHeiji rebellionand became the first samurai-born aristocratic class, eventually becomingDaijō-daijin,the highest position of the aristocratic class, and the Taira clan monopolized important positions at the Imperial Court and wielded power. The victor, Taira no Kiyomori, became an imperial advisor and was the first warrior to attain such a position. He eventually seized control of the central government, establishing the first samurai-dominated government and relegating the emperor to figurehead status. The clan had its women marry emperors and exercise control through the emperor.^[28]

Heiji rebellionin 1159
16th centuryillustration samurai raiding the house ofMinamoto no Yoshitsune

However, when Taira no Kiyomori used his power to have the child of his daughterTaira no TokukoandEmperor Takakurainstalled asEmperor Antoku,there was widespread opposition. Prince Mochihito,no longer able to assume the imperial throne, called upon theMinamoto clanto raise an army to defeat the Taira clan, and theGenpei Warbegan. In the midst of the Genpei War,Minamoto no Yoshinakaexpelled the Taira clan from Kyoto, and although initially welcomed by the hermit Emperor Go-Shirakawa, he became estranged and isolated due to the disorderly military discipline and lack of political power under his command. He staged a coup, overthrew the emperor's entourage, and became the first of the Minamoto clan to assume the office ofSei-i Taishōgun(shogun).In response,Minamoto no YoritomosentMinamoto no NoriyoriandMinamoto no Yoshitsuneto defeat Yoshinaka, who was killed within a year of becoming shogun. In 1185, the Taira clan was finally defeated in theBattle of Dan-no-ura,and the Minamoto clan came to power.^[28]

Kamakura shogunate and the Mongol invasions

The victoriousMinamoto no Yoritomoestablished the superiority of the samurai over the aristocracy. In 1185, Yoritomo obtained the right to appointshugoandjitō,and was allowed to organize soldiers and police, and to collect a certain amount of tax.^[29]Initially, their responsibility was restricted to arresting rebels and collecting needed army provisions and they were forbidden from interfering withKokushiofficials, but their responsibility gradually expanded. Thus, the samurai class became the political ruling power in Japan.

In 1190 he visited Kyoto and in 1192 becameSei'i Taishōgun,establishing the Kamakura shogunate, orKamakura bakufu.Instead of ruling from Kyoto, heset up the shogunateinKamakura,near his base of power. "Bakufu" means "tent government", taken from the encampments the soldiers would live in, in accordance with the Bakufu's status as a military government.^[30]

TheKamakura period(1185–1333) saw the rise of the samurai under shogun rule as they were "entrusted with the security of the estates" and were symbols of the ideal warrior and citizen.^[31]Originally, the emperor and non-warrior nobility employed these warrior nobles. In time they amassed enough manpower, resources and political backing, in the form of alliances with one another, to establish the first samurai-dominated government. As the power of these regional clans grew, their chief was typically a distant relative of the emperor and a lesser member of either theFujiwara,Minamoto,orTairaclan.

From the Kamakura period onwards, emphasis was put on training samurai from childhood in using "the bow and sword".^[32]

In the late Kamakura period, even the most senior samurai began to weardō-maru,as the heavy and elegantō-yoroiwere no longer respected. Until then, the body was the only part of thedō-maruthat was protected, but for higher-ranking samurai, thedō-marualso came with akabuto(helmet) and shoulder guards.^[25]For lower-ranked samurai, theharaatewas introduced, the simplest style of armor that protected only the front of the torso and the sides of the abdomen. In the late Kamakura period, a new type of armor calledharamakiappeared, in which the two ends of theharaatewere extended to the back to provide greater protection.^[33]

Samurai of theShōni clangather to defend againstKublai Khan's Mongolian army during the first Mongol Invasion of Japan, 1274.
Battle of Yashimafolding screens

Various samurai clans struggled for power during theKamakura.Zen Buddhismspread among the samurai in the 13th century and helped to shape their standards of conduct, particularly overcoming the fear of death and killing, but among the general populacePure Land Buddhismwas favored.

In 1274, the Mongol-foundedYuan dynastyin China sent a force of some 40,000 men and 900 ships to invade Japan in northern Kyūshū. Japan mustered a mere 10,000 samurai to meet this threat. The invading army was harassed by major thunderstorms throughout the invasion, which aided the defenders by inflicting heavy casualties. The Yuan army was eventually recalled, and the invasion was called off. The Mongol invaders used small bombs, which was likely the first appearance of bombs and gunpowder in Japan.

The Japanese defenders recognized the possibility of a renewed invasion and began construction of agreat stone barrieraroundHakata Bayin 1276. Completed in 1277, this wall stretched for 20 kilometers around the border of the bay. It would later serve as a strong defensive point against the Mongols. The Mongols attempted to settle matters in a diplomatic way from 1275 to 1279, but every envoy sent to Japan was executed.

Leading up to the second Mongolian invasion,Kublai Khancontinued to send emissaries to Japan, with five diplomats sent in September 1275 to Kyūshū.Hōjō Tokimune,theshikkenof the Kamakura shogun, responded by having the Mongolian diplomats brought to Kamakura and then beheading them.^[34]The graves of the five executed Mongol emissaries exist to this day in Kamakura at Tatsunokuchi.^[35]On 29 July 1279, five more emissaries were sent by the Mongol empire, and again beheaded, this time inHakata.This continued defiance of the Mongol emperor set the stage for one of the most famous engagements in Japanese history.

In 1281, a Yuan army of 140,000 men with 5,000 ships was mustered for another invasion of Japan. Northern Kyūshū was defended by a Japanese army of 40,000 men. The Mongol army was still on its ships preparing for the landing operation when a typhoon hit north Kyūshū island. The casualties and damage inflicted by the typhoon, followed by the Japanese defense of the Hakata Bay barrier, resulted in the Mongols again being defeated.

Samurai and defensive wall atHakatadefending against the Second Mongolian Invasion. Moko Shurai Ekotoba, ( Mông Cổ đánh úp lại hội từ )c. 1293

The thunderstorms of 1274 and the typhoon of 1281 helped the samurai defenders of Japan repel the Mongol invaders despite being vastly outnumbered. These winds became known askami-no-Kaze,which literally translates as "wind of the gods".^[36]This is often given a simplified translation as "divine wind". Thekami-no-Kazelent credence to the Japanese belief that their lands were indeed divine and under supernatural protection.

Nanboku-chō and Muromachi period

In 1336,Ashikaga Takauji,who opposedEmperor Godaigo,established theAshikaga ShogunatewithEmperor Kōgon.As a result, the southern court, descended from Emperor Godaigo, and the northern court, descended from Emperor Kogon, were established side by side. This period of coexistence of the two dynasties is called theNanboku-chō period,which corresponds to the beginning of theMuromachi period.The Northern Court, supported by the Ashikaga Shogunate, had six emperors, and in 1392 the Imperial Court was reunited by absorbing the Southern Court, although the modernImperial Household Agencyconsiders the Southern Court to be the legitimate emperor.^[37]The de facto rule of Japan by the Ashikaga Shogunate lasted until theOnin War,which broke out in 1467.

From 1346 to 1358 during the Nanboku-cho period, the Ashikaga shogunate gradually expanded the authority of theShugo(Bảo hộ),the local military and police officials established by the Kamakura shogunate, giving theShugojurisdiction over land disputes betweengokenin(Ngự người nhà)and allowing theShugoto receive half of all taxes from the areas they controlled. TheShugoshared their newfound wealth with the local samurai, creating a hierarchical relationship between theShugoand the samurai, and the first earlydaimyo(Đại danh,feudal lords),calledshugo daimyo(Bảo hộ đại danh),appeared.^[38]

The innovations ofSōshū swordsmithsin the late Kamakura period allowed them to produce Japanese swords with tougher blades than before, and during the Nanboku-chō period,ōdachi(large/great sword) were at their peak as weapons for the samurai.^[39]

Until the Mongol invasion in the late Kamakura period, the main battle was fought by small groups of warriors usingyumi(bows) from horseback, and close combat was a secondary battle. From the Nanboku-chō period to the Muromachi period, large groups of infantrymen became more active in battle, close combat became more important, and thenaginataandtachi,which had been used since the Heian period, were used more. Theyari(spear) was not yet a major weapon in this period.^[40]^[41]

During the Nanboku-chō period, many lower-class foot soldiers calledashigarubegan to participate in battles, and the popularity ofharamakiincreased. During the Nanboku-chō and Muromachi periods,dō-maruandharamakibecame the norm, and senior samurai also began to wearharamakiby addingkabuto(helmet),men-yoroi(face armor), and gauntlet.^[42]

Issues of inheritance caused family strife asprimogeniturebecame common, in contrast to the division of succession designated by law before the 14th century. Invasions of neighboring samurai territories became common to avoid infighting, and bickering among samurai was a constant problem for the Kamakura and Ashikaga shogunates.

