Caesar (title)
![]() Sculpture depiction ofJulius Caesar | |
Pronunciation | English:/ˈsiːzər/SEE-zər Classical Latin:[ˈkae̯sar] |
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Gender | Male |
Language(s) | Latin |
Origin | |
Region of origin | Roman Empire |
Other names | |
Variant form(s) | |
Popularity | seepopular names |
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Periods |
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Constitution |
Political institutions |
Assemblies |
Ordinary magistrates |
Extraordinary magistrates |
Public law |
Senatus consultum ultimum |
Titles and honours |
Caesar(Latin:[ˈkae̯.sar]Englishpl.Caesars;Latinpl.Caesares;in Greek:ΚαῖσαρKaîsar) is atitleofimperialcharacter. It derives from thecognomenof theRoman dictatorJulius Caesar.The change from being a surname to a title used by theRoman emperorscan be traced to AD 68, following the fall of theJulio-Claudian dynasty.When used on its own, the title denotedheirs apparent,which would later adopt the titleAugustuson accession.[1]The title remained an essential part of the style of the emperors, and became the word for "emperor"in some languages, such as German (kaiser) and Russian (tsar).
Origins[edit]
The first known individual to bear thecognomenof "Caesar" wasSextus Julius Caesar,who is likewise believed to be the common ancestor of all subsequentJulii Caesares.[2][3]Sextus's great-grandson was the dictatorGaius Julius Caesar,who seized control of theRoman Republicfollowing hiswaragainst theSenate.He appointed himself asdictator perpetuo( "dictator in perpetuity" ), a title he held for only about a month before he wasassassinatedin 44 BC. Julius Caesar's death did not lead to the restoration of the Republic, and instead led to the rise of theSecond Triumvirate,which was made up of three generals, including Julius' adopted sonGaius Octavius.
FollowingRoman naming conventions,Octavius adopted the name of his adoptive father, thus also becoming "Gaius Julius Caesar", though he was often called "Octavianus" to avoid confusion. He styled himself simply as "Gaius Caesar" to emphasize his relationship with Julius Caesar.[4]Eventually, distrust and jealousy between the triumvirs led to a lengthy civil war which ultimately ended with Octavius gaining control of the entire Roman world in 30 BC. In 27 BC, Octavius was given the honorificAugustusby the Senate, adopting the name of "Imperator Caesar Augustus". He had previously dropped all his names except for "Caesar", which he treated as anomen,and had adopted the victory titleimperator( "commander" ) as a newpraenomen.[5]
As a matter of course, Augustus's own adopted son and successor,Tiberius,followed his (step)father's example and bore the name "Caesar" following his adoption on 26 June 4 AD, restyling himself as "Tiberius Julius Caesar". Upon his own ascension to the throne, he styled himself as "Tiberius Caesar Augustus". The precedent was thus then set: the Emperor, styled as "Augustus", designated his successor by adopting him and giving him the name "Caesar".
The fourth Emperor,Claudius(in full, "Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus" ), was the first to assume the name without having been adopted by the previous emperor. However, he was at least a member of theJulio-Claudian dynasty,being the maternal great-nephew of Augustus onhis mother's side, the nephew of Tiberius, and the uncle ofCaligula(who was also called "Gaius Julius Caesar" ). Claudius, in turn, adopted his stepson and grand-nephew Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, giving him the name "Caesar" in addition to his ownnomen,"Claudius". His stepson thus became "NeroClaudius Caesar Augustus ".
