Byzantine architecture

Byzantine architecture

From left to right:Hagia SophiainTurkey,Basilica of San VitaleinItaly,Church of St John the BaptistinCrimea,Basilica of San Vitale
Years active	4th century – 1453

Byzantine architectureis thearchitectureof theByzantine Empire,or Eastern Roman Empire, usually dated from 330 AD, whenConstantine the Greatestablished a new Roman capital inByzantium,which becameConstantinople,until thefall of the Byzantine Empirein 1453. There was initially no hard line between the Byzantine and Roman Empires, and early Byzantine architecture is stylistically and structurally indistinguishable from lateRoman architecture.The style continued to be based on arches, vaults and domes, often on a large scale. Wallmosaicswithgold backgroundsbecame standard for the grandest buildings, withfrescosa cheaper alternative.

The richest interiors were finished with thin plates ofmarbleor coloured and patterned stone. Some of the columns were also made of marble. Other widely used materials were bricks and stone.Mosaics made of stone or glasstesseraewere also elements of interior architecture. Precious wood furniture, like beds, chairs, stools, tables, bookshelves and silver or golden cups with beautiful reliefs, decorated Byzantine interiors.

Early Byzantine architecture drew upon earlier elements of Roman and Greek architecture.Stylistic drift,technological advancement,andpoliticaland territorial changes meant that a distinct style gradually resulted in theGreek crossplan inchurch architecture.Civil architecture continuedGreco-Romantrends; the Byzantines built impressive fortifications and bridges, but generally notaqueductson the same scales as the Romans.

This terminology was introduced by modern historians to designate the medievalRoman Empireas it evolved as a distinct artistic and cultural entity centered on the new capital of Constantinople (modern-dayIstanbul) rather than the city ofRomeand its environs. Its architecture dramatically influenced the latermedieval architecturethroughout Europe and the Near East.

Characteristics

Interior of theBasilica of San VitalefromRavenna(Italy), decorated with elaborate and glamorous mosaics

Pammakaristos Church,also known as the Church of Theotokos Pammakaristos (Greek: Θεοτόκος ἡ Παμμακάριστος, "All-Blessed Mother of God" ), is one of the most famous Greek Orthodox Byzantine churches inIstanbul

Church of Christ Pantocrator(13th-14th century),Nesebar,Bulgaria,late Byzantinecross-in-squarestyle, UNESCO World Heritage Site

When theRoman Empirebecame Christian (after having extended eastwards) with its new capital atConstantinople,its architecture became more sensuous and ambitious. This new style with exotic domes and richer mosaics would come to be known as "Byzantine" before it traveled west toRavennaandVeniceand as far north asMoscow.Most of the churches and basilicas have high-riding domes, which created vast open spaces at the centers of churches, thereby heightening the light. The round arch is a fundamental of Byzantine style. Magnificent golden mosaics with their graphic simplicity brought light and warmth into the heart of churches. Byzantine capitals break away from the Classical conventions ofancient GreeceandRomewith sinuous lines and naturalistic forms, which are precursors to theGothic style.

In the same way theParthenonis the most impressive monument forClassical religion,Hagia Sophiaremained the iconic church forChristianity.The temples of these two religions differ substantially from the point of view of their interiors and exteriors. For Classical temples, only the exterior was important, because only the priests entered the interior, where the statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated was kept. The ceremonies were held outside, in front of the temple. Instead, Christian liturgies were held inside the churches.

Columns

Byzantine columns are quite varied, mostly developing from the classicalCorinthian,with the ornamentation undercut with drills, andfluted shaftsalmost entirely abandoned. The block of stone was left rough as it came from the quarry, and the sculptor evolved new designs to his own fancy, so that one rarely meets with many repetitions of the same design. One of the most remarkable designs features leaves carved as if blown by the wind; the finest example being at the 7th-centuryHagia Sophia (Thessaloniki).Those in theCathedral of Saint Mark, Venice(1071) specially attractedJohn Ruskin's fancy. Others appear inSant'Apollinare in Classe,Ravenna(549).

The column inSan Vitale, Ravenna(547) shows above it thedosseretrequired to carry thearch,the springing of which was much wider than the abacus of the column. On eastern columns the eagle, the lion and the lamb are occasionally carved, but treated conventionally.