Sengoku period

The outbreak of theOnin War,which began in 1467 and lasted about 10 years, devastatedKyotoand brought down the power of the Ashikaga Shogunate. This plunged the country into theSengoku Period( "warring states period" ), in whichdaimyo(feudal lords) from different regions fought each other. This period corresponds to the late Muromachi period. There are about nine theories about the end of the Sengoku Period, the earliest being the year 1568, whenOda Nobunagamarched on Kyoto, and the latest being the suppression of theShimabara Rebellionin 1638. Thus, the Sengoku Period overlaps with the Muromachi,Azuchi–Momoyama,andEdo periods,depending on the theory. In any case, the Sengoku period was a time of large-scale civil wars throughout Japan.^[43]^[44]

Daimyowho became more powerful as the shogunate's control weakened were calledsengoku daimyo(Chiến quốc đại danh),and they often came fromshugo daimyo,Shugodai(Bảo hộ đại,deputy Shugo),andkokujin or kunibito(Người trong nước,local masters).In other words,sengoku daimyodiffered fromshugo daimyoin thatsengoku daimyowas able to rule the region on his own, without being appointed by the shogun.^[38]

During this period, the traditional master-servant relationship between the lord and his vassals broke down, with the vassals eliminating the lord, internal clan and vassal conflicts over leadership of the lord's family, and frequent rebellion and puppetry by branch families against the lord's family.^[45]These events sometimes led to the rise of samurai to the rank ofsengoku daimyo.For example,Hōjō Sōunwas the first samurai to rise to the rank ofsengoku daimyoduring this period.Uesugi Kenshinwas examples ofShugodaiwho becamesengoku daimyoby weakening and eliminating the power of their lords.^[46]^[47]

This period was marked by the loosening of samurai culture, with people born into other social strata sometimes making a name for themselves as warriors and thus becomingde factosamurai. One such example isToyotomi Hideyoshi,a well-known figure who rose from a peasant background to become a samurai,sengoku daimyo,andkampaku(Imperial Regent).^[48]

From this time on, infantrymen calledashigaru,who were mobilized from the peasantry, were mobilized in even greater numbers than before, and the importance of the infantry, which had begun in the Nanboku-chō period, increased even more.^[40]Whenmatchlockswere introduced from Portugal in 1543, Japanese swordsmiths immediately began to improve and mass-produce them. The Japanese matchlock was namedtanegashimaafter theTanegashima island,which is believed to be the place where it was first introduced to Japan. By the end of the Sengoku Period, there were hundreds of thousands of arquebuses in Japan and a large army of nearly 100,000 men clashing with each other.^[49]

On the battlefield,ashigarubegan to fight in close formation, usingyari(spear) andtanegashima.As a result,yari,yumi(bow), andtanegashimabecame the primary weapons on the battlefield. Thenaginata,which was difficult to maneuver in close formation, and the long, heavytachifell into disuse and were replaced by thenagamaki,which could be held short, and the short, lightkatana,which appeared in the Nanboku-cho period and gradually became more common. Thetachiwas often cut off from the hilt and shortened to make akatana.Thetachi,which had become inconvenient for use on the battlefield, was transformed into a symbol of authority carried by high-ranking samurai.^[50]^[51]^[52]^[40]Although theōdachihad become even more obsolete, somesengoku daimyodared to organize assault and kinsmen units composed entirely of large men equipped withōdachito demonstrate the bravery of their armies.^[53]

These changes in the aspect of the battlefield during the Sengoku period led to the emergence of thetosei-gusokustyle of armor, which improved the productivity and durability of armor. In the history of Japanese armor, this was the most significant change since the introduction of theō-yoroianddō-malin the Heian period. In this style, the number of parts was reduced, and instead armor with eccentric designs became popular.^[54]

By the end of the Sengoku period, allegiances between warrior vassals, also known as military retainers, and lords were solidified.^[55]Vassals would serve lords in exchange for material and intangible advantages, in keeping withConfucianideas imported from China between the seventh and ninth centuries.^[55] These independent vassals who held land were subordinate to their superiors, who may be local lords or, in the Edo period, the shogun.^[55] A vassal or samurai could expect monetary benefits, including land or money, from lords in exchange for their military services.^[55]

Azuchi–Momoyama period

The Azuchi-Momoyama period refers to the period whenOda NobunagaandToyotomi hideyoshiwere in power. The name "Azuchi-Momoyama" comes from the fact that Nobunaga's castle,Azuchi Castle,was located inAzuchi, Shiga,andFushimi Castle,where Hideyoshi lived after his retirement, was located in Momoyama.^[56]There are several theories as to when the Azuchi–Momoyama period began: 1568, when Oda Nobunaga entered Kyoto in support of Ashikaga Yoshiaki; 1573, when Oda Nobunaga expelled Ashikaga Yoshiaki from Kyoto; and 1576, when the construction of Azuchi Castle began. In any case, the beginning of the Azuchii–Momoyama period marked the complete end of the rule of the Ashikaga shogunate, which had been disrupted by the Onin War; in other words, it marked the end of the Muromachi period.

Oda, Toyotomi, and Tokugawa

Oda Nobunagawas the well-known lord of theNagoyaarea (once calledOwari Province) and an exceptional example of a samurai of the Sengoku period.^[57]He came within a few years of, and laid down the path for his successors to follow, the reunification of Japan under a newbakufu(shogunate).

Oda Nobunaga made innovations in the fields of organization and war tactics, made heavy use of arquebuses, developed commerce and industry, and treasured innovation. Consecutive victories enabled him to realize the termination of the Ashikaga Bakufu and the disarmament of the military powers of the Buddhist monks, which had inflamed futile struggles among the populace for centuries. Attacking from the "sanctuary" of Buddhist temples, they were constant headaches to any warlord and even the emperor who tried to control their actions. He died in 1582 when one of his generals,Akechi Mitsuhide,turned upon him with his army.

Toyotomi HideyoshiandTokugawa Ieyasu,who founded the Tokugawa shogunate, were loyal followers of Nobunaga. Hideyoshi began as a peasant and became one of Nobunaga's top generals, and Ieyasu had shared his childhood with Nobunaga. Hideyoshi defeated Mitsuhide within a month and was regarded as the rightful successor of Nobunaga by avenging the treachery of Mitsuhide. These two were able to use Nobunaga's previous achievements on which build a unified Japan and there was a saying: "The reunification is a rice cake; Oda made it. Hashiba shaped it. In the end, only Ieyasu tastes it."^[58](Hashiba is the family name that Toyotomi Hideyoshi used while he was a follower of Nobunaga.)

Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who became a grand minister in 1586, created a law that non-samurai were not allowed to carry weapons, which the samurai caste codified as permanent and hereditary, thereby ending the social mobility of Japan, which lasted until the dissolution of the Edo shogunate by the Meiji revolutionaries.

The distinction between samurai and non-samurai was so obscure that during the 16th century, most male adults in any social class (even small farmers) belonged to at least one military organization of their own and served in wars before and during Hideyoshi's rule. It can be said that an "all against all" situation continued for a century. The authorized samurai families after the 17th century were those that chose to follow Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Ieyasu. Large battles occurred during the change between regimes, and a number of defeated samurai were destroyed, wentrōninor were absorbed into the general populace.

Invasions of Korea

In 1592 and again in 1597, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, aiming to invade China through Korea, mobilized an army of 160,000 peasants and samurai anddeployed them to Koreain one of the largest military endeavors in Eastern Asia until the late 19th century.^[59]^[60]Taking advantage ofarquebusmastery and extensive wartime experience from theSengoku period,Japanese samurai armies made major gains in most of Korea. A few of the famous samurai generals of this war wereKatō Kiyomasa,Konishi Yukinaga,andShimazu Yoshihiro.Katō Kiyomasa advanced to Orangkai territory (present-dayManchuria) bordering Korea to the northeast and crossed the border into northern China.

Kiyomasa withdrew back to Korea after retaliatory counterattacks from theJurchensin the area, whose castles his forces had raided.^[61]Shimazu Yoshihiro led some 7,000 samurai into battle, and despite being heavily outnumbered, defeated a host of alliedMingand Korean forces at theBattle of Sacheonin 1598. Yoshihiro was feared asOni-Shimazu( "Shimazu ogre" ) and his nickname spread across Korea and into China.

Toyotomi Hideyoshi,who later commanded the invasion of Korea, leads a small group assaulting the castle onMount Inaba.Print byTsukioka Yoshitoshi.

In spite of the superiority of Japanese land forces, the two expeditions ultimately failed after Hideyoshi's death,^[62]though the invasions did devastate the Korean peninsula. The causes of the failure included Korean naval superiority (which, led by AdmiralYi Sun-sin,harassed Japanese supply lines continuously throughout the wars, resulting in supply shortages on land), the commitment of sizable Ming forces to Korea, Korean guerrilla actions, wavering Japanese commitment to the campaigns as the wars dragged on, and the underestimation of resistance by Japanese commanders.

In the first campaign of 1592, Korean defenses on land were caught unprepared, under-trained, and under-armed. They were rapidly overrun, with only a limited number of successfully resistant engagements against the more experienced and battle-hardened Japanese forces. During the second campaign in 1597, Korean and Ming forces proved far more resilient and with the support of continued Korean naval superiority, managed to limit Japanese gains to parts of southeastern Korea. The final death blow to the Japanese campaigns in Korea came with Hideyoshi's death in late 1598 and the recall of all Japanese forces in Korea by theCouncil of Five Elders,established by Hideyoshi to oversee the transition from his regency to that of his son Hideyori.

