CSS

This article is about the markup styling language. For other uses, seeCSS (disambiguation).

"Pseudo-element" redirects here. For pseudoelement symbols in chemistry, seeSkeletal formula § Pseudoelement symbols.

Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)

The official logo of the latest version,CSS 3
Example of CSSsource code
Filename extension	.css
Internet media type	text/css
Uniform Type Identifier (UTI)	public.css
Developed by	World Wide Web Consortium(W3C)
Initial release	17 December 1996(1996-12-17)
Latest release	CSS 3 is being developed as multiple separate modules.Regular snapshotssummarize their status. 7 December 2023(2023-12-07)
Type of format	Style sheet language
Container for	Style rules forHTML elements(tags)
Contained by	HTML Documents
Open format?	Yes
Website	w3.org/TR/CSS/#css

Cascading Style Sheets(CSS) is astyle sheet languageused for specifying thepresentationand styling of a document written in amarkup languagesuch asHTMLorXML(including XML dialects such asSVG,MathMLorXHTML).CSS is a cornerstone technology of theWorld Wide Web,alongside HTML andJavaScript.

CSS is designed to enable theseparation of content and presentation,includinglayout,colors,andfonts.This separation can improve contentaccessibility,since the content can be written without concern for its presentation; provide more flexibility and control in the specification of presentation characteristics; enable multipleweb pagesto share formatting by specifying the relevant CSS in a separate.css file, which reduces complexity and repetition in the structural content; and enable the.css file to becachedto improve the page load speed between the pages that share the file and its formatting.

Separation of formatting and content also makes it feasible to present the same markup page in different styles for different rendering methods, such as on-screen, in print, by voice (via speech-based browser orscreen reader), and onBraille-basedtactile devices. CSS also has rules for alternate formatting if the content is accessed on amobile device.

The namecascadingcomes from the specified priority scheme to determine which declaration applies if more than one declaration of a property match a particular element. This cascading priority scheme is predictable.

The CSS specifications are maintained by theWorld Wide Web Consortium(W3C). Internet media type (MIME type)text/cssis registered for use with CSS by RFC 2318 (March 1998). The W3C operates a freeCSS validation servicefor CSS documents.

In addition to HTML, other markup languages support the use of CSS includingXHTML,plain XML,SVG,andXUL.CSS is also used in theGTKwidget toolkit.

Syntax

CSS has a simplesyntaxand uses a number of English keywords to specify the names of various style properties.

Style sheet

Main article:Style sheet (web development)

A style sheet consists of a list ofrules.Each rule or rule-set consists of one or moreselectors,and adeclaration block.

Selector

"CSS class" redirects here. For non-CSS use of element classes in HTML, seeclass attribute (HTML).

In CSS,selectorsdeclare which part of the markup a style applies to by matching tags and attributes in the markup itself.

Selector types

Selectors may apply to the following:

• allelementsof a specific type, e.g. the second-level headersh2
• elements specified byattribute,in particular:
  • id:an identifier unique within the document, denoted in the selector language by ahashprefix e.g.#id
  • class:an identifier that can annotate multiple elements in a document, denoted by adotprefix e.g..classname(the phrase "CSS class", although sometimes used, is a misnomer, as element classes—specified with theHTML class attribute—is a markup feature that is distinct from browsers' CSS subsystem and the related W3C/WHATWG standards work on document styles; seeRDFandmicroformatsfor the origins of the "class" system of the Web content model)
• elements depending on how they are placed relative to others in thedocument tree.

Classes and IDs are case-sensitive, start with letters, and can include Alpha numeric characters, hyphens, and underscores. A class may apply to any number of instances of any element. An ID may only be applied to a single element.

Pseudo-classes

Pseudo-classesare used in CSS selectors to permit formatting based on information that is not contained in the document tree.

One example of a widely used pseudo-class is:hover,which identifies content only when the user "points to" the visible element, usually by holding the mouse cursor over it. It is appended to a selector as ina:hoveror#elementid:hover.

A pseudo-class classifies document elements, such as:linkor:visited,whereas apseudo-elementmakes a selection that may consist of partial elements, such as::first-lineor::first-letter.Note the distinction between the double-colon notation used for pseudo-elements and the single-colon notation used for pseudo-classes.

Combinators

Multiple simple selectors may be joined using combinators to specify elements by location, element type, id, class, or any combination thereof.The order of the selectors is important. For example,div.myClass{color:red;}applies to all elements of class myClass that are inside div elements, whereas.myClassdiv{color:red;}applies to all div elements that are inside elements of class myClass. This is not to be confused with concatenated identifiers such asdiv.myClass{color:red;}which applies to div elements of class myClass.

Summary of selector syntax

The following table provides a summary of selector syntax indicating usage and the version of CSS that introduced it.