There are two types of columns used atHagia Sophia:Composite and Ionic. The Composite column that emerged during the LateByzantine Empire,mainly in Rome, combines the Corinthian with theIonic.Composite columnsline the principal space of the nave. Ionic columns are used behind them in the side spaces, in a mirror position relative to the Corinthian or Composite orders (as was their fate well into the 19th century, when buildings were designed for the first time with a monumental Ionic order). At Hagia Sophia, though, these are not the standard imperial statements. The columns are filled with foliage in all sorts of variations. In some, the small, lush leaves appear to be caught up in the spinning of the scrolls – clearly, a different, nonclassical sensibility has taken over the design.

The columns at Basilica of San Vitale show wavy and delicate floral patterns similar to decorations found on belt buckles and dagger blades. Their inverted pyramidal form has the look of a basket.

• 
  Byzantine Ionic column fromNational Museum of Medieval Art(Korçë,Albania)
• 
  Illustration of a Byzantine Corinthian column
• 
  Byzantine composite column fromBasilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo(Ravenna,Italy)
• 
  Byzantine basket column fromHagia Sophia(Istanbul,Turkey)

Overview of extant monuments

Hagia Ireneis a former GreekEastern Orthodox Churchlocated in the outer courtyard ofTopkapı Palacein Istanbul. It is the only Byzantine church inIstanbulthat has not been converted into a mosque. The Hagia Irene today operates as a museum and concert hall.

Buildings increased in geometriccomplexity,brickand plaster were used in addition tostonein the decoration of important public structures,classical orderswere used more freely,mosaicsreplaced carved decoration, complexdomesrested upon massivepiers,and windows filtered light through thin sheets ofalabasterto softly illuminate interiors. Most of the surviving structures are sacred, with secular buildings having been destroyed.

Early architecture

ThebasilicaofSant'Apollinare NuovoinRavenna(6th century)

Prime examples of early Byzantine architecture date from the EmperorJustinian I's reign and survive inRavennaand Istanbul, as well as inSofia(theChurch of St Sophia).

Saint Sofia Church, Bulgaria,6th century AD

One of the great breakthroughs in the history of Western architecture occurred when Justinian's architects invented a complex system providing for a smooth transition from a square plan of the church to a circular dome (or domes) by means ofpendentives.

In Ravenna, the longitudinalbasilicaofSant'Apollinare Nuovo,and the octagonal, centralized structure of the church ofSan Vitale,commissioned by Emperor Justinian but never seen by him, was built. Justinian's monuments in Istanbul include the domed churches ofHagia SophiaandHagia Irene(both discussed in more detail below), but there is also an earlier, smaller church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus (locally referred to as "Little Hagia Sophia"), which might have served as a model for both in that it combined the elements of a longitudinal basilica with those of a centralized building.

The 6th-century church ofHagia IreneinIstanbulwas substantially rebuilt after an earthquake in the 8th century.

Other structures include the ruins of theGreat Palace of Constantinople,the innovativewalls of Constantinople(with 192 towers) andBasilica Cistern(with hundreds of recycled classical columns). A mosaic in the church begunby the Ostrogoths,San Apollinare in Nuovo in Ravenna, depicts an early Byzantine palace.

Hagios DemetriosinThessaloniki,Saint Catherine's MonasteryonMount Sinai,Jvari Monasteryin present-dayGeorgia,and threeArmenianchurches ofEchmiadzinall date primarily from the 7th century and provide a glimpse on architectural developments in the Byzantine provinces following the age of Justinian.

Remarkable engineering feats include the 430 m longSangarius Bridge,the pointed arch ofKaramagara Bridge,as well as the dome of the Church ofHagia Sophia.

Middle Byzantine Architecture

In theMacedonian dynasty,it is presumed thatBasil I's votive church of theTheotokos of the Pharosand theNea Ekklesia(both no longer existent) served as a model for mostcross-in-squaresanctuaries of the period, including theCattolica di Stiloin southern Italy (9th century), the monastery church ofHosios Lukasin Greece (c. 1000),Nea Moni of Chios(a pet project ofConstantine IX), and theDaphni MonasterynearAthens(c. 1050). All three of the later churches display the important shifts in architectural design that occurred following the end of Iconoclasm, when architectural design and decoration became more standardized.