Battle of Sekigahara

Before his death, Hideyoshi ordered that Japan be ruled by a council of the five most powerfulsengoku daimyo,Go-Tairō(Năm đại lão,Council of Five Elders),and Hideyoshi's five retainers,Go-Bugyō(Năm thừa hành,Five Commissioners),until his only heir, the five-year-oldToyotomi Hideyori,reached the age of 16.^[63]However, having only the young Hideyori as Hideyoshi's successor weakened the Toyotomi regime. Today, the loss of all of Hideyoshi's adult heirs is considered the main reason for the downfall of the Toyotomi clan.^[64]^[65]^[66]Hideyoshi's younger brother,Toyotomi Hidenaga,who had supported Hideyoshi's rise to power as a leader and strategist, had already died of illness in 1591, and his nephew,Toyotomi Hidetsugu,who was Hideyoshi's only adult successor, was forced to commit seppuku in 1595 along with many other vassals on Hideyoshi's orders for suspected rebellion.^[64]^[65]^[66]

In this politically unstable situation,Maeda Toshiie,one of theGotairō,died of illness, andTokugawa Ieyasu,one of theGotairō'who had been second in power to Hideyoshi but had not participated in the war, rose to power, and Ieyasu came into conflict withIshida Mitsunari,one of theGo-Bukyōand others. This conflict eventually led to theBattle of Sekigahara,in which theTō-gun(Đông quân,Eastern Army)led by Ieyasu defeated theSei-gun(Tây quân,Western Army)led by Mitsunari, and Ieyasu nearly gained control of Japan.^[63]

Social mobility was high, as the ancient regime collapsed and emerging samurai needed to maintain a large military and administrative organizations in their areas of influence. Most of the samurai families that survived to the 19th century originated in this era, declaring themselves to be the blood of one of the four ancient noble clans:Minamoto,Taira,Fujiwara,andTachibana.In most cases, however, it is difficult to prove these claims.

Tokugawa shogunate

After the Battle of Sekigahara, when the Tokugawa shogunate defeated theToyotomi clanat summer campaign of thesiege of Osakain 1615, the long war period ended. During the Tokugawa shogunate, samurai increasingly became courtiers, bureaucrats, and administrators rather than warriors. With no warfare since the early 17th century, samurai gradually lost their military function during the Tokugawa era (also called theEdo period).

Following the passing of a law in 1629, samurai on official duty were required to practice weartwo swords).^[67]However, by the end of the Tokugawa era, samurai were aristocratic bureaucrats for the with theirdaishōbecoming more of a symbolic emblem of power rather than a weapon used in daily life. They still had the legal right to cut down any commoner who did not show proper respectkiri-sute gomen(Trảm り xá て ngự miễn),but to what extent this right was used is unknown.^[68]When the central government forceddaimyōsto cut the size of their armies, unemployed rōnin became a social problem.

Theoretical obligations between a samurai and his lord (usually adaimyō) increased from the Genpei era to the Edo era. They were strongly emphasized by the teachings ofConfuciusandMencius,which were required reading for the educated samurai class. The leading figures who introduced Confucianism in Japan in the early Tokugawa period were Fujiwara Seika (1561–1619), Hayashi Razan (1583–1657), and Matsunaga Sekigo (1592–1657).

Pederastypermeated the culture of samurai in the early seventeenth century.^[69]The relentless condemnation of pederasty byJesuitmissionaries also hindered attempts to convert Japan's governing elite to Christianity.^[70]Pederasty had become deeply institutionalized among the daimyo and samurai, prompting comparisons to ancientAthens and Sparta.^[71]The Jesuits' strong condemnation of the practice alienated many of Japan's ruling class, creating further barriers to their acceptance of Christianity.^[72]Tokugawa Iemitsu,the third shogun, was known for his interest in pederasty.^[73]

The conduct of samurai served as role model behavior for the other social classes.^[74]With time on their hands, samurai spent more time in pursuit of other interests such as becoming scholars. After theEdo period,it came to cover all of society, and although the shogunate sometimes invited monks as advisors, the nobility was excluded from the government. As a result, samurai began to assume all civilian roles, and from the Edo period onward, samurai shifted their activities from military to political administration. In addition, those who were newly promoted to the shogunate or domain in recognition of talents unrelated to martial arts, such as literature and scholarship, were also given the status of samurai. It can be said that the difference between a samurai and a military officer appears in such a place. In the Edo period, samurai equivalent to civil servants and administrative officers were called "officials". Samurai were given an honorific title and were called "Obuke-sama".^{[citation needed]}

From the mid-Edo period, wealthychōnin(townsman)and farmers could join the samurai class by giving a large sum of money to an impoverishedgokeninto be adopted into a samurai family and inherit the samurai's position and stipend. The amount of money given to agokeninvaried according to his position: 1,000ryofor ayorikiand 500ryofor ankachi(Đồ sĩ).^[75]Some of their descendants were promoted tohatamoto(Kỳ bổn)and held important positions in the shogunate. Some of the peasants' children were promoted to the samurai class by serving in thedaikan(Đại quan)office.^[6]Kachicould change jobs and move into the lower classes, such aschōnin.For example,Takizawa Bakinbecame achōninby working forTsutaya Jūzaburō.^[7]

Edo, 1865 or 1866.Photochromprint. Five albumen prints joined to form a panorama. Photographer:Felice Beato.

Samurai in Southeast Asia

In the late 1500s, trade between Japan and Southeast Asia accelerated and increased exponentially when the Tokugawa shogunate was established in the early 1600s. The destinations of the trading ships, thered seal ships,were Thailand, the Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia, etc. Many Japanese moved to Southeast Asia and established Japanese towns there. Many samurai, orrōnin,who had lost their masters after the Battle of Sekigahara, lived in the Japanese towns. The Spaniards in the Philippines, the Dutch of theDutch East India Company,and the Thais of theAyutthaya Kingdomsaw the value of these samurai as mercenaries and recruited them. The most famous of these mercenaries wasYamada Nagamasa.He was originally a palanquin bearer who belonged to the lowest end of the samurai class, but he rose to prominence in the Ayutthaya Kingdom, now in southern Thailand, and became governor of theNakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom.When the policy of national isolation (sakoku) was established in 1639, trade between Japan and Southeast Asia ceased, and records of Japanese activities in Southeast Asia were lost for many years after 1688.^[76]^[77]^[78]

Samurai as diplomatic ambassadors

In 1582, threeKirishitandaimyō,Ōtomo Sōrin,Ōmura Sumitada,andArima Harunobu,sent a group of boys who were their own blood relatives and retainers to Europe asJapan's first diplomatic mission to Europe.They had audiences with KingPhilip II of Spain,Pope Gregory XIII,andPope Sixtus V.The mission returned to Japan in 1590, but were forced to renounce, be exiled, or be executed due to the Tokugawa shogunate's suppression of Christianity.^[79]

In 1612,Hasekura Tsunenaga,a vassal of thedaimyoDate Masamune,led a diplomatic mission and had an audience with KingPhilip III of Spain,presenting him with a letter requesting trade, and he also had an audience withPope Paul Vin Rome. He returned to Japan in 1620, but news of the Tokugawa shogunate's suppression of Christianity had already reached Europe, and trade did not take place due to the Tokugawa shogunate's policy ofsakoku.In the town of Coria del Rio in Spain, where the diplomatic mission stopped, there are 600 people with the surnames Japon or Xapon as of 2021, and they have passed on the folk tale that they are the descendants of the samurai who remained in the town.^[80]

At the end of the Edo period (Bakumatsu era), whenMatthew C. Perrycame to Japan in 1853 and thesakokupolicy was abolished, six diplomatic missions were sent to the United States and European countries for diplomatic negotiations. The most famous were theUS mission in 1860and theEuropean missions in 1862and1864.Fukuzawa Yukichi,who participated in these missions, is most famous as a leading figure in the modernization of Japan, and his portrait was selected for the10,000 yen note.^[81]

Modernization

The relative peace of the Tokugawa era was shattered with the arrival of CommodoreMatthew Perry's massive U.S. Navy steamships in 1853. Perry used his superior firepower to force Japan to open its borders to trade. Prior to that only a few harbor towns, under strict control from the shogunate, were allowed to participate in Western trade, and even then, it was based largely on the idea of playing theFranciscansandDominicansagainst one another (in exchange for the crucial arquebus technology, which in turn was a major contributor to the downfall of the classical samurai).^{[citation needed]}

From 1854, the samurai army and the navy were modernized. Anaval training schoolwas established inNagasakiin 1855. Naval students were sent to study in Western naval schools for several years, starting a tradition of foreign-educated future leaders, such as AdmiralEnomoto.French naval engineers were hired to build naval arsenals, such asYokosukaand Nagasaki. By the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1867, the Japanese navy of theshōgunalready possessed eight western-style steam warships around the flagshipKaiyō Maru,which were used against pro-imperial forces during theBoshin War,under the command of AdmiralEnomoto Takeaki.AFrench Military Mission to Japan (1867)was established to help modernize the armies of theBakufu.