Pattern	Matches	First defined in CSS level
E	an element of type E	1
E:link	an E element that is the source anchor of a hyperlink whose target is either not yet visited (:link) or already visited (:visited)	1
E:active	an E element during certain user actions	1
E::first-line	the first formatted line of an E element	1
E::first-letter	the first formatted letter of an E element	1
.c	all elements with class= "c"	1
#myid	the element with id= "myid"	1
E.warning	an E element whose class is "warning" (the document language specifies how class is determined)	1
E#myid	an E element with ID equal to "myid"	1
.c#myid	the element with class= "c" and ID equal to "myid"	1
EF	an F element descendant of an E element	1
*	any element	2
E[foo]	an E element with a "foo" attribute	2
E[foo="bar"]	an E element whose "foo" attribute value is exactly equal to "bar"	2
E[foo~="bar"]	an E element whose "foo" attribute value is a list of whitespace-separated values, one of which is exactly equal to "bar"	2
E[foo|="en"]	an E element whose "foo" attribute has a hyphen-separated list of values beginning (from the left) with "en"	2
E:first-child	an E element, first child of its parent	2
E:lang(fr)	an element of type E in language "fr" (the document language specifies how language is determined)	2
E::before	generated content before an E element's content	2
E::after	generated content after an E element's content	2
E>F	an F element child of an E element	2
E+F	an F element immediately preceded by an E element	2
E[foo^="bar"]	an E element whose "foo" attribute value begins exactly with the string "bar"	3
E[foo$="bar"]	an E element whose "foo" attribute value ends exactly with the string "bar"	3
E[foo*="bar"]	an E element whose "foo" attribute value contains the substring "bar"	3
E:root	an E element, root of the document	3
E:nth-child(n)	an E element, the n-th child of its parent	3
E:nth-last-child(n)	an E element, the n-th child of its parent, counting from the last one	3
E:nth-of-type(n)	an E element, the n-th sibling of its type	3
E:nth-last-of-type(n)	an E element, the n-th sibling of its type, counting from the last one	3
E:last-child	an E element, last child of its parent	3
E:first-of-type	an E element, first sibling of its type	3
E:last-of-type	an E element, last sibling of its type	3
E:only-child	an E element, only child of its parent	3
E:only-of-type	an E element, only sibling of its type	3
E:empty	an E element that has no children (including text nodes)	3
E:target	an E element being the target of the referring URI	3
E:enabled	a user interface element E that is enabled	3
E:disabled	a user interface element E that is disabled	3
E:checked	a user interface element E that is checked (for instance a radio button or checkbox)	3
E:not(s)	an E element that does not match simple selector s	3
E~F	an F element preceded by an E element	3

Declaration block

A declaration block consists of a pair of braces ({}) enclosing a semicolon-separated list ofdeclarations.

Declaration

Each declaration itself consists of aproperty,a colon (:), and avalue.Optional white-space may be around the declaration block, declarations, colons, and semi-colons for readability.

Properties

Properties are specified in the CSS standard. Each property has a set of possible values. Some properties can affect any type of element, and others apply only to particular groups of elements.

Values

Values may be keywords, such as "center" or "inherit", or numerical values, such as200px(200 pixels),50vw(50 percent of the viewport width) or80%(80 percent of the parent element's width).

Color values can be specified with keywords (e.g. "red"), hexadecimal values (e.g.#FF0000,also abbreviated as#F00), RGB values on a 0 to 255 scale (e.g.rgb(255,0,0)), RGBA values that specify both color and Alpha transparency (e.g.rgba(255,0,0,0.8)), or HSL or HSLA values (e.g.hsl(0100%50%),hsl(0100%50%/0.8)).

Non-zero numeric values representing linear measures must include a length unit, which is either an Alpha betic code or abbreviation, as in200pxor50vw;or a percentage sign, as in80%.Some units –cm(centimetre);in(inch);mm(millimetre);pc(pica); andpt(point) – areabsolute,which means that the rendered dimension does not depend upon the structure of the page; others –em(em);ex(ex) andpx(pixel)– arerelative,which means that factors such as the font size of a parent element can affect the rendered measurement. These eight units were a feature of CSS 1and retained in all subsequent revisions. The proposed CSS Values and Units Module Level 3 will, if adopted as a W3C Recommendation, provide seven further length units:ch;Q;rem;vh;vmax;vmin;andvw.

Use

Before CSS, nearly all presentational attributes of HTML documents were contained within the HTML markup. All font colors, background styles, element alignments, borders, and sizes had to be explicitly described, often repeatedly, within the HTML. CSS lets authors move much of that information to another file, the style sheet, resulting in considerably simpler HTML. And additionally, as more and more devices are able to access responsive web pages, different screen sizes and layouts begin to appear. Customizing a website for each device size is costly and increasingly difficult. The modular nature of CSS means that styles can be reused in different parts of a site or even across sites, promoting consistency and efficiency.

For example, headings (h1elements), sub-headings (h2), sub-sub-headings (h3), etc., are defined structurally using HTML. In print and on the screen, choice offont,size,colorandemphasisfor these elements ispresentational.