Dynastic title[edit]
The first emperor to assume both the position and name without any real claim wasGalba,who took the throne under the name "Servius Galba Caesar Augustus" following the death of Nero in AD 68. Galba helped solidify "Caesar" as the title of the designated heir by giving it to his own adopted heir,Piso Licinianus.[6]His reign did not last long, however, and he was soon killed byOtho,who became "Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus". Otho was then defeated byVitellius,who became "Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Augustus", adopting thevictory title"Germanicus" instead. Nevertheless, "Caesar" had become such an integral part of the imperial dignity that its place was immediately restored byVespasian,who ended the civil war and established theFlavian dynastyin AD 69, ruling as "Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus".[7]
The placement of the name "Caesar" varied among the early emperors. It usually came right before thecognomen(Vespasian,Titus,Domitian,Trajan,Hadrian); a few placed it right after it (Galba,Otho,Nerva). The imperial formula was finally standardised during the reign ofAntoninus Pius.Antoninus, born "Titus Aurelius Antoninus", became "Titus Aelius Caesar Antoninus" after his adoption but ruled as "Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius". The imperial formula thus became "Imperator Caesar[name]Augustus"for emperors. Heir-apparents added" Caesar "to their names, placing it after theircognomen.[7]Caesars occasionally were given the honorificprinceps iuventutis( "First among the Youth" ) and, starting with the 3rd century,nobilissimus( "Most Noble" ).[1]
Later developments[edit]
Crisis of the Third Century[edit]
The popularity of using the titlecaesarto designate heirs-apparent increased throughout the third century. Many of the soldier-emperors during theCrisis of the Third Centuryattempted to strengthen their legitimacy by naming their sons as heirs with the title ofcaesar,namelyMaximinus Thrax,Philip the Arab,Decius,Trebonianus Gallus,GallienusandCarus.With the exception ofVerus MaximusandValerian IIall of them were later either promoted to the rank ofaugustuswithin their father's lifetime (likePhilip II) or succeeded asaugustiafter their father's death (HostilianandNumerian). The same title would also be used in theGallic Empire,which operated autonomously from the rest of the Roman Empire from 260 to 274, with the final Gallic emperorTetricus Iappointing his heirTetricus IIascaesarand his consular colleague.
Despite the best efforts of these emperors, however, the granting of this title does not seem to have made succession in this chaotic period any more stable. Almost allcaesareswould be killed before, or alongside, their fathers, or, at best, outlive them for a matter of months, as in the case ofHostilian.The solecaesarto successfully obtain the rank ofaugustusand rule for some time in his own right wasGordian III,and even he was heavily controlled by his court.
Tetrarchy and Diarchy[edit]
In 293,Diocletianestablished theTetrarchy,a system of rule by two senior emperors and two junior colleagues. The two coequal senior emperors were styled identically to previous Emperors, asaugustus(in plural,augusti). The two junior colleagues were styled identically to previous Emperors-designate, asnobilissimus caesar.Likewise, the junior colleagues retained the titlecaesarupon becoming full emperors. Thecaesaresof this period are sometimes referred as "emperors", with the Tetrarchy being a "rule of four emperors", despite being clearly subordinate of theaugustiand thus not actually sovereigns.[8]
The Tetrarchy collapsed as soon as Diocletian stepped down in 305, resulting in alengthy civil war.Constantine reunited the Empire 324, after defeating the Eastern emperorLicinius.The tetrarchic division of power was abandoned, although the divisions of thepraetorian prefectureswere maintained. The titlecaesarcontinued to be used, but now merely as a ceremorial honorific for young heirs. Constantine had fourcaesaresat the time of his death: his sonsConstantius II,Constantine II,Constansand his nephewDalmatius,with his eldest sonCrispushaving been executed in mysterious circumstances earlier in his reign. He would be succeeded only by his three sons, with Dalmatius dying in the summer of 337 in similarly murky circumstances.[9]Constantius II himself would nominate ascaesareshis cousinsConstantius GallusandJulianin succession in the 350s, although he first executed Gallus and then found himself at war with Julian before his own death. After Julian's revolt of 360, the title fell out of imperial fashion for some time, with emperors preferring simply to elevate their sons directly toaugustus,starting withGratianin 367.[9]
The title would be revived in 408 whenConstantine IIIgave it to his sonConstans II,[10]and then in 424 whenTheodosius IIgave it to his nephewValentinian IIIbefore successfully installing him upon the western throne asaugustusin 425.[9]Thereafter it would receive limited use in the Eastern Empire; for example, it was given toLeo IIin 472 several months beforehis grandfather's death. In the Western Empire,Palladius,the son of emperorPetronius Maximus,became the last person bearing the titlecaesarin 455.