The last showing of the original samurai was in 1867 when samurai fromChōshūandSatsumaprovinces defeated the shogunate forces in favor of the rule of the emperor in the Boshin War. The two provinces were the lands of thedaimyōsthat submitted to Ieyasu after the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600.

Dissolution

In the 1870s, samurai comprised five percent of the population, or 400,000 families with about 1.9 million members. They came under direct national jurisdiction in 1869, and of all the classes during the Meiji revolution they were the most affected.^[82] Although many lesser samurai had been active in theMeiji restoration,the older ones represented an obsolete feudal institution that had a practical monopoly of military force, and to a large extent of education as well. A priority of the Meiji government was to gradually abolish the entire class of samurai and integrate them into the Japanese professional, military and business classes.^[83]

Their traditional guaranteed salaries were very expensive, and in 1873 the government started ta xing the stipends and began to transform them into interest-bearing government bonds; the process was completed in 1879. The main goal was to provide enough financial liquidity to enable former samurai to invest in land and industry. A military force capable of contesting not just China but the imperial powers required a large conscript army that closely followed Western standards. The notion of very strict obedience to chain of command was incompatible with the individual authority of the samurai. Samurai now becameShizoku(Sĩ tộc;this status was abolished in 1947). The right to wear a katana in public was abolished, along with the right to execute commoners who paid them disrespect. In 1877, there was alocalized samurai rebellion that was quickly crushed.^[84]

Younger samurai often became exchange students because they were ambitious, literate and well-educated. On return, some started private schools for higher education, while many samurai became reporters and writers and set up newspaper companies.^[85]Others entered governmental service.^[86]In the 1880s, 23 percent of prominent Japanese businessmen were from the samurai class; by the 1920s the number had grown to 35 percent.^[87]

Philosophy

Honor

In a 16th-century account of Japan sent to FatherIgnatius Loyolaat Rome, drawn from the statements of Anger (Han-Siro's western name), Xavier describes the importance of honor to the Japanese (Letter preserved at College of Coimbra):

In the first place, the nation with which we have had to do here surpasses in goodness any of the nations lately discovered. I really think that among barbarous nations there can be none that has more natural goodness than the Japanese. They are of a kindly disposition, not at all given to cheating, wonderfully desirous of honour and rank. Honour with them is placed above everything else. There are a great many poor among them, but poverty is not a disgrace to any one. There is one thing among them of which I hardly know whether it is practised anywhere among Christians. The nobles, however poor they may be, receive the same honour from the rest as if they were rich.^[88]

Historian H. Paul Varley notes the description of Japan given by Jesuit leaderSt. Francis Xavier:"There is no nation in the world which fears death less." Xavier further describes the honour and manners of the people: "I fancy that there are no people in the world more punctilious about their honour than the Japanese, for they will not put up with a single insult or even a word spoken in anger." Xavier spent 1549 to 1551 converting Japanese to Christianity. He also observed: "The Japanese are much braver and more warlike than the people of China, Korea,Ternateand all of the other nations around the Philippines. "^[89]

However, insubordination orgekokujo,a term used in the fifteenth century during widespread rebellion, involved provincial lords defying the shogun, who in turn disregarded the emperor's commands.^[90]

Doctrine

In the 13th century,Hōjō Shigetokiwrote: "When one is serving officially or in the master's court, he should not think of a hundred or a thousand people, but should consider only the importance of the master."^[91]Carl Steenstrupnotes that 13th- and 14th-century warrior writings (gunki) "portrayed thebushiin their natural element, war, eulogizing such virtues as reckless bravery, fierce family pride, and selfless, at times senseless devotion of master and man ".^[92]

Feudal lords such as Shiba Yoshimasa (1350–1410) stated that a warrior looked forward to a glorious death in the service of a military leader or the emperor:

It is a matter of regret to let the moment when one should die pass by... First, a man whose profession is the use of arms should think and then act upon not only his own fame, but also that of his descendants. He should not scandalize his name forever by holding his one and only life too dear... One's main purpose in throwing away his life is to do so either for the sake of the Emperor or in some great undertaking of a military general. It is that exactly that will be the great fame of one's descendants.^[93]

In 1412,Imagawa Sadayowrote a letter of admonishment to his brother stressing the importance of duty to one's master. Imagawa was admired for his balance of military and administrative skills during his lifetime, and his writings became widespread. The letters became central to Tokugawa-era laws and became required study material for traditional Japanese until World War II:^[94]

First of all, a samurai who dislikes battle and has not put his heart in the right place even though he has been born in the house of the warrior, should not be reckoned among one's retainers... It is forbidden to forget the great debt of kindness one owes to his master and ancestors and thereby make light of the virtues of loyalty and filial piety... It is forbidden that one should... attach little importance to his duties to his master... There is a primary need to distinguish loyalty from disloyalty and to establish rewards and punishments.^[95]

Similarly, the feudal lordTakeda Nobushige(1525–1561) stated:

In matters both great and small, one should not turn his back on his master's commands... One should not ask for gifts or enfiefments from the master... No matter how unreasonably the master may treat a man, he should not feel disgruntled... An underling does not pass judgments on a superior.^[96]

Nobushige's brotherTakeda Shingen(1521–1573) also made similar observations:

One who was born in the house of a warrior, regardless of his rank or class, first acquaints himself with a man of military feats and achievements in loyalty... Everyone knows that if a man doesn't hold filial piety toward his own parents he would also neglect his duties toward his lord. Such a neglect means a disloyalty toward humanity. Therefore such a man doesn't deserve to be called 'samurai'.^[97]

The feudal lordAsakura Yoshikage(1428–1481) wrote: "In the fief of the Asakura, one should not determine hereditary chief retainers. A man should be assigned according to his ability and loyalty." Asakura also observed that the successes of his father were obtained by the kind treatment of the warriors and common people living in domain. By his civility, "all were willing to sacrifice their lives for him and become his allies".^[98]

Katō Kiyomasawas one of the most powerful and well-known lords of the Sengoku period. He commanded most ofJapan's major clansduring the invasion of Korea. In a handbook he addressed to "all samurai, regardless of rank", he told his followers that a warrior's only duty in life was to "grasp the long and the short swords and to die". He also ordered his followers to put forth great effort in studying the military classics, especially those related to loyalty and filial piety. He is best known for his quote:^[99]"If a man does not investigate into the matter of Bushido daily, it will be difficult for him to die a brave and manly death. Thus it is essential to engrave this business of the warrior into one's mind well."

Nabeshima Naoshige(1538–1618 AD) was another Sengokudaimyōwho fought alongside Kato Kiyomasa in Korea. He stated that it was shameful for any man to have not risked his life at least once in the line of duty, regardless of his rank. Nabeshima's sayings were passed down to his son and grandson and became the basis forTsunetomo Yamamoto'sHagakure.He is best known for his saying, "The way of the samurai is in desperateness. Ten men or more cannot kill such a man."^[100]^[101]

Torii Mototada(1539–1600) was a feudal lord in the service of Tokugawa Ieyasu. On the eve of the battle ofSekigahara,he volunteered to remain behind in the doomedFushimi Castlewhile his lord advanced to the east. Torii and Tokugawa both agreed that the castle was indefensible. In an act of loyalty to his lord, Torii chose to remain behind, pledging that he and his men would fight to the finish. As was custom, Torii vowed that he would not be taken alive. In a dramatic last stand, the garrison of 2,000 men held out against overwhelming odds for ten days against the massive army of Ishida Mitsunari's 40,000 warriors. In a moving last statement to his son Tadamasa, he wrote:^[102]^[103]

It is not the Way of the Warrior [i.e.,bushidō] to be shamed and avoid death even under circumstances that are not particularly important. It goes without saying that to sacrifice one's life for the sake of his master is an unchanging principle. That I should be able to go ahead of all the other warriors of this country and lay down my life for the sake of my master's benevolence is an honor to my family and has been my most fervent desire for many years.

It is said that both men cried when they parted ways, because they knew they would never see each other again. Torii's father and grandfather had served the Tokugawa before him, and his own brother had already been killed in battle. Torii's actions changed the course of Japanese history. Ieyasu Tokugawa successfully raised an army and won atSekigahara.

The translator ofHagakure,William Scott Wilson,observed examples of warrior emphasis on death in clans other than Yamamoto's: "he (Takeda Shingen) was a strict disciplinarian as a warrior, and there is an exemplary story in theHagakurerelating his execution of two brawlers, not because they had fought, but because they had not fought to the death ".^[104]^[105]

The rival ofTakeda Shingen(1521–1573) wasUesugi Kenshin(1530–1578), a legendary Sengoku warlord well versed in the Chinese military classics and who advocated the "way of the warrior as death". Japanese historian Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki describes Uesugi's beliefs as:

Those who are reluctant to give up their lives and embrace death are not true warriors... Go to the battlefield firmly confident of victory, and you will come home with no wounds whatever. Engage in combat fully determined to die and you will be alive; wish to survive in the battle and you will surely meet death. When you leave the house determined not to see it again you will come home safely; when you have any thought of returning you will not return. You may not be in the wrong to think that the world is always subject to change, but the warrior must not entertain this way of thinking, for his fate is always determined.^[106]

Families such as the Imagawa were influential in the development of warrior ethics and were widely quoted by other lords during their lifetime. The writings ofImagawa Sadayowere highly respected and sought out by Tokugawa Ieyasu as the source of Japanese feudal law.