Before CSS, document authors who wanted to assign suchtypographiccharacteristics to, say, allh2headings had to repeat HTML presentational markup for each occurrence of that heading type. This made documents more complex, larger, and more error-prone and difficult to maintain. CSS allows the separation of presentation from structure. CSS can define color, font, text alignment, size, borders, spacing, layout and many other typographic characteristics, and can do so independently for on-screen and printed views. CSS also defines non-visual styles, such as reading speed and emphasis for aural text readers. TheW3Chas nowdeprecatedthe use of all presentational HTML markup.

For example, under pre-CSS HTML, a heading element defined with red text would be written as:

<h1><fontcolor="red">Chapter 1.</font></h1>

Using CSS, the same element can be coded using style properties instead of HTML presentational attributes:

<h1style="color: red;">Chapter 1.</h1>

The advantages of this may not be immediately clear but the power of CSS becomes more apparent when the style properties are placed in an internal style element or, even better, an external CSS file. For example, suppose the document contains the style element:

<style>
h1{
color:red;
}
</style>

Allh1elements in the document will then automatically become red without requiring any explicit code. If the author later wanted to makeh1elements blue instead, this could be done by changing the style element to:

<style>
h1{
color:blue;
}
</style>

rather than by laboriously going through the document and changing the color for each individualh1element.

The styles can also be placed in an external CSS file, as described below, and loaded using syntax similar to:

<linkhref="path/to/file.css"rel="stylesheet"type="text/css">

This further decouples the styling from the HTML document and makes it possible to restyle multiple documents by simply editing a shared external CSS file.

Sources

CSS, or Cascading Style Sheets, offers a flexible way to style web content, with styles originating from browser defaults, user preferences, or web designers. These styles can be applied inline, within an HTML document, or through external.css files for broader consistency. Not only does this simplify web development by promoting reusability and maintainability, it also improves site performance because styles can be offloaded into dedicated.css files that browsers can cache. Additionally, even if the styles cannot be loaded or are disabled, this separation maintains the accessibility and readability of the content, ensuring that the site is usable for all users, including those with disabilities. Its multi-faceted approach, including considerations for selector specificity, rule order, and media types, ensures that websites are visually coherent and adaptive across different devices and user needs, striking a balance between design intent and user accessibility.

Multiple style sheets

Multiple style sheets can be imported. Different styles can be applied depending on the output device being used; for example, the screen version can be quite different from the printed version, so authors can tailor the presentation appropriately for each medium.

Cascading

The style sheet with the highest priority controls the content display. Declarations not set in the highest priority source are passed on to a source of lower priority, such as the user agent style. The process is calledcascading.

One of the goals of CSS is to allow users greatercontrol over presentation.Someone who finds red italic headings difficult to read may apply a different style sheet. Depending on the browser and the website, a user may choose from various style sheets provided by the designers, or may remove all added styles, and view the site using the browser's default styling, or may override just the red italic heading style without altering other attributes. Browser extensions likeStylishandStylushave been created to facilitate the management of such user style sheets. In the case of large projects, cascading can be used to determine which style has a higher priority when developers do integrate third-party styles that have conflicting priorities, and to further resolve those conflicts. Additionally, cascading can help create themed designs, which help designers fine-tune aspects of a design without compromising the overall layout.

CSS priority scheme

CSS priority scheme (highest to lowest)

Priority	CSS source type	Description
1	Importance	The "!important"annotation overwrites the previous priority types
2	Inline	A style applied to an HTML element via HTML "style" attribute
3	Media Type	A property definition applies to all media types unless a media-specific CSS is defined
4	User defined	Most browsers have the accessibility feature: a user-defined CSS
5	Selector specificity	A specific contextual selector (#headingp) overwrites generic definition
6	Rule order	Last rule declaration has a higher priority
7	Parent inheritance	If a property is not specified, it is inherited from a parent element
8	CSS property definition in HTML document	CSS rule or CSS inline style overwrites a default browser value
9	Browser default	The lowest priority: browser default value is determined by W3C initial value specifications

Specificity

Specificityrefers to the relative weights of various rules.It determines which styles apply to an element when more than one rule could apply. Based on the specification, a simple selector (e.g. H1) has a specificity of 1, class selectors have a specificity of 1,0, and ID selectors have a specificity of 1,0,0. Because the specificity values do not carry over as in the decimal system, commas are used to separate the "digits"(a CSS rule having 11 elements and 11 classes would have a specificity of 11,11, not 121).