Byzantine Empire[edit]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Byzantinischer_Mosaizist_um_1000_002.jpg/170px-Byzantinischer_Mosaizist_um_1000_002.jpg)
CaesarorKaisar(Καῖσαρ) remained a senior court title in the Eastern orByzantine Empire.Originally, as in the classicalRoman Empire,it was used for the heir apparent, and was first among the "awarded" dignities. From the reign ofTheodosius I,however, most emperors chose to solidify the succession of their intended heirs by raising them to co-emperors, i.e.augustus.Hence the title was more frequently awarded to second- and third-born sons, or to close and influential relatives of the Emperor: for example,Alexios Moselewho was the son-in-law ofTheophilos(ruled 829–842),Bardaswho was the uncle and chief minister ofMichael III(r. 842–867), andNikephoros II(r. 963–969) who awarded the title to his father,Bardas Phokas.[11][12]An exceptional case was the conferment of the dignity and its insignia to theBulgariankhanTervelbyJustinian II(r. 685–695, 705–711) who had helped him regain his throne in 705.[12]The title was awarded to the brother of EmpressMaria of Alania,George II of Georgiain 1081.[13]
The office enjoyed extensive privileges, great prestige and power. WhenAlexios I Komnenoscreated the title ofsebastokrator,kaisarbecame third in importance, and fourth afterManuel I Komnenoscreated the title ofdespot,which it remained until the end of the Empire. The feminine form waskaisarissa.It remained an office of great importance, usually awarded to imperial relations, as well as a few high-ranking and distinguished officials, and only rarely awarded to foreigners.[14]
According to theKlētorologionof 899, the Byzantinecaesar's insignia were a crown without a cross, and the ceremony of acaesar's creation (in this case dating toConstantine V), is included inDe CeremoniisI.43.[15]The title remained the highest in the imperial hierarchy until the introduction of thesebastokratōr(a composite derived fromsebastosandautokrator,the Greek equivalents ofaugustusandimperator) byAlexios I Komnenos(r. 1081–1118) and later ofdespotēsbyManuel I Komnenos(r. 1143–1180). The title remained in existence through the last centuries of the Empire. In thePalaiologan period,it was held by prominent nobles such asAlexios Strategopoulos,but from the 14th century, it was mostly awarded to rulers of theBalkanssuch as the princes ofVlachia,SerbiaandThessaly.[12]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Seal_of_the_Caesar_Michael_Angelos_%28Schlumberger%2C_1900%29.png/220px-Seal_of_the_Caesar_Michael_Angelos_%28Schlumberger%2C_1900%29.png)
In the late Byzantine hierarchy, as recorded in the mid-14th centuryBook of Officesofpseudo-Kodinos,the rank continued to come after thesebastokratōr.Pseudo-Kodinos further records that thecaesarwas equal in precedence to thepanhypersebastos,another creation of Alexios I, but that EmperorMichael VIII Palaiologos(r. 1259–1282) had raised his nephewMichael Tarchaneiotesto the rank ofprotovestiariosand decreed that to come after thecaesar;while underAndronikos II Palaiologos(r. 1282–1328) themegas domestikoswas raised to the same eminence, when it was awarded to the future emperorJohn VI Kantakouzenos(r. 1347–1354).[16]According to pseudo-Kodinos, thecaesar's insignia under the Palaiologoi was askiadionhat in red and gold, decorated with gold-wire embroideries, with a veil bearing the wearer's name andpendantsidentical to those of thedespotēsand thesebastokratōr.He wore a red tunic (rouchon) similar to the emperor's (without certain decorations), and his shoes and stockings were blue, as were the accouterments of his horse; these were all identical to those of thesebastokratōr,but without the embroidered eagles of the latter. Pseudo-Kodinos writes that the particular forms of another form of hat, the domedskaranikon,and of the mantle, thetamparion,for thecaesarwere not known.[17]
Ottoman Empire[edit]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg/170px-Gennadios_II_and_Mehmed_II.jpg)
"Caesar" is the title officially used by theSasanid Persiansto refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors.[18][19]In theMiddle East,the Persians and the Arabs continued to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors as "Caesar" (inPersian:قیصر رومQaysar-i Rum,"Caesar of the Romans", fromMiddle Persiankēsar). Thus, following theconquest of Constantinoplein 1453, the victoriousOttoman sultanMehmed IIbecame the first of the rulers of theOttoman Empireto assume the title (inOttoman Turkish:قیصر رومKayser-i Rûm).