Religious influences

The philosophies of Confucianism,^[55]BuddhismandZen,and to a lesser extentShinto,influenced the samurai culture. Zen meditation became an important teaching because it offered a process to calm one's mind. The Buddhist concept ofreincarnationand rebirth led samurai to abandon torture and needless killing, while some samurai even gave up violence altogether and became Buddhist monks after coming to believe that their killings were fruitless. Some were killed as they came to terms with these conclusions in the battlefield. The most defining role that Confucianism played in samurai philosophy was to stress the importance of the lord-retainer relationship—the loyalty that a samurai was required to show his lord.^{[citation needed]}

Literature on the subject ofbushidosuch asHagakure( "Hidden in Leaves" ) byYamamoto TsunetomoandGorin no Sho( "Book of the Five Rings" ) byMiyamoto Musashi,both written in the Edo period, contributed to the development ofbushidōand Zen philosophy.

According to Robert Sharf, "The notion that Zen is somehow related to Japanese culture in general, and bushidō in particular, is familiar to Western students of Zen through the writings of D. T. Suzuki, no doubt the single most important figure in the spread of Zen in the West."^[107]

Arts

In December 1547, Francis was inMalacca(Malaysia) waiting to return toGoa(India) when he met a low-ranked samurai named Anjiro (possibly spelled "Yajiro" ). Anjiro was not an intellectual, but he impressed Xavier because he took careful notes of everything he said in church. Xavier made the decision to go to Japan in part because this low-ranking samurai convinced him in Portuguese that the Japanese people were highly educated and eager to learn. They were hard workers and respectful of authority. In their laws and customs they were led by reason, and, should the Christian faith convince them of its truth, they would accept it en masse.^[108]

By the 12th century, upper-class samurai were highly literate because of the general introduction ofConfucianismfrom China during the 7th to 9th centuries and in response to their perceived need to deal with the imperial court, who had a monopoly on culture and literacy for most of the Heian period. As a result, they aspired to the more cultured abilities of the nobility.^[109]

Examples such asTaira Tadanori(a samurai who appears in theHeike Monogatari) demonstrate that warriors idealized the arts and aspired to become skilled in them. Tadanori was famous for his skill with the pen and the sword or the "bun and the bu", the harmony of fighting and learning.

Samurai were expected to be cultured and literate and admired the ancient saying "bunbu-ryōdō" (Văn võ lạng nói,literary arts, military arts, both ways) or "The pen and the sword in accord". By the time of the Edo period, Japan had a higher literacy comparable to that in central Europe.^[110]

The number of men who actually achieved the ideal and lived their lives by it was high. An early term for warrior, "uruwashii", was written with a kanji that combined the characters for literary study ( "bun" văn ) and military arts ( "bu" võ ), and is mentioned in the Heike Monogatari (late 12th century). The Heike Monogatari makes reference to the educated poet-swordsman ideal in its mention of Taira no Tadanori's death:^[111]

Friends and foes alike wet their sleeves with tears and said,
What a pity! Tadanori was a great general,
pre-eminent in the arts of both sword and poetry.

In his book "Ideals of the Samurai" translator William Scott Wilson states:

The warriors in theHeike Monogatariserved as models for the educated warriors of later generations, and the ideals depicted by them were not assumed to be beyond reach. Rather, these ideals were vigorously pursued in the upper echelons of warrior society and recommended as the proper form of the Japanese man of arms. With the Heike Monogatari, the image of the Japanese warrior in literature came to its full maturity.^[111]

Wilson then translates the writings of several warriors who mention the Heike Monogatari as an example for their men to follow.

A number of warrior writings document this ideal from the 13th century onward. Most warriors aspired to or followed this ideal to varying degrees.^[112]

Culture

Thechashitsu(small tea room)was a place of politics and socializing for lords and samurai.

As aristocrats for centuries, samurai developed their own cultures that influenced Japanese culture as a whole.Waka(Japanese poetry),noh(Japanese dance-drama),kemari(Japanese football game),tea ceremony,andikebana(Japanese flower arranging)were some of the cultural pursuits enjoyed by the samurai.^[113]

Wakapoems were also used asjisei no ku(Từ thế の câu,death poems).Hosokawa Gracia,Asano Naganori,andTakasugi Shinsakuare famous for theirjisei no ku.

Nohandkemariwere promoted by theAshikaga shogunateand became popular amongdaimyo(feudal lords)and samurai.^[114]^[115]During theSengoku period,the appreciation ofnohand the practice of tea ceremonies were valued for socializing and exchanging information, and were essential cultural pursuits fordaimyoand samurai. The view of life and death expressed innohplays was something the samurai of the time could relate to. Owning tea utensils used in the tea ceremony was a matter of prestige fordaimyoand samurai, and in some cases tea utensils were given in exchange for land as a reward for military service. Thechashitsu(small tea room)was also used as a place for political meetings, as it was suitable for secret talks, and the tea ceremony sometimes brought together samurai and townspeople who did not normally interact.^[115]

Musō Soseki(1275–1351) was a Zen monk who was advisor to both EmperorGo-Daigoand GeneralAshikaga Takauji(1304–1358). Musō, as well as other monks, served as a political and cultural diplomat between Japan and China. Musō was particularly well known for his garden design. Another Ashikaga patron of the arts wasAshikaga Yoshimasa.Previously, tea had been used primarily for Buddhist monks to stay awake during meditation.^[116]

Education

In general, samurai, aristocrats, and priests had a very high literacy rate inkanji.Recent studies have shown that literacy in kanji among other groups in society was somewhat higher than previously understood. For example, court documents, birth and death records and marriage records from the Kamakura period, submitted by farmers, were prepared in Kanji. Both the kanji literacy rate and skills in math improved toward the end of Kamakura period.^[109]

Some samurai hadbuke bunko,or "warrior library", a personal library that held texts on strategy, the science of warfare, and other documents that would have proved useful during the warring era of feudal Japan. One such library held 20,000 volumes. The upper class hadKuge bunko,or "family libraries", that held classics, Buddhist sacred texts, and family histories, as well as genealogical records.^[117]

Literacy was generally high among the warriors and the common classes as well. The feudal lordAsakura Norikage(1474–1555 AD) noted the great loyalty given to his father, due to his polite letters, not just to fellow samurai, but also to the farmers and townspeople:

There were to Lord Eirin's character many high points difficult to measure, but according to the elders the foremost of these was the way he governed the province by his civility. It goes without saying that he acted this way toward those in the samurai class, but he was also polite in writing letters to the farmers and townspeople, and even in addressing these letters he was gracious beyond normal practice. In this way, all were willing to sacrifice their lives for him and become his allies.^[118]

In a letter dated 29 January 1552,St Francis Xavierobserved the ease of which the Japanese understood prayers due to the high level of literacy in Japan at that time:

There are two kinds of writing in Japan, one used by men and the other by women; and for the most part both men and women, especially of the nobility and the commercial class, have a literary education. The bonzes, or bonzesses, in their monasteries teach letters to the girls and boys, though rich and noble persons entrust the education of their children to private tutors.
Most of them can read, and this is a great help to them for the easy understanding of our usual prayers and the chief points of our holy religion.^[119]

In a letter toFather Ignatius LoyolaatRome,Xavier further noted the education of the upper classes:

The Nobles send their sons to monasteries to be educated as soon as they are 8 years old, and they remain there until they are 19 or 20, learning reading, writing and religion; as soon as they come out, they marry and apply themselves to politics. They are discreet, magnanimous and lovers of virtue and letters, honouring learned men very much.

In a letter dated 11 November 1549, Xavier described a multi-tiered educational system in Japan consisting of "universities", "colleges", "academies" and hundreds of monasteries that served as a principal center for learning by the populace:

But now we must give you an account of our stay atCagoxima.We put into that port because the wind was adverse to our sailing to Meaco, which is the largest city in Japan, and most famous as the residence of the King and the Princes. It is said that after four months are passed the favourable season for a voyage toMeacowill return, and then with the good help of God we shall sail thither. The distance from Cagoxima is three hundred leagues. We hear wonderful stories about the size of Meaco: they say that it consists of more than ninety thousand dwellings. There is a very famous University there, as well as five chief colleges of students, and more than two hundred monasteries of bonzes, and of others who are like coenobites, called Legioxi, as well as of women of the same kind, who are called Hamacutis. Besides this of Meaco, there are in Japan five other principal academies, at Coya, at Negu, at Fisso, and at Homia. These are situated round Meaco, with short distances between them, and each is frequented by about three thousand five hundred scholars. Besides these there is the Academy atBandou,much the largest and most famous in all Japan, and at a great distance from Meaco. Bandou is a large territory, ruled by six minor princes, one of whom is more powerful than the others and is obeyed by them, being himself subject to the King of Japan, who is called the Great King of Meaco. The things that are given out as to the greatness and celebrity of these universities and cities are so wonderful as to make us think of seeing them first with our own eyes and ascertaining the truth, and then when we have discovered and know how things really are, of writing an account of them to you. They say that there are several lesser academies besides those which we have mentioned.

