Anglo-Saxon runes
Futhorc ᚠᚢᚦᚩᚱᚳ | |
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Script type | Alphabet
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Time period | 5th through 11th centuries |
Direction | Left-to-right![]() |
Languages | Anglo-Frisian(Old EnglishandOld Frisian) |
Related scripts | |
Parent systems | |
Sister systems | Younger Futhark |
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Anglo-Saxon runesorAnglo-Frisian runesarerunesthat were used by theAnglo-Saxonsand MedievalFrisians(collectively calledAnglo-Frisians) as anAlpha betin their nativewriting system,recording bothOld EnglishandOld Frisian(Old English:rūna,ᚱᚢᚾᚪ, "rune" ). Today, the characters are known collectively as thefuthorc(ᚠᚢᚦᚩᚱᚳ,fuþorc) from the sound values of the first six runes. The futhorc was a development from the olderco-Germanic24-character runic Alpha bet, known today asElder Futhark,expanding to 28-characters in its older form and up to 34-characters in its younger form. In contemporary Scandinavia, the Older Futhark developed into a shorter 16-character Alpha bet, today simply calledYounger Futhark.
Use of the Anglo-Frisian runes is likely to have started in the 5th century onward and they continued to see use into theHigh Middle Ages.They were later accompanied and eventually overtaken by theOld English Latin Alpha betintroduced toAnglo-Saxon Englandby missionaries. Futhorc runes were no longer in common use by the eleventh century, but MS Oxford St John's College 17 indicates that fairly accurate understanding of them persisted into at least the twelfth century.
History[edit]
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Part ofa serieson |
Old English |
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![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Franks_Casket_vorne_links.jpg/220px-Franks_Casket_vorne_links.jpg)
There are competing theories about the origins of the Anglo-Saxon futhorc. One theory proposes that it was developed inFrisiaand from there later spread toBritain.Another holds that runes were first introduced to Britain from the mainland where they were then modified and exported to Frisia. Both theories have their inherent weaknesses, and a definitive answer may come from further archaeological evidence.
The early futhorc was nearly identical to the Elder Futhark, except for the split ofᚨainto three variantsᚪāc,ᚫæscandᚩōs,resulting in 26 runes. This was done to account for the new phoneme produced by theIngvaeonicsplit of allophones of long and shorta.The earliest known instance of theᚩōsrune may be from the 5th-century, on theUndley bracteate.The earliest known instances of theᚪācrune may be from the 6th century, appearing on objects such as the Schweindorf solidus. The double-barredᚻhæglcharacteristic of continental inscriptions is first attested as late as 698, onSt Cuthbert's coffin;before that, the single-barred variant was used.
In England, outside of theBrittonicWest Country where evidence ofLatin[2]and evenOghamcontinued for several centuries, usage of the futhorc expanded.[citation needed]Runic writing in England became closely associated with the Latin scriptoria from the time of Anglo-Saxon Christianization in the 7th century. In some cases, texts would be written in the Latin Alpha bet, andþornandƿynncame to be used as extensions of the Latin Alpha bet. By the time of the Norman Conquest of 1066 it was very rare, and it disappeared altogether a few centuries thereafter. From at least five centuries of use, fewer than 200 artifacts bearing futhorc inscriptions have survived.
Several famous English examples mix runes and Roman script, orOld Englishand Latin, on the same object, including theFranks CasketandSt Cuthbert's coffin;in the latter, three of the names of theFour Evangelistsare given in Latin written in runes, but "LUKAS" (Saint Luke) is in Roman script. The coffin is also an example of an object created at the heart of the Anglo-Saxon church that uses runes. A leading expert,Raymond Ian Page,rejects the assumption often made in non-scholarly literature that runes were especially associated inpost-conversionAnglo-Saxon England withAnglo-Saxon paganismor magic.[3]
Letters[edit]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Futhorc_Rune_Chart.png/220px-Futhorc_Rune_Chart.png)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Futhorc_Runerow_Variant_Shapes.png/220px-Futhorc_Runerow_Variant_Shapes.png)
The letter sequence and letter inventory of futhorc, along with the actual sounds indicated by those letters, could vary depending on location and time. That being so, an authentic and unified list of runes is not possible.