Thus the selectors of the following rule result in the indicated specificity:

Selectors	Specificity
h1{color:white;}	0, 0, 0, 1
pem{color:green;}	0, 0, 0, 2
.grape{color:red;}	0, 0, 1, 0
p.bright{color:blue;}	0, 0, 1, 1
p.brightem.dark{color:yellow;}	0, 0, 2, 2
#id218{color:brown;}	0, 1, 0, 0
style=""	1, 0, 0, 0

Examples

Consider this HTML fragment:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<metacharset="utf-8">
<style>
#xyz{color:blue;}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<pid="xyz"style="color: green;">To demonstrate specificity</p>
</body>
</html>

In the above example, the declaration in thestyleattribute overrides the one in the<style>element because it has a higher specificity, and thus, the paragraph appears green:

To demonstrate specificity

Inheritance

Inheritance is a key feature in CSS; it relies on the ancestor-descendant relationship to operate. Inheritance is the mechanism by which properties are applied not only to a specified element but also to its descendants.Inheritance relies on the document tree, which is the hierarchy ofXHTMLelements in a page based on nesting. Descendant elements may inherit CSS property values from any ancestor element enclosing them. In general, descendant elements inherit text-related properties, but their box-related properties are not inherited. Properties that can be inherited are color, font, letter spacing, line-height, list-style, text-align, text-indent, text-transform, visibility, white-space, and word-spacing. Properties that cannot be inherited are background, border, display, float and clear, height, and width, margin, min- and max-height and -width, outline, overflow, padding, position, text-decoration, vertical-align, and z-index.

Inheritance can be used to avoid declaring certain properties over and over again in a style sheet, allowing for shorter CSS.

Inheritance in CSS is not the same asinheritance in class-based programming languages,where it is possible to define class B as "like class A, but with modifications".With CSS, it is possible to style anelementwith "class A, but with modifications". However, it is not possible to define a CSSclassB like that, which could then be used to style multiple elements without having to repeat the modifications.

Example

Given the following style sheet:

p{
color:pink;
}

Suppose there is a p element with an emphasizing element (<em>) inside:

<p>
This is to<em>illustrate</em>inheritance
</p>

If no color is assigned to the em element, the emphasized word "illustrate" inherits the color of the parent element, p. The style sheet p has the color pink, hence, the em element is likewise pink:

This is toillustrateinheritance

Whitespace

The whitespace between properties and selectors is ignored. This code snippet:

body{overflow:hidden;background:#000000;background-image:url(images/bg.gif);background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:lefttop;}

is functionally equivalent to this one:

body{
overflow:hidden;
background-color:#000000;
background-image:url(images/bg.gif);
background-repeat:no-repeat;
background-position:lefttop;
}

Indentation

Main article:Indentation style

One common way to format CSS for readability is to indent each property and give it its own line. In addition to formatting CSS for readability, shorthand properties can be used to write out the code faster, which also gets processed more quickly when being rendered:

body{
overflow:hidden;
background:#000url(images/bg.gif)no-repeatlefttop;
}

Sometimes, multiple property values are indented onto their own line:

@font-face{
font-family:'Comic Sans';
font-size:20px;
src:url('first.example '),
url('second.example '),
url('third.example '),
url('fourth.example ');
}

Positioning

CSS 2.1 defines three positioning schemes:

Normal flow

Inlineitems are laid out in the same way as the letters in words in the text, one after the other across the available space until there is no more room, then starting a new line below.Blockitems stack vertically, like paragraphs and like the items in a bulleted list. Normal flow also includes the relative positioning of block or inline items and run-in boxes.

Floats

A floated item is taken out of the normal flow and shifted to the left or right as far as possible in the space available. Other content then flows alongside the floated item.

Absolute positioning

An absolutely positioned item has no place in, and no effect on, the normal flow of other items. It occupies its assigned position in its container independently of other items.

Position property

There are five possible values of thepositionproperty. If an item is positioned in any way other thanstatic,then the further propertiestop,bottom,left,andrightare used to specify offsets and positions.The element having position static is not affected by thetop,bottom,leftorrightproperties.

Static

The default value places the item in thenormal flow.

Relative

The item is placed in thenormal flow,and then shifted or offset from that position. Subsequent flow items are laid out as if the item had not been moved.

Absolute

Specifiesabsolute positioning.The element is positioned in relation to its nearest non-static ancestor.

Fixed

The item isabsolutely positionedin a fixed position on the screen even as the rest of the document is scrolled

Float and clear

Thefloatproperty may have one of three values.Absolutelypositioned orfixeditems cannot be floated. Other elements normally flow around floated items, unless they are prevented from doing so by theirclearproperty.

left

The itemfloatsto the left of the line that it would have appeared in; other items may flow around its right side.

right

The itemfloatsto the right of the line that it would have appeared in; other items may flow around its left side.

clear

Forces the element to appear underneath ('clear') floated elements to the left (clear:left), right (clear:right) or both sides (clear:both).

History

Håkon Wium Lie,chief technical officer of the Opera Software company and co-creator of the CSS web standards

CSS was first proposed byHåkon Wium Lieon 10 October 1994.At the time, Lie was working withTim Berners-LeeatCERN.Several other style sheet languages for the web were proposed around the same time, and discussions on public mailing lists and insideWorld Wide Web Consortiumresulted in the first W3C CSS Recommendation (CSS1)being released in 1996. In particular, a proposal byBert Boswas influential; he became co-author of CSS1, and is regarded as co-creator of CSS.