After the Fall of Constantinople, having conquered the Byzantine Empire, Mehmed took the titleKayser-i Rûm,claiming succession to the Roman imperium.[20]His claim was that, by possession of the city, he was emperor, a new dynastby conquest,as had been done previously by the likes ofHeracliusandLeo III.[21]Contemporary scholarGeorge of Trebizondwrote "the seat of the Roman Empire is Constantinople... and he who is and remains Emperor of the Romans is also the Emperor of the whole world".[22]
Gennadius II,a staunch antagonist of the West because of theSack of Constantinoplecommitted by the Western Catholics and theological controversies between the two Churches, had been enthroned theEcumenical Patriarch of Constantinople-New Romewith all the ceremonial elements andethnarch(ormilletbashi) status by the Sultan himself in 1454. In turn, Gennadius II formally recognized Mehmed as successor to the throne.[23]Mehmed also had a blood lineage to the Byzantine Imperial family; his predecessor, SultanOrhanhad married a Byzantine princess, and Mehmed may have claimed descent fromJohn Tzelepes Komnenos.[24]Ottoman sultans were not the only rulers to claim such a title, as there was theHoly Roman Empirein Western Europe, whose emperor,Frederick III,traced his titular lineage fromCharlemagnewho obtained the title of Roman Emperor when he was crowned byPope Leo IIIin 800, although he was never recognized as such by the Byzantine Empire.
In diplomatic writings between the Ottomans and Austrians, the Ottoman bureaucracy was angered by their use of the Caesar title when the Ottomans saw themself as the true successors ofRome.When war broke out and peace negotiations were done, the Austrians (Holy Roman Empire) agreed to give up the use of theCaesartitle according toTreaty of Constantinople (1533)(though they would continue to use it and the Roman imperial title until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806). The Russians, who definedMoscowas theThird Rome,were similarly sanctioned by the Ottomans, who ordered theCrimean Khanateto raid Russia on numerous occasions.[25]The Ottomans would lose their political superiority over the Holy Roman Empire with theTreaty of Zsitvatorokin 1606, and over theRussian Empirewith theTreaty of Küçük Kaynarcain 1774, by diplomatically recognising the monarchs of these two countries as equals to the Ottoman Sultan for the first time.
List of holders[edit]
Note:Caesarswho later becameAugustiand thus emperors are highlighted in bold.
Coin | Name | Acceded | Relinquished | Reason | Reigning Emperor | Relation | R. |
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Piso Licinianus | 10 January 69 | 15 January 69 | murdered | Galba | Adopted son | [26] | |
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Titus | 21 December 69 | 24 June 79 | succeeded asaugustus | Vespasian | Son | [27] |
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Domitian | 21 December 69 | 14 September 81 | succeeded asaugustus | Vespasian/Titus | Son/Brother | [28] |
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Flavius | after AD 74 | before AD 83 (?) | died as a child | Domitian | Son | [29] |
Trajan | Late October 97 | 28 January 98 | succeeded asaugustus | Nerva | Adopted son | [30] | |
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Lucius Aelius | June/August 136 | 1 January 138 | died of illness | Hadrian | Adopted son | [31] |
Antoninus Pius | 25 February 138 | 10 July 138 | succeeded asaugustus | Hadrian | Adopted son | [32] | |
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Marcus Aurelius | Late 139 | 7 March 161 | succeeded asaugustus | Antoninus Pius | Son-in-law | [33] |
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Annius Verus | 12 October 166 | 10 September 169 | died of a tumor | Marcus Aurelius/Lucius Verus | Son/Nephew | [34] |
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Commodus | 12 October 166 | Summer 177 | proclaimedaugustus | Marcus Aurelius/Lucius Verus | Son/Nephew | [35] |
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Pertinax Junior | c. January 193 | c. March 193 | title revoked | Pertinax | Son | [36] |