External view of the 11th-century monastery ofHosios Loukasin Greece. It is representative of the Byzantine art during the rule of theMacedonian dynasty(Macedonian art)

Rear courtyard ofChurch of St. Sophia, Ohrid,9th century,First Bulgarian Empire,nowNorth Macedonia

TheHagia Sophia churchinOchrid(present-dayNorth Macedonia), built in theFirst Bulgarian Empirein the time ofBoris I of Bulgaria,andeponymous cathedralinKiev(present-dayUkraine) testify to a vogue for multiple subsidiary domes set on drums, which would gain in height and narrowness with the progress of time.

Comnenian and Paleologan periods

In Istanbul andAsia Minorthe architecture of theKomnenian periodis almost non-existent, with the notable exceptions of the Elmali Kilise and other rock sanctuaries ofCappadocia,and of the Churches of thePantokratorand of theTheotokos Kyriotissain Istanbul. Most examples of this architectural style and many of the other older Byzantine styles only survive on the outskirts of the Byzantine world, as most significant and ancient churches and buildings were in Asia Minor. DuringWorld War I,almost all churches that ended up within the Turkish borders were destroyed or converted into mosques. Some were abandoned as a result of theGreek and Christian genocidesfrom 1915 to 1923. Similar styles can be found in countries such asBulgaria,Croatia,North Macedonia,Russia,Serbiaand other Slavic lands, as well as inSicily(Cappella Palatina) andVeneto(St Mark's Basilica,Torcello Cathedral).

In Middle Byzantine architecture "cloisonné masonry" refers to walls built with a regular mix of stone andbrick,often with more of the latter. The exterior of the 11th- or 12th-centuryPammakaristos ChurchinIstanbulis an example, though it is even more renowned for Late Byzantine additions discussed below.

Late Byzantine Architecture

ThePaleologanperiod is well represented in a dozen former churches in Istanbul, notablySt Saviour at ChoraandSt Mary Pammakaristos.Unlike their Slavic counterparts, the Paleologan architects never accented the vertical thrust of structures. As a result, the late medieval architecture of Byzantium (barring theHagia SophiaofTrebizond) is less prominent in height.

TheChurch of the Holy Apostles (Thessaloniki)is cited as an archetypal structure of the late period with its exterior walls intricately decorated with complex brickwork patterns or with glazed ceramics. Other churches from the years immediately predating the fall of Constantinople survive onMount Athosand inMistra(e.g.Brontochion Monastery). That site also has preserved secular architecture such as the Palace of the Despots and several houses.

In the late Byzantine period, c. 1310, a highly ornateparekklesionwas added to thePammakaristos Churchin Constantinople for the tomb of Michael Glabas Tarchaniotes, a Byzantine aristocrat and general who lived c. 1235 to c. 1305–08.It displays the attenuated proportions favored in the late Byzantine era, as well as shifts in style in the mosaics' treatment of figures.

Structural evolution

The geometric conception of the Hagia Sophia is based on mathematical formulas of Heron of Alexandria. It avoids use of irrational numbers for square diagonals and circle circumferences and contrieves thus a highly elaborated mathematical space

As early as the building ofConstantine'schurches inPalestinethere were two chief types of plan in use: thebasilican,or axial, type, represented by the basilica at theHoly Sepulchre,and the circular, or central, type, represented bythe great octagonal churchonce atAntioch.

The St. George Rotunda; some remains of Serdica can be seen in the foreground

Those of the latter type we must suppose were nearly alwaysvaulted,for a centraldomewould seem to furnish their very purpose. The central space was sometimes surrounded by a very thick wall, in which deep recesses, to the interior, were formed, as atChurch of St. George, Sofia,built by theRomansin the 4th century as a cylindrical domed structure built on a square base, and the nobleChurch of Saint George,Thessaloniki(5th century), or by a vaulted aisle, as atSanta Costanza,Rome(4th century); or annexes were thrown out from the central space in such a way as to form a cross, in which these additions helped to counterpoise the central vault, as at theMausoleum of Galla Placidia,Ravenna(5th century). The most famous church of this type was that of theHoly Apostles, Constantinople.Vaults appear to have been early applied to the basilican type of plan; for instance, atHagia Irene,Constantinople(6th century), the long body of the church is covered by two domes.

Interior of theHagia Sophiaunder renovation, showing many features of the grandest Byzantine architecture.