Style sheets have existed in one form or another since the beginnings of Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) in the 1980s, and CSS was developed to provide style sheets for the web.One requirement for a web style sheet language was for style sheets to come from different sources on the web. Therefore, existing style sheet languages likeDSSSLandFOSIwere not suitable. CSS, on the other hand, let a document's style be influenced by multiple style sheets by way of "cascading" styles.

As HTML grew, it came to encompass a wider variety of stylistic capabilities to meet the demands ofweb developers.This evolution gave the designer more control over site appearance, at the cost of more complex HTML. Variations inweb browserimplementations, such asViolaWWWandWorldWideWeb,made consistent site appearance difficult, and users had less control over how web content was displayed. The browser/editor developed by Tim Berners-Lee had style sheets that were hard-coded into the program. The style sheets could therefore not be linked to documents on the web.Robert Cailliau,also of CERN, wanted to separate the structure from the presentation so that different style sheets could describe different presentation for printing, screen-based presentations, and editors.

Improving web presentation capabilities was a topic of interest to many in the web community and nine different style sheet languages were proposed on the www-style mailing list.Of these nine proposals, two were especially influential on what became CSS: Cascading HTML Style Sheetsand Stream-based Style Sheet Proposal (SSP).Two browsers served as testbeds for the initial proposals; Lie worked withYves Lafonto implement CSS inDave Raggett'sArenabrowser.Bert Bos implemented his own SSP proposal in theArgobrowser.Thereafter, Lie and Bos worked together to develop the CSS standard (the 'H' was removed from the name because these style sheets could also be applied to other markup languages besides HTML).

Lie's proposal was presented at the "Mosaic and the Web"conference (later called WWW2) in Chicago, Illinois in 1994, and again with Bert Bos in 1995.Around this time the W3C was already being established and took an interest in the development of CSS. It organized a workshop toward that end chaired bySteven Pemberton.This resulted in W3C adding work on CSS to the deliverables of the HTML editorial review board (ERB). Lie and Bos were the primary technical staff on this aspect of the project, with additional members, includingThomas Reardonof Microsoft, participating as well. In August 1996,Netscape Communication Corporationpresented an alternative style sheet language calledJavaScript Style Sheets(JSSS).The spec was never finished, and is deprecated.By the end of 1996, CSS was ready to become official, and the CSS level 1 Recommendation was published in December.

Development of HTML, CSS, and theDOMhad all been taking place in one group, the HTML Editorial Review Board (ERB). Early in 1997, the ERB was split into three working groups:HTML Working Group,chaired byDan Connollyof W3C; DOM Working group, chaired by Lauren Wood ofSoftQuad;andCSS Working Group,chaired byChris Lilleyof W3C.

The CSS Working Group began tackling issues that had not been addressed with CSS level 1, resulting in the creation of CSS level 2 on November 4, 1997. It was published as a W3C Recommendation on May 12, 1998. CSS level 3, which was started in 1998, is still under development as of 2014.

In 2005, the CSS Working Groups decided to enforce the requirements for standards more strictly. This meant that already published standards like CSS 2.1, CSS 3 Selectors, and CSS 3 Text were pulled back from Candidate Recommendation to Working Draft level.

Difficulty with adoption

The CSS 1 specification was completed in 1996. Microsoft'sInternet Explorer 3was released that year, featuring some limited support for CSS.IE 4andNetscape 4.xadded more support, but it was typically incomplete and had manybugsthat prevented CSS from being usefully adopted. It was more than three years before any web browser achieved near-full implementation of the specification.Internet Explorer 5.0for theMacintosh,shipped in March 2000, was the first browser to have full (better than 99 percent) CSS 1 support,surpassingOpera,which had been the leader since its introduction of CSS support fifteen months earlier. Other browsers followed soon afterward, and many of them additionally implemented parts of CSS 2.

However, even when later "version 5" web browsers began to offer a fairly full implementation of CSS, they were still incorrect in certain areas. They were fraught with inconsistencies, bugs, and otherquirks.Microsoft Internet Explorer 5. x for Windows,as opposed to the very differentIE for Macintosh,had a flawed implementation of theCSS box model,as compared with the CSS standards. Such inconsistencies and variation in feature support made it difficult for designers to achieve a consistent appearance across browsers andplatformswithout the use ofworkaroundstermedCSS hacks and filters.The IE Windows box model bugs were so serious that, whenInternet Explorer 6was released, Microsoft introduced a backward-compatible mode of CSS interpretation ( "quirks mode") alongside an alternative, corrected" standards mode ". Other non-Microsoft browsers also provided mode-switch capabilities. It, therefore, became necessary for authors ofHTMLfiles to ensure they contained special distinctive"standards-compliant CSS intended" markerto show that the authors intended CSS to be interpreted correctly, in compliance with standards, as opposed to being intended for the now long-obsoleteIE5/Windows browser.Without this marker, web browsers with the "quirks mode" -switching capability will size objects in web pages as IE 5 on Windows would, rather than following CSS standards.