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Clodius Albinus | c. 194 | c. 196 | title revoked | Septimius Severus | – | [37] |
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Caracalla | 4 April 196 | 28 January 198 | proclaimedaugustus | Septimius Severus | Son | [38] |
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Geta | 28 January 198 | c.October 209 | proclaimedaugustus | Septimius Severus | Son/Brother | [39] |
Diadumenian | April 217 | May 218 | proclaimedaugustus | Macrinus | Son | [40] | |
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Severus Alexander | June 221 | 14 March 222 | succeeded asaugustus | Elagabalus | Adopted son and cousin | [41] |
Sallustius(?) | c.227 | c.227 | executed | Severus Alexander | Father-in-law | [42] | |
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Verus Maximus | January/May 236 | May/June 238 | murdered | Maximinus Thrax | Son | [43] |
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Gordian III | April/May 238 | August 238 | succeeded asaugustus | Balbinus/Pupienus | – | [44] |
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Philip II | August 244 | July/August 247 | proclaimedaugustus | Philip the Arab | Son | [44] |
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Herennius Etruscus | September 250 | May 251 | proclaimedaugustus | Decius | Son | [44] |
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Hostilian | September 250 | June 251 | succeeded asaugustus | Decius | Son | [44] |
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Volusianus | c.July 251 | c.August 251 | proclaimedaugustus | Trebonianus Gallus | Son | [45] |
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Valerian II | c.September 256 | Summer 258 | murdered? | Valerian/Gallienus | Grandson/Son | [46] |
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Saloninus | c.June 258 | c.July 260 | proclaimedaugustus | Valerian/Gallienus | Grandson/Son | [46] |
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Carinus | November (?) 282 | Spring 283 | proclaimedaugustus | Carus | Son | [47] |
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Numerian | November (?) 282 | July 283 | succeeded asaugustus | Carus/Carinus | Son/Brother | [48] |
Maximian(?) | 21 July (?) 285[a] | 1 April (?) 286[b] | succeeded asaugustus | Diocletian(East) | – | [49] | |
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Constantius I | 1 March 293 | 1 May 305 | succeeded asaugustus | Maximian(West) | Son-in-law | [50] |
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Galerius | 21 March 293 | 1 May 305 | succeeded asaugustus | Diocletian(East) | Son-in-law | [51] |
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Severus II | 1 May 305 | August 306 | succeeded asaugustus | Maximian(West) | – | [52] |
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Maximinus II | 1 May 305 | May (?) 310 | succeeded asaugustus | Galerius(East) | Nephew | [53] |
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Constantine I | August 306[c] | May 310[d] | recognized asaugustus | Galerius/Licinius(East) | Brothers-in-law | [54] |
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Licinius Junior | 1 March 317 | 19 September 324 | deposed | Licinius(East) | Son | [55] |
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Crispus | 1 March 317 | c.March 326 | executed | Constantine I | Son | [56] |
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Constantine II | 1 March 317 | 9 September 337 | succeeded asaugustus | Constantine I | Son | [57] |
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Constantius II | 8 November 324 | 9 September 337 | succeeded asaugustus | Constantine I | Son | [57] |
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Constans I | 25 December 333 | 9 September 337 | succeeded asaugustus | Constantine I | Son | [58] |
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Dalmatius | 18 September 335 | June/Aug. 337 | murdered | Constantine I | Nephew | [59] |
Decentius | July/August 350 | 18 August 353 | committed suicide | Magnentius(West) | Brother | [60] | |
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Constantius Gallus | 15 March 351 | Late 354 | executed | Constantius II | Half-cousin | [61] |