Names

A samurai was usually named by combining onekanjifrom his father or grandfather and one new kanji. Samurai normally used only a small part of their total name.

For example, the full name ofOda Nobunagawas "Oda Kazusanosuke Saburo Nobunaga" (Dệt điền thượng tổng giới Tam Lang tin trường), in which "Oda" is a clan or family name, "Kazusanosuke" is a title of vice-governor of Kazusa province, "Saburo" is a formal nickname (''yobina''), and "Nobunaga" is an adult name (''nanori'') given atgenpuku,the coming of age ceremony. A man was addressed by his family name and his title, or by hisyobinaif he did not have a title. However, thenanoriwas a private name that could be used by only a very few, including the emperor. Samurai could choose their ownnanoriand frequently changed their names to reflect their allegiances.

Samurai were given the privilege of carrying two swords and using 'samurai surnames' to identify themselves from the common people.^[120]

Marriage

Samurai had arranged marriages, which were arranged by a go-between of the same or higher rank. While for those samurai in the upper ranks this was a necessity (as most had few opportunities to meet women), this was a formality for lower-ranked samurai. Most samurai married women from a samurai family, but for lower-ranked samurai, marriages with commoners were permitted. In these marriages adowrywas brought by the woman and was used to set up the couple's new household.

A samurai could takeconcubines,but their backgrounds were checked by higher-ranked samurai. In many cases, taking a concubine was akin to a marriage. Kidnapping a concubine, although common in fiction, would have been shameful, if not criminal. If the concubine was a commoner, a messenger was sent with betrothal money or a note for exemption of tax to ask for her parents' acceptance. Even though the woman would not be a legal wife, a situation normally considered a demotion, many wealthy merchants believed that being the concubine of a samurai was superior to being the legal wife of a commoner. When a merchant's daughter married a samurai, her family's money erased the samurai's debts, and the samurai's social status improved the standing of the merchant family. If a samurai's commoner concubine gave birth to a son, the son could inherit his father's social status.

A samurai could divorce his wife for a variety of reasons with approval from a superior, but divorce was, while not entirely nonexistent, a rare event. A wife's failure to produce a son was cause for divorce, but adoption of a male heir was considered an acceptable alternative to divorce. A samurai could divorce for personal reasons, even if he simply did not like his wife, but this was generally avoided as it would embarrass the person who had arranged the marriage. A woman could also arrange a divorce, although it would generally take the form of the samurai divorcing her. After a divorce, samurai had to return the betrothal money, which often prevented divorces.

Women

Tomoe Gozenby Shitomi Kangetsu,c. 18th century

Maintaining the household was the main duty of women of the samurai class. This was especially crucial during early feudal Japan, when warrior husbands were often traveling abroad or engaged in clan battles. The wife, orokugatasama(meaning: one who remains in the home), was left to manage all household affairs, care for the children, and perhaps even defend the home forcibly. For this reason, many women of the samurai class were trained in wielding a polearm called anaginataor a special knife called thekaikenin an art calledtantojutsu(lit. the skill of the knife), which they could use to protect their household, family, and honor if the need arose. There were women who actively engaged in battles alongside male samurai in Japan, although most of these female warriors were not formal samurai.^[121]

A samurai's daughter's greatest duty waspolitical marriage.These women married members of enemy clans of their families to form a diplomatic relationship. These alliances were stages for many intrigues, wars and tragedies throughout Japanese history. A woman could divorce her husband if he did not treat her well and also if he was a traitor to his wife's family. A famous case was that ofOda Tokuhime(daughter ofOda Nobunaga); irritated by the antics of her mother-in-law,Lady Tsukiyama(the wife ofTokugawa Ieyasu), she was able to get Lady Tsukiyama arrested on suspicion of communicating with the Takeda clan (then a great enemy of Nobunaga and the Oda clan). Ieyasu also arrested his own son,Matsudaira Nobuyasu,who was Tokuhime's husband, because Nobuyasu was close to his mother Lady Tsukiyama. To assuage his ally Nobunaga, Ieyasu had Lady Tsukiyama executed in 1579 and that same year ordered his son to commit seppuku to prevent him from seeking revenge for the death of his mother.^{[citation needed]}

Traits valued in women of the samurai class were humility, obedience, self-control, strength, and loyalty. Ideally, a samurai wife would be skilled at managing property, keeping records, dealing with financial matters, educating the children (and perhaps servants as well), and caring for elderly parents or in-laws that may be living under her roof. Confucian law, which helped define personal relationships and the code of ethics of the warrior class, required that a woman show subservience to her husband, filial piety to her parents, and care to the children. Too much love and affection was also said to indulge and spoil the youngsters. Thus, a woman was also to exercise discipline.

Though women of wealthier samurai families enjoyed perks of their elevated position in society, such as avoiding the physical labor that those of lower classes often engaged in, they were still viewed as far beneath men. Women were prohibited from engaging in any political affairs and were usually not the heads of their household. This does not mean that women in the samurai class were always powerless. Powerful women both wisely and unwisely wielded power at various occasions. Throughout history, several women of the samurai class have acquired political power and influence, even though they have not received these privilegesde jure.

AfterAshikaga Yoshimasa,8thshōgunof the Muromachi shogunate, lost interest in politics, his wifeHino Tomikolargely ruled in his place.Nene,wife of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, was known to overrule her husband's decisions at times, andYodo-dono,his concubine, became thede factomaster of Osaka castle and the Toyotomi clan after Hideyoshi's death.Tachibana Ginchiyowas chosen to lead the Tachibana clan after her father's death.Yamauchi Chiyo,wife of Yamauchi Kazutoyo, has long been considered the ideal samurai wife. According to legend, she made her kimono out of a quilted patchwork of bits of old cloth and saved pennies to buy her husband a magnificent horse, on which he rode to many victories. The fact that Chiyo (though she is better known as "Wife of Yamauchi Kazutoyo" ) is held in such high esteem for her economic sense is illuminating in the light of the fact that she never produced an heir and the Yamauchi clan was succeeded by Kazutoyo's younger brother. The source of power for women may have been that samurai left their finances to their wives. Several women ascended theChrysanthemum Throneas afemale imperial ruler( nữ tính thiên hoàng,josei tennō)

As the Tokugawa period progressed more value became placed on education, and the education of females beginning at a young age became important to families and society as a whole. Marriage criteria began to weigh intelligence and education as desirable attributes in a wife, right along with physical attractiveness. Though many of the texts written for women during the Tokugawa period only pertained to how a woman could become a successful wife and household manager, there were those that undertook the challenge of learning to read, and also tackled philosophical and literary classics. Nearly all women of the samurai class were literate by the end of the Tokugawa period.

Kasuga no Tsubonefighting robbers–Adachi Ginko(c. 1880)
Hangaku GozenbyYoshitoshi,c. 1885
Japanese woman preparing forritual suicide
Yuki no KatadefendingTsu Castle.18th century
A samurai class woman