Problems with the patchy adoption of CSS and errata in the original specification led the W3C to revise the CSS 2 standards into CSS 2.1, which moved nearer to a working snapshot of current CSS support in HTML browsers. Some CSS 2 properties that no browser successfully implemented were dropped, and in a few cases, defined behaviors were changed to bring the standard into line with the predominant existing implementations. CSS 2.1 became a Candidate Recommendation on February 25, 2004, but CSS 2.1 was pulled back to Working Draft status on June 13, 2005,and only returned to Candidate Recommendation status on July 19, 2007.

In addition to these problems, the.cssextension was used by a software product used to convertPowerPointfiles into Compact Slide Show files, so some web servers served all.cssasMIME typeapplication/x-pointplusrather thantext/css.

Vendor prefixes

Individual browser vendors occasionally introduced new parameters ahead of standardization and universalization. To prevent interfering with future implementations, vendors prepended unique names to the parameters, such as-moz-forMozilla Firefox,-webkit-named afterthe browsing engineofApple Safari,-o-forOpera Browserand-ms-forMicrosoft Internet Explorerand early versions ofMicrosoft Edgethat use EdgeHTML.

Occasionally, the parameters with vendor prefixes such as-moz-radial-gradientand-webkit-linear-gradienthave slightly different syntax as compared to their non-vendor-prefix counterparts.

Prefixed properties are rendered obsolete by the time of standardization. Programs are available to automatically add prefixes for older browsers and to point out standardized versions of prefixed parameters. Since prefixes are limited to a small subset of browsers, removing the prefix allows other browsers to see the functionality. An exception is certain obsolete-webkit-prefixed properties, which are so common and persistent on the web that other families of browsers have decided to support them for compatibility.

CSS Snapshot 2021

CSS has various levels and profiles. Each level of CSS builds upon the last, typically adding new features and typically denotedas CSS 1, CSS 2, CSS 3, and CSS 4. Profiles are typically a subset of one or more levels of CSS built for a particular device or user interface. Currently, there are profiles for mobile devices, printers, and television sets. Profiles should not be confused with media types, which were added in CSS 2.

CSS 1

The first CSS specification to become an official W3C Recommendation is CSS level 1, published on 17 December 1996.Håkon Wium LieandBert Bosare credited as the original developers.Among its capabilities are support for

• Fontproperties such as typeface and emphasis
• Color of text, backgrounds, and other elements
• Text attributes such as spacing between words, letters, and lines of text
• Alignmentof text, images,tablesand other elements
• Margin, border, padding, and positioning for most elements
• Unique identification and generic classification of groups of attributes

The W3C no longer maintains the CSS 1 Recommendation.

CSS 2

CSS level 2 specification was developed by the W3C and published as a recommendation in May 1998. A superset of CSS 1, CSS 2 includes a number of new capabilities like absolute, relative, and fixed positioning of elements andz-index,the concept of media types, support for aural style sheets (which were later replaced by the CSS 3 speech modules)and bidirectional text, and new font properties such as shadows.

The W3C no longer maintains the CSS 2 recommendation.

CSS 2.1

CSS level 2 revision 1, often referred to as "CSS 2.1", fixes errors in CSS 2, removes poorly supported or not fully interoperable features and adds already implemented browser extensions to the specification. To comply with the W3C Process for standardizing technical specifications, CSS 2.1 went back and forth between Working Draft status and Candidate Recommendation status for many years. CSS 2.1 first became aCandidate Recommendationon 25 February 2004, but it was reverted to a Working Draft on 13 June 2005 for further review. It returned to Candidate Recommendation on 19 July 2007 and then updated twice in 2009. However, because changes and clarifications were made, it again went back to Last Call Working Draft on 7 December 2010.

CSS 2.1 went to Proposed Recommendation on 12 April 2011.After being reviewed by the W3C Advisory Committee, it was finally published as a W3C Recommendation on 7 June 2011.

CSS 2.1 was planned as the first and final revision of level 2—but low-priority work on CSS 2.2 began in 2015.

CSS 3

"CSS3" redirects here. For other uses, seeCSS3 (disambiguation).

Unlike CSS 2, which is a large single specification defining various features, CSS 3 is divided into several separate documents called "modules". Each module adds new capabilities or extends features defined in CSS 2, preserving backward compatibility. Work on CSS level 3 started around the time of publication of the original CSS 2 recommendation. The earliest CSS 3 drafts were published in June 1999.

Due to the modularization, different modules have different stability and statuses.