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Julian II | 6 November 355 | 3 November 361 | succeeded asaugustus | Constantius II | Cousin | [62] |
Constans II | 408 | 409 / 410 | proclaimedaugustus | Constantine III/Honorius(West) | Son/- | [63] | |
Valentinian III | 23 October 424 | 23 October 425 | proclaimedaugustus | Theodosius II(East) | Half-cousin | [64] | |
Palladius | 17 March 455 | 31 May 455 | executed byAvitus | Maximus(West) | Son | [65] | |
Patricius | c.470 | c.471 | deposed or executed | Leo I(East) | Son-in-law | [66] | |
Leo II | c.October 472 | 17 November 473 | proclaimedaugustus | Leo I(East) | Son | [67] | |
Marcus | 475 | 475 | proclaimedaugustus | Basiliscus(East) | Son | [68] | |
Basiliscus | 476 | 477 | executed | Zeno(East) | – | [69] | |
Justinian I | 525 | 1 April 527 | proclaimedaugustus | Justin I | Adopted son | [70] | |
Tiberius II | 7 December 574 | 26 September 578 | proclaimedaugustus | Justin II | Adopted son | [71] | |
Germanus | 5 August 582 | by 11 August 582 | rejected the title | Tiberius II | Son-in-law | [72] | |
Maurice | 5 August 582 | 13 August 582 | proclaimedaugustus | Tiberius II | Son-in-law | [73] | |
Theodosius | c.587 | 26 March 590 | proclaimedaugustus | Maurice | Son | [74] | |
Heraclonas | 1 January 632 | 4 July 638 | proclaimedaugustus | Heraclius | Son | [75] | |
David Tiberius | 4 July 638 | November 641 | proclaimedaugustus | Heraclius | Son | [76] | |
Martinus | 4 July 638 (?) | November 641 | deposed | Heraclius | Son | [76] |
- Byzantine nobles
- Tervel,khanof theBulgars,named in 705 byJustinian II[12]
- Nikephoros&Christopher,named on 2 April 769 by their fatherConstantine V[77]
- Alexios Mosele,likely named in 831 by his father-in-lawTheophilos
- Bardas,named on 22 April 862 by his nephewMichael III
- Romanos I Lekapenos,named on 24 September 920 by theByzantine senate
- Bardas Phokas,named in late 963 by his sonNikephoros II
- Romanos III Argyros,named on 9 November 1028 by his father-in-lawConstantine VIII
- Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger,named by his father-in-lawAlexios I
- John Doukas,named in 1074 by his brotherConstantine X
- George II of Georgia,named in 1081 by his brother-in-lawNikephoros III
- Nikephoros Melissenos,named in 1080 by Alexios I
- Isaac Komnenos,named in 1104 by his father Alexios I
- John Rogerios Dalassenos,namedc.1130 by his father-in-lawJohn II
- Renier of Montferrat,named in 1180 by his father-in-lawManuel I
- John Kantakouzenos,named in 1186 byIsaac II
- Conrad of Montferrat,named in 1187 by his father-in-law Isaac II
- Manuel Maurozomes,namedc.1200 byAlexios III
- Leo Gabalas,named byTheodore I Laskaris(r. 1205–1221)
- Constantine Palaiologos,named in 1259 by his brotherMichael VIII
- Alexios Strategopoulos,named in 1259 by Michael VIII
- Roger de Flor,leader of theCatalan Company,named in 1304 byAndronikos II
- John Palaiologos,named in 1326 by his uncle Andronikos II
- Hrelja,likely named byJohn VI Kantakouzenos(r. 1347–1354)
- Serbian rulers
- Alexios Angelos Philanthropenos,named in 1373 bydespotThomas Preljubović
- Manuel Angelos Philanthropenos,named in 1390 bydespotEsau de' Buondelmonti
- Grgur Golubić,named in 1347 byStefan Uroš IV Dušan
- Vojihna,named in 1347 by Uroš IV
- Preljub,named in 1348–49 by Uroš IV
- Uglješa Vlatković,named byUroš V
- Nikola Radonja,named by Uroš V
- Novak,named by Uroš V
- Ottoman rulers
- Mehmed II(r. 1451–1481) assumed titlekayser-i Rûmfollowing the conquest of Constantinople in 1452
- Bayezid II(r. 1481–1512) is addressed askayserin contemporary sources[78]
- Suleiman I(r. 1520–1566) called himself "Caesar of Rome" in the inscription ofBender, Moldova,dating fromc. 1538/39.[79]In one of his poems, he also called himself "Roman caesar".[80]
- SeeList of sultans of the Ottoman Empire;the titlekaysercontinued to be used as late as the 18th century.[81]
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^Some authors argue that Maximian was nevercaesargiven the lack of concrete evidence for this.
- ^Or, alternatively, December 285.
- ^Self-proclaimedaugustus,but only recognized ascaesarby his fellow tetrarchs.