Rune inventory[edit]
This articleneeds additional citations forverification.(April 2022) |
Image | Unicode | Name | Name meaning | Transliteration | IPA |
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ᚠ | feh (feoh) | wealth, cattle | f | /f/, [v] (word-medial allophone of /f/) |
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ᚢ | ur (ūr) | aurochs | u | /u(:)/ |
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ᚦ | ðorn (þorn) | thorn | th | /θ/,[ð](word-medial allophone of /θ/) |
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ᚩ | os (ōs) | heathen god(mouthin rune poem?[4](p 68)) | o | /o(:)/[5] |
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ᚱ | rada (rād) | riding | r | /r/ |
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ᚳ | cen (cēn) | torch | c | /k/, /kʲ/,/tʃ/ |
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ᚷ | geofu (gyfu) | gift | g | /ɡ/,[ɣ](word-medial allophone of /ɡ/), /j/ |
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ᚹ | wyn (wynn) | mirth | w | /w/ |
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ᚻ | hægil (hægl) | hail | h | /h/,[x],[ç] |
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ᚾ | næd (nēod) | plight | n | /n/ |
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ᛁ | is (īs) | ice | i | /i(:)/ |
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ᛡ/ᛄ | gær (gēar) | year | j | /j/ |
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ᛇ | ih (īw) | yew tree | ï | /i(:)/[x],[ç][5] |
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ᛈ | peord (peorð) | (unknown[4](pp 70–71)) | p | /p/ |
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ᛉ | ilcs (eolh?) | (unknown, perhaps a derivative ofelk[4](p 71)) | x | (otiose as a sound[5](p 41)but still used to transliterate the Latin letter 'X' into runes) |
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ᛋ/ᚴ | sygil (sigel) | sun (sailin rune poem?) | s | /s/, [z] (word-medial allophone of /s/) |
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ᛏ | ti (Tīw) | (unknown, originallygod,[4](p 72)Planet Marsin rune poem?[6]) | t | /t/ |
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ᛒ | berc (beorc) | birch tree | b | /b/ |
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ᛖ | eh (eh) | steed | e | /e(:)/ |
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ᛗ | mon (mann) | man | m | /m/ |
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ᛚ | lagu (lagu) | body of water (lake) | l | /l/ |
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ᛝ | ing (ing) | Ing (Ingui-Frea?) | ŋ | /ŋg/,/ŋ/ |
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ᛟ | oedil (ēðel) | inherited land, native country | œ | /ø(:)/[5] |
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ᛞ | dæg (dæg) | day | d | /d/ |
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ᚪ | ac (āc) | oak tree | a | /ɑ(:)/[5] |
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ᚫ | æsc (æsc) | ash tree | æ | /æ(:)/[5] |
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ᛠ | ear (ēar) | (unknown, perhapsearth[4](p 76)) | ea | /æ(:)ɑ/[5] |
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ᚣ | yr (ȳr) | (unknown, perhapsbow[4](p 75)) | y | /y(:)/[5] |
The sequence of the runes above is based onCodex Vindobonensis 795.The first 24 of these runes directly continue the elder futhark letters, and do not deviate in sequence (thoughᛞᛟrather thanᛟᛞis an attested sequence in both elder futhark and futhorc). The manuscriptsCodex Sangallensis 878andCotton MSDomitian A IXhaveᚣprecedeᛠ.
The names of the runes above are based on Codex Vindobonensis 795, besides the namesingandæscwhich come from The Byrhtferth's Manuscript and replace the seemingly corrupted nameslugandæsfound in Codex Vindobonensis 795.Tiis sometimes namedtirortyrin other manuscripts. The words in parentheses in the name column are standardized spellings.