Some modules haveCandidate Recommendation(CR) status and are considered moderately stable. AtCRstage, implementations are advised to drop vendor prefixes.

Summary of main module-specifications

Module	Specification title	Status	Date
css3-background	CSS Backgrounds and Borders Module Level 3	CandidateRec.	Feb 2023
css-box-3	CSS Box Model Module Level 3	Recommendation	Apr 2023
css-cascade-3	CSS Cascading and Inheritance Level 3	Recommendation	Feb 2021
css-color-3	CSS Color Module Level 3	Recommendation	Jan 2022
css3-content	CSS Generated Content Module Level 3	WorkingDraft	Aug 2019
css-fonts-3	CSS Fonts Module Level 3	Recommendation	Sep 2018
css3-gcpm	CSS Generated Content for Paged Media Module	WorkingDraft	May 2014
css3-layout	CSS Template Layout Module	Note	Mar 2015
css3-mediaqueries	Media Queries	Recommendation	Jun 2012
mediaqueries-4	Media Queries Level 4	CandidateRec.	Dec 2021
css3-multicol	Multi-column Layout Module Level 1	CandidateRec.	Oct 2021
css3-page	CSS Paged Media Module Level 3	WorkingDraft,and part migrated to css3-break	Oct 2018
css3-break	CSS Fragmentation Module Level 3	CandidateRec.	Dec 2018
selectors-3	Selectors Level 3	Recommendation	Nov 2018
selectors-4	Selectors Level 4	WorkingDraft	Nov 2022
css3-ui	CSS Basic User Interface Module Level 3 (CSS3 UI)	Recommendation	Jun 2018

CSS 4

"CSS4" redirects here. For other uses, seeCSS4 (disambiguation).

Jen Simmonsdiscussing the state of CSS in 2019, as several CSS4 modules were being advanced

There is no single, integrated CSS4 specification,because the specification has been split into many separate modules which level independently.

Modules that build on things from CSS Level 2 started at Level 3. Some of them have already reached Level 4 or are already approaching Level 5. Other modules that define entirely new functionality, such asFlexbox,have been designated as Level 1 and some of them are approaching Level 2.

The CSS Working Group sometimes publishes "Snapshots", a collection of whole modules and parts of other drafts that are considered stable enough to be implemented by browser developers. So far, five such "best current practices" documents have been published as Notes, in 2007,2010,2015,2017,and 2018.

Since these specification snapshots are primarily intended for developers, there has been a growing demand for a similar versioned reference document targeted at authors, which would present the state of interoperable implementations as meanwhile documented by sites like Can I Use...and the MDN Web Docs.A W3C Community Group has been established in early 2020 in order to discuss and define such a resource.The actual kind ofversioningis also up to debate, which means that the document, once produced, might not be called "CSS4".

Browser support

Each web browser uses alayout engineto render web pages, and support for CSS functionality is not consistent between them. Because browsers do not parse CSS perfectly, multiple coding techniques have been developed to target specific browsers with workarounds (commonly known asCSS hacksor CSS filters). The adoption of new functionality in CSS can be hindered by a lack of support in major browsers. For example, Internet Explorer was slow to add support for many CSS 3 features, which slowed the adoption of those features and damaged the browser's reputation among developers. Additionally, a proprietary syntax for the non-vendor-prefixedfilterproperty was used in some versions.In order to ensure a consistent experience for their users, web developers often test their sites across multiple operating systems, browsers, and browser versions, increasing development time and complexity. Tools such asBrowserStackhave been built to reduce the complexity of maintaining these environments.

In addition to these testing tools, many sites maintain lists of browser support for specific CSS properties, includingCanIUseand theMDN Web Docs.Additionally, CSS 3 defines feature queries, which provide an@supportsdirective that will allow developers to target browsers with support for certain functionality directly within their CSS.CSS that is not supported by older browsers can also sometimes be patched in using JavaScriptpolyfills,which are pieces of JavaScript code designed to make browsers behave consistently. These workarounds—and the need to support fallback functionality—can add complexity to development projects, and consequently, companies frequently define a list of browser versions that they will and will not support.

As websites adopt newer code standards that are incompatible with older browsers, these browsers can be cut off from accessing many of the resources on the web (sometimes intentionally).Many of the most popular sites on the internet are not just visually degraded on older browsers due to poor CSS support but do not work at all, in large part due to the evolution of JavaScript and other web technologies.

Limitations

Some noted limitations of the current capabilities of CSS include:

Cannot explicitly declare new scope independently of position

Scoping rules for properties such as z-index look for the closest parent element with a position: absolute or position: relative attribute. This odd coupling has undesired effects. For example, it is impossible to avoid declaring a new scope when one is forced to adjust an element's position, preventing one from using the desired scope of a parent element.

Pseudo-class dynamic behavior not controllable

CSS implements pseudo-classes that allow a degree of user feedback by conditional application of alternate styles. One CSS pseudo-class, ":hover",is dynamic (equivalent of JavaScript" onmouseover ") and has potential for misuse (e.g., implementing cursor-proximity popups),but CSS has no ability for a client to disable it (no "disable" -like property) or limit its effects (no "nochange" -like values for each property).