- ^Constantine was recognized asaugustusby Maximian in September 307, but at the same time was excluded of the imperial college by Galerius, who did not recognize the rule of Maximian and Maxentius. Constantine regained the title ofcaesar(which he continued to unacknowledge) in November 308, at theConference of Carnuntum.
References[edit]
- ^abGreenidge 1901,p. 353-355.
- ^Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology,vol. I, p. 537.
- ^Smith, William(1870)."1. Sex. Julius Caesar".Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.Vol. 1.Little, Brown and Company.p. 537.
- ^Syme, Ronald(1959), "Livy and Augustus",Harvard Studies in Classical Philology,64:175, 179,doi:10.2307/310937,JSTOR310937
- ^Syme, Ronald(1958),"Imperator Caesar: A Study in Nomenclature",Historia,vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 175–188,JSTOR4434568
- ^Harriet I. Flower (2006).The Art of Forgetting: Disgrace & Oblivion in Roman Political Culture.Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 225.ISBN978-0-8078-3063-5.
- ^abHammond 1957.
- ^Potter, David S. (2008).A Companion to the Roman Empire.John Wiley & Sons. pp. 193–196.ISBN978-1-4051-7826-6.
- ^abcMcEvoy, Meaghan (2013).Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, AD 367-455.OUP. pp. 3–7.ISBN978-0-19-966481-8.
- ^Kent, John (2018).Roman Imperial Coinage. Volume X.Spink Books. p. 50.ISBN978-1-912667-37-6.
- ^Bury 1911,p. 36.
- ^abcdODB,"Caesar" (A. Kazhdan), p. 363.
- ^Herrin, Judith (2013).Unrivalled Influence: Women and Empire in Byzantium.Princeton University Press. p. 313.ISBN978-0-691-15321-6.
- ^Choniates, Nicetas (1984).O City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Choniatēs.Wayne State University Press. p. 412.ISBN978-0-8143-1764-8.
- ^Bury 1911,pp. 20, 36.
- ^Verpeaux 1966,pp. 134–136.
- ^Verpeaux 1966,pp. 147–149.
- ^Middle Persian:𐭪𐭩𐭮𐭫𐭩kysly (Inscriptional Pahlavi), kysl (Book Pahlavi), transcribed askēsar
- ^Hurbanič, Martin (2019).The Avar Siege of Constantinople in 626: History and Legend.Springer. p. 234.ISBN978-3-030-16684-7.
- ^Michalis N. Michael; Matthias Kappler; Eftihios Gavriel (2009).Archivum Ottomanicum.Mouton. p. 10.ISBN978-3447057530.
- ^Christine Isom-Verhaaren; Kent F. Schull (11 April 2016).Living in the Ottoman Realm: Empire and Identity, 13th to 20th Centuries.Indiana University Press. pp. 38–.ISBN978-0-253-01948-6.
- ^Crowley, Roger (2009).Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453.Faber & Faber. pp. 13–.ISBN978-0-571-25079-0.
- ^"Gennadios II Scholarios".Encyclopaedia Britannica.Retrieved13 July2020.
- ^Norwich, John Julius(1995).Byzantium:The Decline and Fall.New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 81–82.ISBN0-679-41650-1.
- ^Halil, Inançik (2017).Kırım Hanlığı Tarihi Üzerine Araştırmalar 1441–1700: Seçme Eserleri – XI.ISBN978-6052952511.
- ^Harriet I. Flower (2006).The Art of Forgetting: Disgrace & Oblivion in Roman Political Culture.Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 225.ISBN978-0-8078-3063-5.
Piso is called by his new adoptive name of Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 105.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 109.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 112, perhaps given posthumously.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 116.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 126.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 128.
- ^J. C., O'Neill (1970).The Theology of Acts in Its Historical Setting.S.P.C.K. p. 18.ISBN978-1028102341.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 134.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 140.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 146.
- ^Lindsay, Hugh (2009).Adoption in the Roman World.p. 214.ISBN978-0521760508.TheHistoria Augustastates that Severus considered abdicating in favour of Albinus.HerodianandDio,however, say this was merely a trick.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 156.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 160.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 163.
- ^"Severus Alexander".Livius.org.