Weapons

Japanese swordsare the weapons that have come to be synonymous with the samurai.Chokutō,swords from theNara period,featured a straight blade. By 900, curvedtachiappeared, and ultimately thekatana.Smaller commonly known companion swords are thewakizashiand thetantō.^[122]Wearing a long sword(katanaortachi)together with a smaller sword became the symbol of the samurai, and this combination of swords is referred to as adaishō(literally "big and small" ). During the Edo period only samurai were allowed to wear adaisho.A longer blade known as thenodachiwas also used in the fourteenth century, though primarily used by samurai on the ground.^[123]
Theyumi(bow), reflected in the art ofkyūjutsu(lit. the skill of the bow) was a major weapon of the Japanese military. Its usage declined with the introduction of thetanegashima(Japanese matchlock) during theSengoku period,but the skill was still practiced at least for sport.^[124]Theyumi,an asymmetriccomposite bowmade frombamboo,wood,rattan,andleather,had an effective range of 50 or 100 meters (160 or 330 feet) if accuracy was not an issue. On foot, it was usually used behind atate(Tay thuẫn), a large, mobile wooden shield, but theyumicould also be used from horseback because of its asymmetric shape. The practice of shooting from horseback became a Shinto ceremony known asyabusame(Lưu đích mã).^[125]
Pole weaponsincluding theyari(spear) andnaginata(glaive) were commonly used by the samurai. Theyaridisplaced thenaginatafrom the battlefield as personal bravery became less of a factor and battles became more organized around massed, inexpensive foot troops (ashigaru).^[126]A charge, mounted or dismounted, was also more effective when using a spear rather than a sword, as it offered better than even odds against a samurai using a sword. In theBattle of ShizugatakewhereShibata Katsuiewas defeated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, seven samurai who came to be known as the "Seven Spears of Shizugatake"(Tiện ヶ nhạc bảy bổn thương) played a crucial role in the victory.^[127]
Tanegashimawere introduced to Japan in 1543 through Portuguese trade.Tanegashimawere produced on a large scale by Japanese gunsmiths, enabling warlords to raise and train armies from masses of peasants. The new weapons were highly effective; their ease of use and deadly effectiveness led to thetanegashimabecoming the weapon of choice over theyumi.By the end of the 16th century, there were more firearms in Japan than in many European nations.Tanegashima—employeden masse,largely byashigarupeasant foot troops—were responsible for a change in military tactics that eventually led to establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate and an end to civil war. Production oftanegashimadeclined sharply as there was no need for massive amounts of firearms. During the Edo period,tanegashimawere stored away and used mainly for hunting and target practice. Foreign intervention in the 19th century renewed interest in firearms, but thetanegashimawas outdated by then, and various samurai factions purchased more modern firearms from European sources.^[128]
Clubs and truncheonsmade of iron or wood, of all shapes and sizes were used by the samurai. Some like thejittewere one-handed weapons, and others like thekanabōwere large two-handed weapons.
Chain weapons,various weapons using chains were used during the samurai era, thekusarigamaandkusari-fundoare examples.
Cannonbecame a common part of the samurai's armory by the 1570s. They often were mounted in castles or on ships, being used more as anti-personnel weapons than against castle walls or the like, though in thesiege of Nagashino Castle(1575) a cannon was used to good effect against an enemy siege tower. The first popular cannon in Japan were swivel-breech loaders namedkunikuzushior "province destroyers".Kunikuzushiweighed 264 lb (120 kg) and used 40 lb (18 kg) chambers, firing a small shot of 10 oz (280 g). TheArima clanof Kyushu used cannon like this at the Battle of Okinawate against theRyūzōji clan.

Cross sections of Japanese sword lamination methods
Diagram of thekatanasword
Samurai with various armor and weapons, c. 1802–1814
Antique Japanesetachi
Antique Japanesewakizashi
Antique Japanese wakizashi
Reenactors withTanegashimaat Himeji Castle Festival
Japanese arrow stand with a pair ofYumibows.
The bow of the Kamakura period
The arrow of the Kamakura period
Anaginatafrom theKamakura period
Threeyari(Kagi yari, omi yari, and su yari) mounted in koshirae

Combat techniques

During the existence of the samurai, two opposite types of organization reigned. The first type were recruits-based armies: at the beginning, during theNara period,samurai armies relied on armies of Chinese-type recruits and towards the end in infantry units composed ofashigaru.The second type of organization was that of a samurai on horseback who fought individually or in small groups.^[129]

At the beginning of the contest, a series of bulbous-headed arrows were shot, which buzzed in the air. The purpose of these shots was to call thekamito witness the displays of courage that were about to unfold. After a brief exchange of arrows between the two sides, a contest calledikkiuchi( một kỵ thảo ち) was developed, where great rivals on both sides faced each other.^[129]After these individual combats, the major combats were given way, usually sending infantry troops led by samurai on horseback. At the beginning of the samurai battles, it was an honor to be the first to enter battle. This changed in the Sengoku period with the introduction of the arquebus.^[130]

At the beginning of the use of firearms, the combat methodology was as follows: at the beginning an exchange of arquebus shots was made at a distance of approximately 100 meters; when the time was right, theashigaruspearmen were ordered to advance and finally the samurai would attack, either on foot or on horseback.^[130]The army chief would sit in a scissor chair inside a semi-open tent calledmaku,which exhibited its respectivemonand represented thebakufu,"government from themaku."^[131]

In the middle of the contest, some samurai decided to get off the horse and seek to cut off the head of a worthy rival. This act was considered an honor. Through it they gained respect among the military class.^[132]After the battle, the high-ranking samurai normally celebrated with atea ceremony,and the victorious general reviewed the heads of the most important members of the enemy which had been cut.^[133]

Most of the battles were not resolved in the ideal manner mentioned above. Most wars were won through surprise attacks, such as night raids, fires, etc. The renowned samuraiMinamoto no Tametomosaid:

According to my experience, there is nothing more advantageous when it comes to crushing the enemy than a night attack [...]. If we set fire to three of the sides and close the passage through the room, those who flee from the flames will be shot down by arrows, and those who seek to escape from them will not be able to flee from the flames.
— Minamoto no Tametomo.^[134]

Head collection

Cutting off the head of a worthy rival on the battlefield was a source of great pride and recognition. There was a detailed ritual to beautify thesevered heads:first they were washed and combed,^[135]and once this was done, the teeth were blackened by applying a dye calledohaguro.^[136]The reason for blackening the teeth was that white teeth was a sign of distinction, so applying a dye to darken them was a desecration.^[136]The heads were carefully arranged on a table for exposure.^[135]

In 1600,Kani Saizōparticipated in theBattle of Sekigaharaas the forerunner ofFukushima Masanori's army.^[137]In the outpost battle ofGifu Castle,he took the heads of 17 enemy soldiers, and was greatly praised byTokugawa Ieyasu.^[137]He fought with abamboostalk on his back and would mark the heads of his defeated enemies by putting bamboo leaves in their cut necks or mouths, since he could not carry every head.^[137]Thus he gained the nicknameBamboo Saizo.^[137]

During Toyotomi Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea, the number of severed heads of the enemies to be sent to Japan was such that for logistical reasons only the noses were sent. These were covered with salt and shipped in wooden barrels. These barrels were buried in a burial mound near the "Great Buddha" of Hideyoshi, where they remain today under the wrong name ofmimizukaor "ear mound".^[138]

Military formations

During the Azuchi-Momoyama period and thanks to the introduction of firearms, combat tactics changed dramatically. The military formations adopted had poetic names, among which are:^[139]

Name	Description	Image
Ganko (birds in flight)	A very flexible formation that allowed the troops to adapt depending on the movements of the opponent. The commander was located at the rear, but near the center to avoid communication problems.
Hoshi (arrowhead)	An aggressive formation in which the samurai took advantage of the casualties caused by the shooting of the ashigaru. The signaling elements were close to the major generals of the commander.
Saku (lock)	Considered the best defense against theHoshi,^[140]since two rows of arcabuceros and two archers were in position to receive the attack.
Kakuyoku (crane wings)	Recurrent formation with the purpose of surrounding the enemy. The archers and arcabuceros diminished the enemy troops before the melee attack of the samurai while the second company surrounded them.
Koyaku (yoke)	Owes its name to theyokesused foroxen.It was used to neutralize the "crane wings" and "arrowhead" attack and its purpose was for the vanguard to absorb the first attack and allow time for the enemy to reveal his next move to which the second company could react in time.
Gyōrin (fish scales)	Frequently used to deal with much more numerous armies. Its purpose was to attack a single sector to break the enemy ranks.
Engetsu (half moon)	Used when the army was not yet defeated but an orderly withdrawal to the castle was needed. While the rearguard receded, the vanguard could still be organized according to the circumstances.

Myth and reality

Most samurai were bound by a code of honor and were expected to set an example for those below them. A notable part of their code isseppuku(Mổ bụng,seppuku)orhara kiri,which allowed a disgraced samurai to regain his honor by passing into death, where samurai were still beholden to social rules. While there are many romanticized characterizations of samurai behavior such as the writing ofBushido: The Soul of Japanin 1899, studies ofkobudōand traditionalbudōindicate that the samurai were as practical on the battlefield as were any other warriors.^[141]

Some writers take issue with the very mention of the termbushidowhen not used to describe an individual samurai's usage of the word because of how broad and changed the meaning of it has become over time.^[142]

Despite the rampant romanticism of the 20th century, samurai could be disloyal and treacherous (e.g.,Akechi Mitsuhide), cowardly, brave, or overly loyal (e.g.,Kusunoki Masashige). Samurai were usually loyal to their immediate superiors, who in turn allied themselves with higher lords. These loyalties to the higher lords often shifted; for example, the high lords allied under Toyotomi Hideyoshi were served by loyal samurai, but the feudal lords under them could shift their support to Tokugawa, taking their samurai with them. There were, however, also notable instances where samurai would be disloyal to their lord (daimyō), when loyalty to the emperor was seen to have supremacy.^[143]

In popular culture

Samurai figures have been the subject for legends, folk tales, dramatic stories (i.e.gunki monogatari), theatre productions inkabukiandnoh,in literature, movies, animated andanimefilms, television shows,manga,video games, and in various musical pieces in genre that range fromenkatoJ-Popsongs.