Image | UCS | Name | Name meaning | Transliteration | IPA |
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ᛣ | calc | chalk? chalice? sandal? | k | /k/ |
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ᚸ | gar | spear | ḡ | /g/, [ɣ] (word-medial allophone of /g/)[5] |
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ᛢ | cweorð | (unknown) | q | /k/? (for writingLatin?) |
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ᛥ | stan | stone | N/A | /st/ |
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N/A | (unknown) | (unknown) | ę, ᴇ | /ǝ/? |
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N/A | (unknown) | (unknown) | į | /e(:)o/? /i(:)o/? |
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ᛡ | īor | beaver?[7]eel? | N/A | /i(:)o/? |
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ᛤ | (unknown) | (unknown) | c̄, k̄ | /k/ |
The runes in the second table, above, were not included in Codex Vindobonensis 795:Calcappears in manuscripts, and epigraphically on theRuthwell Cross,theBramham Moor Ring,theKingmoor Ring,and elsewhere. Gar appears in manuscripts, and epigraphically on the Ruthwell Cross and probably on theBewcastle Cross.[8]The unnamedᛤrune only appears on the Ruthwell Cross, where it seems to takecalc's place as /k/ where that consonant is followed by a secondary fronted vowel.Cweorðandstanonly appear in manuscripts. The unnamed ę rune only appears on the Baconsthorpe Grip. The unnamed į rune only appears on the Sedgeford Handle. While the rune poem and Cotton MSDomitian A IXpresentᛡasior,andᛄasger,epigraphically both are variants ofger(althoughᛄis only attested once outside of manuscripts (on the Brandon Pin).R.I. Pagedesignated ior apseudo-rune.[4](pp 45–47)
There is little doubt thatcalcandgarare modified forms ofcenandgyfu,and that they were invented to address the ambiguity which arose from /k/ and /g/ spawning palatalized offshoots.[4](pp 41–42)R.I. Pagedesignatedcweorðandstan"pseudo-runes" because they appear pointless, and speculated thatcweorðwas invented merely to give futhorc an equivalent to 'Q'.[4](pp 41–42)The ę rune is likely a local innovation, possibly representing an unstressed vowel, and may derive its shape fromᛠ}.[9][full citation needed]The unnamed į rune is found in a personal name (bįrnferþ), where it stands for a vowel ordiphthong.Anglo-Saxon expert Gaby Waxenberger speculates that į may not be a true rune, but rather a bindrune ofᛁandᚩ,or the result of a mistake.[10][full citation needed]
Combinations and digraphs[edit]
Various runic combinations are found in the futhorc corpus. For example, the sequence ᚫᚪ appears on the Mortain Casket where ᛠ could theoretically have been used.
Combination | IPA | Word | Meaning | Found on |
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ᚩᛁ | /oi/? | ]oin[.] | (unknown) | Lindisfarne Stone II |
ᚷᚳ | [gg]?, [dʒ]? | blagcmon | (personal name) | Maughold Stone I |
ᚷᚷ | ~[dʒ] | eggbrect | (personal name) | (an armband from theGalloway Hoard) |
ᚻᚹ | /ʍ/ | gehwelc | each | Honington Clip |
ᚻᛋ | /ks/ | wohs | to wax | Brandon Antler |
ᚾᚷ | /ŋg/ | hring | ring | Wheatley Hill Silver-Gilt Finger-Ring |
ᛁᚷ | /ij/ | modig | proud/bold/arrogant | Ruthwell Cross |
ᛇᛡ? | ~/ij/? | hælïj? | holy? | Gandersheim Casket |
ᛇᛋ | /ks/ | BennaREïs | king Benna | (a coin ofBeonna of East Anglia) |
ᛋᚳ | /sk/,/ʃ/ | fisc | fish | Franks Casket |
ᛖᚩ | /eo/, /eːo/ | eoh | (personal name) | Kirkheaton Stone |
ᛖᚷ | /ej/ | legdun | laid | Ruthwell Cross |
ᛖᛇ | ~/ej/, [eʝ]? | eateïnne | (personal name) | Thornhill Stone II |
ᛖᚪ | /æɑ/, /æːɑ/ | eadbald | (personal name) | Santi Marcellino e Pietro al Laterano Graffiti |
ᚪᚢ | ~/ɑu/ | saule | soul | Thornhill Stone III |
ᚪᛁ | /ɑi/ | aib | (personal name) | Oostum Comb |
ᚪᛡ | /ɑj/?, /ɑx/? | fajhild? faghild? | (personal name) | Santi Marcellino e Pietro ad Duas Lauros Graffiti |
ᚫᚢ | ~/æu/ | dæus | deus (Latin) | Whitby Comb |
ᚫᚪ | /æɑ/, /æːɑ/ | æadan | (personal name) | Mortain Casket |
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Abecedarium_anguliscum_scan.jpg/350px-Abecedarium_anguliscum_scan.jpg)
Usage and culture[edit]
A rune in Old English could be called arūnstæf(perhaps meaning something along the lines of "mystery letter" or "whisper letter" ), or simplyrūn.