- ^"Alexander Severus (A.D. 222–235)".De Imperatoribus Romanis.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 178.
- ^abcdPeachin 1990,pp. 28–34.
- ^Peachin 1990,p. 36.
- ^abPeachin 1990,p. 38.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 250.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 252.
- ^Omissi, Adrastos (2018).Emperors and Usurpers in the Later Roman Empire.Oxford University Press.p. 76.ISBN978-0192558268.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 269.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 272.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 278.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 277.
- ^Barnes 1984,pp. 30–33.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 284.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 293.
- ^abKienast, Eck & Heil,p. 297.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 298.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 294.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 306.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 303.
- ^Kienast, Eck & Heil,p. 309.
- ^PLRE,II, p. 310.
- ^PLRE,II, p. 1138.
- ^PLRE,II, p. 751.
- ^PLRE,II, p. 842.
- ^Croke, Brian (2004)."The Imperial Reigns of Leo II".Byzantinische Zeitschrift.96(2): 559–575.doi:10.1515/BYZS.2003.559.S2CID191460505.
- ^PLRE,II, p. 720.
- ^PLRE,II, 211.
- ^Victor of Tunnuna(c.570),Chronicas.a. 525.
- ^PLRE,III, pp. 1321–1326.
- ^PLRE,III, p. 529.
- ^PLRE,III, pp. 855–860.
- ^PLRE,III, p. 1293.
- ^Grierson, Philip(1996).Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins, Vol. 2.Dumbarton Oaks.pp. 216 & 390.ISBN978-0884020240.
- ^abGonis, Nikolaos (2008). "SB VI 8986 and Heraclius' Sons".Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik.166:199–202.JSTOR20476531.
- ^J. R. Martindale(2001), "Nikephoros 5".Prosopography of the Byzantine Empire.
- ^Casale, Sinem Arcak (2023).Ottoman-Safavid Cultural Exchange, 1500–1639.University of Chicago Press. p. 42.ISBN978-0-226-82042-2.
- ^Dimitri Korobeinikov (2021). "Conquest of a Fortress as a Source of Legitimacy".Medieval Worlds Comparative & Interdisciplinary Studies(PDF).Vol. 14. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. pp. 180, 185.
- ^"Kayser قيصر Araplar'ın Roma ve Bizans imparatorları için kullandıkları unvan.".TDV Encyclopedia of Islam(44+2 vols.)(in Turkish). Istanbul:Turkiye Diyanet Foundation,Centre for Islamic Studies. 1988–2016.
- ^Kumar, Krishan (2017).Visions of Empire: How Five Imperial Regimes Shaped the World.Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 89.ISBN978-0691192802.
Bibliography[edit]
- Barnes, Timothy D.(1984).Constantine and Eusebius.Harvard University Press.ISBN0674165314.
- Bury, J. B.(1911).The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century – With a Revised Text of the Kletorologion of Philotheos.London: Oxford University Press.OCLC1046639111.
- Greenidge, A. H. J.(1901).Roman Public Life.London:Macmillan & Co.
- Hammond, Mason(1957)."Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire".Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome.25:19–64.doi:10.2307/4238646.JSTOR4238646.
- Jones, A.H.M.;J.R. Martindale&J. Morris(1971–1992).Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire.Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-07233-6.
- Kazhdan, Alexander,ed. (1991).The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium.Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-504652-8.
- Kienast, Dietmar;Werner Eck;Matthäus Heil (2017).Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie.Darmstadt:WBG.ISBN978-3-534-26724-8.
- Peachin, Michael (1990).Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235–284.Amsterdam: Gieben.ISBN90-5063-034-0.
- Verpeaux, Jean, ed. (1966).Pseudo-Kodinos, Traité des Offices(in French). Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
Further reading[edit]
- Ferjančić, Božidar(1970). "Севастократори и кесари у Српском царству" [Sebastocrators and Caesares in the Serbian Empire].Зборник Филозофског факултета.Belgrade: 255–269.
- Krebs, C. B. (2023), "It's Caesar [Kaiser/Tsar], Not Mr. King.' (Mis)understanding a Caesarian Pun (Suet.Iul.79.2) and Its Ironies,"inHistos17: 43-51.