Cannot name rules

There is no way to name a CSS rule, which would allow (for example) client-side scripts to refer to the rule even if its selector changes.

Cannot include styles from a rule into another rule

CSS styles often must be duplicated in several rules to achieve the desired effect, causing additional maintenance and requiring more thorough testing. Some new CSS features were proposed to solve this but were abandoned afterward.Instead, authors may gain this ability by using more sophisticated stylesheet languages which compile to CSS, such asSass,Less,orStylus.

Cannot target specific text without altering markup

Besides the:first-letterpseudo-element, one cannot target specific ranges of text without needing to utilize placeholder elements.

Advantages

Separation of content from presentation

Main article:Separation of content and presentation

CSS facilitates the publication of content in multiple presentation formats based on nominal parameters. Nominal parameters include explicit user preferences, different web browsers, the type of device being used to view the content (a desktop computer or mobile device), the geographic location of the user, and many other variables.

Site-wide consistency

Main article:Style sheet (web development)

When CSS is used effectively, in terms of inheritance and "cascading", a global style sheet can be used to affect and style elements site-wide. If the situation arises that the styling of the elements should be changed or adjusted, these changes can be made by editing rules in the global style sheet. Before CSS, this sort of maintenance was more difficult, expensive, and time-consuming.

Bandwidth

A stylesheet, internal or external, specifies the style once for a range of HTML elements selected byclass,type or relationship to others. This is much more efficient than repeating style information inline for each occurrence of the element. An external stylesheet is usually stored in thebrowser cache,and can therefore be used on multiple pages without being reloaded, further reducing data transfer over a network.

Page reformatting

Main article:Progressive enhancement

With a simple change of one line, a different style sheet can be used for the same page. This has advantages for accessibility, as well as providing the ability to tailor a page or site to different target devices. Furthermore, devices not able to understand the styling still display the content.

Accessibility

Main article:Tableless web design § Accessibility

Without CSS, web designers must typically lay out their pages with techniques such as HTML tables that hinder accessibility for vision-impaired users (seeTableless web design#Accessibility).

Standardization

Frameworks

Main article:CSS framework

CSS frameworksare preparedlibrariesthat are meant to allow for easier, more standards-compliant styling ofweb pagesusing the Cascading Style Sheets language. CSS frameworks includeBlueprint,Bootstrap,Foundationand Materialize. Like programming and scripting language libraries, CSS frameworks are usually incorporated as external.css sheets referenced in the HTML<head>.They provide a number of ready-made options for designing and laying out the web page. Although many of these frameworks have been published, some authors use them mostly for rapid prototyping, or for learning from, and prefer to 'handcraft' CSS that is appropriate to each published site without the design, maintenance and download overhead of having many unused features in the site's styling.

Blueprint

This paragraph is an excerpt fromBlueprint (CSS framework).[edit]

Blueprintis aCSS frameworkdesigned to reduce development time and ensureCross-browsercompatibility when working withCascading Style Sheets(CSS). It also serves as a foundation for many tools designed to make CSS development easier and more accessible to beginners.

Bootstrap

This paragraph is an excerpt fromBootstrap (front-end framework).[edit]

Bootstrap(formerly Twitter Bootstrap) is afree and open-sourceCSS frameworkdirected at responsive,mobile-firstfront-end web development.It containsHTML,CSS and (optionally)JavaScript-based design templates fortypography,forms,buttons,navigation,and other interface components.

Foundation

This paragraph is an excerpt fromFoundation (framework).[edit]

Foundationis a freeresponsivefront-endframework, providing a responsive grid andHTMLand CSSUIcomponents, templates, and code snippets, including typography, forms, buttons, navigation and other interface elements, as well as optional functionality provided byJavaScriptextensions. Foundation is anopen sourceproject, and was formerly maintained by ZURB. Since 2019, Foundation has been maintained by volunteers.

Design methodologies

As the size of CSS resources used in a project increases, a development team often needs to decide on a common design methodology to keep them organized. The goals are ease of development, ease of collaboration during development, and performance of the deployed stylesheets in the browser. Popular methodologies include OOCSS (object-oriented CSS), ACSS (atomic CSS), CSS (organic Cascade Style Sheet), SMACSS (scalable and modular architecture for CSS), and BEM (block, element, modifier).

See also

• Flash of unstyled content

Further reading

• Meyer, Eric A.;Weyl, Estelle (2023).Cascading Style Sheets: The Definitive Guide, Fifth Edition.O'Reilly Media, Inc.ISBN9781098117610.
• Grant, Keith J. (2018).CSS in Depth.Manning Publications Co.ISBN9781617293450.
• MDN CSS reference
• MDN Getting Started with CSS

External links

• Official website