Futhorc inscriptions hold diverse styles and contents.Ochrehas been detected on at least one Englishrunestone,implying its runes were once painted.Bind runesare common in futhorc (relative to its small corpus), and were seemingly used most often to ensure the runes would fit in a limited space.[11]Futhorclogographyis attested to in a few manuscripts. This was done by having a rune stand for its name, or a similar sounding word. In the sole extant manuscript of the poemBeowulf,the ēðel rune was used as a logogram for the word ēðel (meaning "homeland", or "estate" ).[12]Both the Hackness Stone andCodex Vindobonensis 795attest to futhorcCipher runes.[13]In one manuscript (Corpus Christi College, MS 041) a writer seems to have used futhorc runes likeRoman numerals,writing ᛉᛁᛁ⁊ᛉᛉᛉᛋᚹᛁᚦᚩᚱ, which likely means "12&30 more".[14]
There is some evidence of futhorc rune magic. The possibly magicalalusequence seems to appear on an urn found atSpong Hillinspiegelrunes(runes whose shapes are mirrored). In a tale fromBede'sEcclesiastical History(written in Latin), a man named Imma cannot be bound by his captors and is asked if he is using "litteras solutorias" (loosening letters) to break his binds. In one Old English translation of the passage, Imma is asked if he is using "drycraft" (magic, druidcraft) or "runestaves" to break his binds.[15]Furthermore, futhorcringshave been found with what appear to be enchanted inscriptions for the stanching of blood.[16]
Inscription corpus[edit]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Beagnoth_Seax_Futhorc.jpg/350px-Beagnoth_Seax_Futhorc.jpg)
The Old English and Old Frisian Runic Inscriptions database project at theCatholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt,Germanyaims at collecting the genuine corpus of Old English inscriptions containing more than two runes in its paper edition, while the electronic edition aims at including both genuine and doubtful inscriptions down to single-rune inscriptions.
The corpus of the paper edition encompasses about one hundred objects (including stone slabs, stone crosses, bones, rings, brooches, weapons, urns, a writing tablet, tweezers, a sun-dial,[clarification needed]comb,bracteates,caskets, a font, dishes, and graffiti). The database includes, in addition, 16 inscriptions containing a single rune, several runic coins, and 8 cases of dubious runic characters (runelike signs, possible Latin characters, weathered characters). Comprising fewer than 200 inscriptions, the corpus is slightly larger than that of Continental Elder Futhark (about 80 inscriptions, c. 400–700), but slightly smaller than that of the Scandinavian Elder Futhark (about 260 inscriptions, c. 200–800).
Runic finds in England cluster along the east coast with a few finds scattered further inland in Southern England. Frisian finds cluster inWest Frisia.Looijenga (1997) lists 23 English (including two 7th-century Christian inscriptions) and 21 Frisian inscriptions predating the 9th century.
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/British_Museum_Runic_Silver_Animal_Head.jpg/300px-British_Museum_Runic_Silver_Animal_Head.jpg)
Currently known inscriptions in Anglo-Frisian runes include:
FRISIAN |
Ferwerd combcase, 6th century;me uræ |
Amay comb, c. 600;eda |
Oostyn comb, 8th century;aib ka[m]bu / deda habuku(with a triple-barredh) |
Toornwerd comb, 8th century;kabu |
Skanomodusolidus,575–610;skanomodu |
Harlingen solidus, 575–625,hada(twoacrunes, double-barredh) |
Schweindorf solidus, 575–625,wela[n]du"Weyland" (orþeladu;running right to left) |
Folkestonetremissis,c. 650;æniwulufu |
Midlumsceat,c. 750;æpa |
Rasquert swordhandle (whalebone handle of a symbolic sword), late 8th century;ek [u]mædit oka,"I, Oka, not made mad"[17](compareek unwodzfrom the Danish corpus) |
Arum sword, a yew-wood miniature sword, late 8th century;edæboda |