Jidaigeki(literally historicaldrama) has always been a staple program on Japanese movies and television. The programs typically feature a samurai. Samurai films andwesternsshare a number of similarities, and the two have influenced each other over the years. One of Japan's most renowned directors,Akira Kurosawa,greatly influenced western film-making.George Lucas'Star Warsseries incorporated many stylistic traits pioneered by Kurosawa, andStar Wars: A New Hopetakes the core story of a rescued princess being transported to a secret base from Kurosawa'sThe Hidden Fortress.Kurosawa was inspired by the works of directorJohn Ford,and in turn Kurosawa's works have been remade into westerns such asSeven SamuraiintoThe Magnificent SevenandYojimbointoA Fistful of Dollars.There is also a 26-episode anime adaptation (Samurai 7) ofSeven Samurai.Along with film, literature containing samurai influences are seen as well. As well as influence from American Westerns, Kurosawa also adapted two ofShakespeare'splays as sources for samurai movies:Throne of Bloodwas based onMacbeth,andRanwas based onKing Lear.^[144]

Most common are historical works where the protagonist is either a samurai or former samurai (or another rank or position) who possesses considerable martial skill.Eiji Yoshikawais one of the most famous Japanese historical novelists. His retellings of popular works, includingTaiko,MusashiandThe Tale of the Heike,are popular among readers for their epic narratives and rich realism in depicting samurai and warrior culture.^{[citation needed]}The samurai have also appeared frequently in Japanese comics (manga) and animation (anime). Examples areSamurai Champloo,Shigurui,Requiem from the Darkness,Muramasa: The Demon Blade,andAfro Samurai.Samurai-like characters are not just restricted to historical settings, and a number of works set in the modern age, and even the future, include characters who live, train and fight like samurai. Some of these works have made their way to the west, where it has been increasing in popularity with America.

In the 21st century, samurai have become more popular in America. Through various media, producers and writers have been capitalizing on the notion that Americans admire the samurai lifestyle. The animated series,Afro Samurai,became well-liked in American popular culture because of its blend of hack-and-slash animation and gritty urban music. Created byTakashi Okazaki,Afro Samuraiwas initially adōjinshi,or manga series, which was then made into an animated series byStudio Gonzo.In 2007, the animated series debuted on American cable television on theSpike TVchannel. The series was produced for American viewers which "embodies the trend... comparing hip-hop artists to samurai warriors, an image some rappers claim for themselves".^[145]The story line keeps in tone with the perception of a samurai finding vengeance against someone who has wronged him. Because of its popularity,Afro Samuraiwas adopted into a full feature animated film and also became titles on gaming consoles such as thePlayStation 3andXbox.Not only has the samurai culture been adopted into animation and video games, it can also be seen in comic books.

The television seriesPower Rangers Samurai(adapted fromSamurai Sentai Shinkenger) is inspired by the way of the samurai.^[146]^[147]

Festivals

There are a variety of festivals held in Japan. Some festivals are seasonal celebrations that were adopted fromChinaand imbued with Japanese cultural values and stories.^[148]Other festivals in Japan are held where people celebrate historical heroes or commemorate historical events through parades with people dressed as samurai. Some examples of these festivals include the Hagi Jidai Festival, Matsue Warrior Procession, Kenshin Festival, Sendai Aoba Festival, Battle of Sekigahara Festival, and theShingen-ko Festival.^[149]

The Hagi Jidai Festival takes place in the fall inHagi, Yamaguchi Prefecture.This festival started in theEdo periodas a way for the people of Hagi to show their appreciation to the God of Kanaya Tenmangu Shrine.^[150]The festival has over 200 people dress up in traditional samurai armor and the clothes of various people of the daimyō's court as they walk down the streets of the town.^[151]The festival is separated into two main events: the Hagi Daimyō Procession and the Hagi Jidai Parade. The Hagi Daimyō Procession begins in the morning at the Hagi Castle town area with a procession of samurai, servants, and palanquin bearers marching and performing traditional dances.^[151]In the afternoon, the Hagi Jidai Parade occurs, starting in the Central Park and go around the town until they reach the Kanaya Tenmangu Shrine.^[151]

The Matsue Warrior Procession is a festival inMatsue, Shimane Prefecture.This festival reenacts the entrance of Daimyō Horio Yoshiharu and his troops into a newly built Matsue during the Edo Period.^[152]The event is held on the first Saturday of April.^[153]The event is made up of performers marching in a warrior parade at the Shirakata Tenmangu Shrine dressed in samurai armor and various clothing of the Edo period.^[153]Visitors are also have the opportunity to rent costumes and march in the parade, or to take pictures with the performers in the parade.^[154]Other events also take place throughout the day to celebrate the founding of the city.

The Kenshin Festival is a festival held inJōetsu, Niigata Prefecturecelebrating the life of DaimyōUesugi Kenshin.^[155]The festival started during theShowaera in 1926 at Kasugayama Shrine.^[156]The festival holds various events such as the Signal Fire, the Butei Ceremony, and the Shutsujin Parade.^[157]Additionally, the battle of Kawanakajima is reenacted as a part of this festival.^[155]Throughout the festival people in samurai armor participate in each event. One unique event in particular is the reenactment of the battle of Kawanakajima where performers in the samurai armor portray the events with swords and spears.^[158]

TheShingen-ko Festival(Tin huyền tưởng niệm り,Shingen-ko Matsuri)celebrates the legacy ofdaimyō Takeda Shingen.The festival is 3 days long. It is held annually on the first or second weekend of April inKōfu,Yamanashi Prefecture.There are more than 100,000 visitors per festival. Usually a famous Japanese celebrity plays the part of Takeda Shingen. Ordinary people can participate too after applying. It is one of the biggesthistorical reenactmentsin Japan.^[159]In 2012Guinness World Recordscertified it as the "largest gathering of samurai" in the world with 1,061 participants.^[160]

Samurai museums

Japanese Sword Museum– dedicated to the art of Japanese swordmaking.
Matsumoto Castle– the second floor features a collection of feudal guns, armor, and other weapons.
Ōyamazumi ShrineinŌmishima Island– large collection of ancient samurai weaponry, armor and shrine statuary.
Samurai Museum Berlin
Samurai Museum in Shinjuku, Tokyo – about the history of the samurai with armor, weapons etc.

References

^Vaporis, Constantine Nomikos (14 March 2019).Samurai An Encyclopedia of Japan's Cultured Warriors.Bloomsbury Publishing.ISBN 9798216141518.
^Samurai: The Story of a Warrior Tradition, Harry Cook, Blandford Press 1993, ISBN 0713724323
^Cummins, Anthony (2012).In Search of the Ninja.History Press.ISBN 9780752483559.
^Kleinschmidt, Harald (2017).Warfare in Japan.Taylor & Francis.ISBN 9781351873703.
^^a ^bHowland, Douglas R. (May 2001)."Samurai Status, Class, and Bureaucracy: A Historiographical Essay".The Journal of Asian Studies.60(2): 353–380.doi:10.2307/2659697.ISSN 0021-9118.JSTOR 2659697.
^^a ^b ^cVõ sĩ ( ぶし ) ／ hầu ( さむらい )(in Japanese).Shūeisha.Archived fromthe originalon 19 July 2024.Retrieved19 July2024.
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Bibliography

Absolon, Trevor.Samurai Armour: Volume I: The Japanese Cuirass(Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017).^{[ISBN missing]}
Anderson, Patricia E. "Roles of Samurai Women: Social Norms and Inner Conflicts During Japan's Tokugawa Period, 1603–1868".New Views on Gender15 (2015): 30–37.online
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Benesch, Oleg.Inventing the Way of the Samurai: Nationalism, Internationalism, and Bushido in Modern Japan(Oxford UP, 2014).ISBN 978-0-19-870662-5
Benesch, Oleg. "Comparing Warrior Traditions: How the Janissaries and Samurai Maintained Their Status and Privileges During Centuries of Peace."Comparative Civilizations Review55.55 (2006): 6:37–55Online.
Clements, Jonathan.A Brief History of the Samurai(Running Press, 2010)ISBN 0-7624-3850-9
Coleridge, Henry James.the Life and Letters of St. Francis Xavier.Forgotten Books.ISBN 978-1-4510-0048-1.
Cummins, Antony, and Mieko Koizumi.The Lost Samurai School(North Atlantic Books, 2016) 17th century Samurai^{[ISBN missing]}textbook on combat; heavily illustrated.
Hubbard, Ben.The Samurai Warrior: The Golden Age of Japan's Elite Warriors 1560–1615(Amber Books, 2015).^{[ISBN missing]}
Jaundrill, D. Colin.Samurai to Soldier: Remaking Military Service in Nineteenth-Century Japan(Cornell UP, 2016).^{[ISBN missing]}
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Ogata, Ken. "End of the Samurai: A Study of Deinstitutionalization Processes".Academy of Management ProceedingsVol. 2015. No. 1.
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Historiography

Howland, Douglas R. "Samurai status, class, and bureaucracy: A historiographical essay".The Journal of Asian Studies.60.2 (2001): 353–380.doi:10.2307/2659697 online.

External links

Media related toSamuraiat Wikimedia Commons
The Samurai Archives Japanese History page
Samurai Swords and Samurai Culture Archived28 April 2019 at theWayback Machine
History of the Samurai
The Way of the Samurai– Japan: Memoirs of a Secret Empire
Comprehensive Database of Archaeological Site Reports in Japan,Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties

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