AtSaint Sergius,Constantinople, and San Vitale, Ravenna, churches of the central type, the space under the dome was enlarged by having apsidal additions made to the octagon. Finally, atHagia Sophia(6th century) a combination was made which is perhaps the most remarkable piece of planning ever contrived. A central space of 100 ft (30 m) square is increased to 200 ft (60 m) in length by adding twohemicyclesto it to the east and the west; these are again extended by pushing out three minor apses eastward, and two others, one on either side of a straight extension, to the west. This unbroken area, about 260 ft (80 m) long, the larger part of which is over 100 ft (30 m) wide, is entirely covered by a system of domical surfaces. Above theconchsof the smallapsesrise the two greatsemi-domeswhich cover the hemicycles, and between these bursts out the vast dome over the central square. On the two sides, to the north and south of the dome, it is supported by vaulted aisles in two stories which bring the exterior form to a general square.

The apse of the church with cross atHagia Irene.Nearly all the decorative surfaces in the church have been lost.

At the Holy Apostles (6th century) five domes were applied to a cruciform plan; the central dome was the highest. After the 6th century there were no churches built which in any way competed in scale with these great works of Justinian, and the plans more or less tended to approximate to one type. The central area covered by the dome was included in a considerably larger square, of which the four divisions, to the east, west, north and south, were carried up higher in the vaulting and roof system than the four corners, forming in this way a sort ofnaveandtransepts.Sometimes the central space was square, sometimes octagonal, or at least there were eight piers supporting the dome instead of four, and the nave and transepts were narrower in proportion.

If we draw a square and divide each side into three so that the middle parts are greater than the others, and then divide the area into nine from these points, we approximate to the typical setting out of a plan of this time. Now add three apses on the east side opening from the three divisions, and opposite to the west put a narrow entrance porch running right across the front. Still in front put a square court. The court is theatriumand usually has afountainin the middle under acanopyresting on pillars. The entrance porch is thenarthex.Directly under the center of the dome is theambo,from which the Scriptures were proclaimed, and beneath the ambo at floor level was the place for the choir of singers. Across the eastern side of the central square was a screen which divided off thebema,where the altar was situated, from the body of the church; this screen, bearing images, is theiconostasis.Thealtarwas protected by a canopy orciboriumresting on pillars. Rows of rising seats around the curve of the apse with thepatriarch's throne at the middle eastern point formed the synthronon. The two smaller compartments and apses at the sides of the bema were sacristies, thediaconiconandprothesis.The ambo and bema were connected by thesolea,a raised walkway enclosed by a railing or low wall.

The continuous influence from the East is widely shown in the fashion of decorating externalbrickwalls of churches built about the 12th century, in which bricks roughly carved into form are set up so as to make bands of ornamentation which it is quite clear are imitated from Cufic writing. This fashion was associated with the disposition of the exterior brick and stone work generally into many varieties of pattern, zig-zags, key-patterns etc.; and, as similar decoration is found in many Persian buildings, it is probable that this custom also was derived from the East. The domes and vaults to the exterior were covered withleador with tiling of regional variety. The window and door frames were ofmarble.The interior surfaces were adorned all over bymosaicsorfrescoesin the higher parts of the edifice, and below with incrustations of marble slabs, which were frequently of very beautiful varieties, and disposed so that, although in one surface, the coloring formed a series of large panels. The better marbles wereopened outso that the two surfaces produced by the division formed a symmetrical pattern.

Legacy

Chora Churchmedieval Byzantine Greek Orthodox church preserved as the Chora Museum in the Edirnekapı neighborhood ofIstanbul

In the West

Ultimately, Byzantine architecture in the West gave way toCarolingian,Romanesque,andGothic architecture.But a great part of current Italy used to belong to the Byzantine Empire before that. Great examples of Byzantine architecture are still visible in Ravenna (for example Basilica diSan Vitalewhich architecture influenced thePalatine Chapelof Charlemagne).

In the East

The 9th centuryThrone Hall of DongolainSudanwas heavily influenced by Byzantine architecture.

As for the East, Byzantine architectural tradition exerted a profound influence on earlyIslamic architecture,particularlyUmayyad architecture.During theUmayyad Caliphateera (661-750), as far as the Byzantine impact on early Islamic architecture is concerned, the Byzantine arts formed a fundamental source to the new Muslim artistic heritage, especially in Syria. There are considerable Byzantine influences which can be detected in the distinctive early Islamic monuments in Syria (709–715). While these give clear reference in plan - and somewhat in decoration - to Byzantine art, the plan of the Umayyad Mosque has also a remarkable similarity with 6th- and 7th-century Christian basilicas, but it has been modified and expanded on the transversal axis and not on the normal longitudinal axis as in the Christian basilicas. The tile work, geometric patterns, multiple arches, domes, and polychrome brick and stone work that characterize Muslim andMoorish architecturewere influenced heavily by Byzantine architecture.

Post-Byzantine architecture in Eastern Orthodox countries

InBulgaria,North Macedonia,Serbia,Romania,Belarus,Georgia,Armenia,Ukraine,Russiaand other Orthodox countries the Byzantine architecture persisted even longer, from the 16th up to the 18th centuries, giving birth to local post-Byzantine schools of architecture.

Church of Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki, Veliko Tarnovo

• In Medieval Bulgaria: ThePreslavandTarnovoarchitectural schools.
• In Medieval Serbia:Raška architectural school,Vardar architectural schoolandMorava architectural school.

Dome of thePammakaristos Church,Istanbul

Neo-Byzantine architecture

Main article:Neo-Byzantine architecture

Neo-Byzantine architecturewas followed in the wake of the 19th-centuryGothic revival,resulting in such jewels asWestminster CathedralinLondon,and inBristolfrom about 1850 to 1880 a related style known asBristol Byzantinewas popular for industrial buildings which combined elements of the Byzantine style with Moorish architecture. It was developed on a wide-scale basis inRussiaduring the reign ofAlexander IIbyGrigory Gagarinand his followers who designedSt Volodymyr's Cathedralin Kiev,St Nicholas Naval CathedralinKronstadt,Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia,Saint Mark's churchinBelgradeand theNew Athos MonasteryinNew AthosnearSukhumi.The largest Neo-Byzantine project of the 20th century was theChurch of Saint SavainBelgrade.

Important Byzantine monuments

Hagia Irene

Exterior view ofHagia Irene.

One of the less famous Byzantine churches isHagia Irene.This church served as a model church for the more famous church, Hagia Sophia. Construction on the church began in the 4th century. This was the first church that was built in Constantinople, but due to its location, it was severely damaged by earthquakes and the Nika riots, and required repair several times. The Hagia Irene is defined by its large atrium, and is in fact the only surviving building of theByzantine Empireto have such a feature.

Construction

Hagia Irene is composed mainly of three materials: stone, brick, andmortar.Bricks 70 cm x 35 cm x 5 cm were used, and these bricks were glued together using mortar approximately 5 cm thick. Thebuilding materialschosen for the construction of the church had to be lightweight, durable, and strong. Volcanic materials were chosen for this purpose, as volcanic concrete is very light and durable. Perhaps the most definite feature of the Hagia Irene is the strict contrast between the interior and exterior design. While the plain outside composed of stone and brick favors functionality, the interior is decorated in elaborate mosaics, decorative marble, and, in some places, covered in plaster. Another important characteristic of the church include two domes that follow one behind another, the first being a lower oval, and the second being a higher semi-circle.

History of Hagia Irene

Throughout history Hagia Irene has undergone several changes. There were multiple repairs due to the Nika riots and earthquakes. When the Ottomans took over Hagia Irene they repurposed it and made a few changes, but none as drastic as what was done to Hagia Sophia.Today, Hagia Irene is still standing and open to visitors as a museum. It is open everyday, except for Tuesdays.

Construction of Hagia Irene

Timeline

Time	Event
4th C.	Construction began
532	Church was burned during Nika riots
548	Emperor Justinianrepaired the church
740	Significant damages from earthquakes
1453	Constantinople was conquered by the Ottomans - became a weapons storehouse
1700	Became a museum
1908-1978	Served as a military museum.

Hagia Sophia

The most famous example of Byzantine architecture is theHagia Sophia,and it has been described as "holding a unique position in theChristian world",and as an architectural andcultural iconofByzantineandEastern Orthodox civilization.The Hagia Sophia held the title of largest church in the world until the Ottoman Empire sieged the Byzantine capital. After the fall of Constantinople, the church was used by the Muslims for their religious services until 1931, when it was reopened as a museum in 1935. Translated fromGreek,the name Hagia Sophia means "Holy Wisdom".

Construction of Hagia Sophia

Exterior view of Hagia Sophia

The construction is a combination of longitudinal and central structures. This church was a part of a larger complex of buildings created by EmperorJustinian.This style influenced the construction of several other buildings, such asSt. Peter's Basilica.Hagia Sophia should have been built to withstand earthquakes, but since the construction of Hagia Sophia was rushed this technology was not implemented in the design, which is why the building has had to be repaired so many times due to damages from the earthquakes. The dome is the key feature of Hagia Sophia as the domed basilica is representative of Byzantine architecture. Both of the domes collapsed at different times throughout history due to earthquakes and had to be rebuilt.

History of Hagia Sophia

The original construction of Hagia Sophia was possibly ordered by Constantine, but ultimately carried out by his son Constantius II in 360. Constantine's building of churches, specifically the Hagia Sophia, was considered an incredibly significant component in his shift of the centralization of power from Rome in the west to Constantinople in the east, and was considered the high-point of religious and political celebration. The construction of the final version of the Hagia Sophia, which still stands today, was overseen by Emperor Justinian. Between the rule of these two Emperors, Hagia Sophia was destroyed and rebuilt twice. Following its reconstruction, Hagia Sophia was considered the center of Orthodox Christianity for 900 years, until the fall of Constantinople to theOttomans.

Timeline

Time	Event
360	Construction began
404	Hagia Sophia was burned down in public riot.
415	Construction begins on the next version of Hagia Sophia.
532	The church is once again demolished during Nika riots.
537	The final version of Hagia Sophia opens to Christian worship after five more years of construction.
558	Earthquake - dome collapsed
859	Fire damage
869	Earthquake damage
989	More earthquake damage
1317	Large buttresses added
1453	Constantinople fell to the Ottomans - converted into a mosque
1935	Hagia Sophia is converted into a museum by secularists
2020	Reverted to a mosque

Gallery

• 
  One of the most famous of the surviving Byzantine mosaics of theHagia SophiainIstanbul,Turkey
• 
  Mosaic of Jesus inPammakaristos ChurchinIstanbul
• 
  Mosaic of Saint Antony, the desert Father inPammakaristos ChurchinIstanbul
• 
  Byzantine mosaics inSt Mark's Basilica,Venice
• 
  Interior ofSt. Sophia's Church,Sofia(6th century)
• 
  Mosaic above the entrance portal of theEuphrasian BasilicainPoreč(6th century)
• 
  Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki(8th century)
• 
  Narthex ofSt. Sophia,build inOhridin theFirst Bulgarian Empire(9th century), now inNorth Macedonia
• 
  Interior ofChurch of St. George, Sofia,4th century
• 
  Agkistro Byzantine bath
• 
  Basilica Cistern
• 
  Palace of the Porphyrogenitus

See also

• Architectural style
• Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School
• Architecture of Kievan Rus'
• Byzantine art
• Golden Age of medieval Bulgarian culture
• History of Roman and Byzantine domes
• Medieval architecture
• Neo-Byzantine architecture
• Ottoman architecture
• Russian-Byzantine architecture
• Sasanian architecture
• Armenian architecture

References

Works cited

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Chisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911). "Byzantine Art".Encyclopædia Britannica(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Cameron, Averil (2009).Οι Βυζαντινοί(in Greek). Athens: Psychogios.ISBN978-960-453-529-3.
• Heinle, Erwin; Schlaich, Jörg (1996),Kuppeln aller Zeiten, aller Kulturen,Stuttgart,ISBN3-421-03062-6{{citation}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Meyendorff, John(1982).The Byzantine Legacy in the Orthodox Church.Yonkers: St Vladimir's Seminary Press.ISBN978-0-913836-90-3.

Further reading

• Bogdanovic, Jelena."The Framing of Sacred Space: The Canopy and the Byzantine Church",New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.ISBN0190465182.
• Ćurčić, Slobodan (1979).Gračanica: King Milutin's Church and Its Place in Late Byzantine Architecture.Pennsylvania State University Press.ISBN9780271002187.
• Fletcher, Banister;Cruickshank, Dan,Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture,Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896).ISBN0-7506-2267-9.Cf. Part Two, Chapter 11.
• Mango, Cyril,Byzantine Architecture(London, 1985; Electa, Rizzoli).
• Ousterhout, Robert;Master Builders of Byzantium,Princeton University Press, 1999.ISBN0-691-00535-4.

External links

• Overview of Byzantine architecture in Constantinople(archived 28 November 2004)
• The temples of the new religion
• Christianization of the ancient temples
• Photographs and Plans of Byzantine Architecture in Turkey