Westeremden A, a yew weaving-slay;adujislume[þ]jisuhidu |
Westeremden B, a yew-stick,8th century;oph?nmuji?adaamluþ /:wimœ?ahþu?? / iwio?u?du?ale |
Britsum yew-stick;þkniaberetdud / ]n:bsrsdnu;thekhas Younger Futhark shape and probably represents a vowel. |
Hantum whalebone plate;[.]:aha:k[;the reverse side is inscribed with RomanABA. |
Bernsterburen whalebone staff, c. 800;tuda æwudu kius þu tuda |
Hamwichorse knucklebone, dated to between 650 and 1025;katæ(categorised as Frisian on linguistic grounds, from*kautōn"knucklebone" ) |
Wijnaldum B gold pendant, c. 600;hiwi |
Kantens combcase, early 5th century;li |
Hoogebeintum comb, c. 700;[...]nlu / ded |
Wijnaldum A antler piece;zwfuwizw[...] |
ENGLISH |
Ash Gilton (Kent) gilt silver sword pommel, 6th century;[...]emsigimer[...][18] |
Chessel Down I (Isle of Wight), 6th century;[...]bwseeekkkaaa |
Chessel Down II (Isle of Wight) silver plate (attached to the scabbard mouthpiece of a ring-sword), early 6th century;æko:[.]ori |
Boarley (Kent) copper disc-brooch, c. 600;ærsil |
Harford (Norfolk) brooch, c. 650;luda:gibœtæsigilæ"Luda repaired the brooch" |
West Heslerton(North Yorkshire) copper cruciform brooch, early 6th century;neim |
Loveden Hill (Lincolnshire) urn; 5th to 6th century; reading uncertain, maybesïþæbæd þiuw hlaw"the grave of Siþæbæd the maid" |
Spong Hill(Norfolk), three cremation urns, 5th century; decorated with identical runic stamps, readingalu(inSpiegelrunen). |
Kent II coins (some 30 items), 7th century; readingpada |
Kent III, IV silversceattas,c. 600; readingæpaandepa |
Suffolk gold shillings (three items), c. 660; stamped withdesaiona |
Caistor-by-Norwich astragalus,5th century; possibly a Scandinavian import, in Elder Futhark transliteration readingraïhan"roe" |
Watchfield (Oxfordshire) copper fittings, 6th century; Elder Futhark readinghariboki:wusa(withaprobably already fronted toæ) |
Wakerley (Northamptonshire) copper brooch, 6th century;buhui |
Dover (Kent) brooch, c. 600;þd bli / bkk |
Upper Thames Valley gold coins (four items), 620s;benu:tigoii;benu:+:tidi |
Willoughby-on-the-Wolds(Nottinghamshire) copper bowl, c. 600;a |
Cleatham (South Humbershire) copper bowl, c. 600;[...]edih |
Sandwich/Richborough (Kent) stone, 650 or earlier;[...]ahabu[...]i,perhaps*ræhæbul"stag" |
Whitby I (Yorkshire) jet spindle whorl;ueu |
Selsey (West Sussex) gold plates, 6th to 8th centuries;brnrn/anmu |
St. Cuthbert's coffin(Durham), dated to 698 |
Whitby II (Yorkshire) bone comb, 7th century;[dæ]us mæus godaluwalu dohelipæ cy[i.e.deus meus, god aluwaldo, helpæ Cy..."my god, almighty god, help Cy..." (Cynewulfor a similar personal name; compare alsonames of God in Old English poetry.) |
theFranks casket;7th century |
zoomorphic silver-gilt knife mount, discovered in the River Thames near Westminster Bridge (late 8th century)[19][20] |
theRuthwell Cross;8th century, the inscription may be partly a modern reconstruction |
the Brandon antler piece,wohs wildum deoræ an"[this] grew on a wild animal"; 9th century.[21] |
Kingmoor Ring |
theSeax of Beagnoth;9th century (also known as the Thames scramasax); the only complete Alpha bet |
Near Fakenham plaque;8th-11th century lead plaque interpreted as bearing a healing inscription[22] |
Related manuscript texts[edit]
- Codex Sangallensis 270 — lists runes with their names, and explains how to use certain rune ciphers
- Codex Sangallensis 878— contains a presentation of Anglo-Saxon runes
- Codex Vindobonensis 795— contains a description of Anglo-Saxon runes
- Cotton Domitian A.IX — lists runes with their names
- Cotton Otho B.x.165 — contained theOld English rune poembefore being destroyed in a fire
- Cotton Vitellius A.XII — lists runes in Alpha betical order
- MS Oxford St. John's College 17— contains a"table of runic, cryptographic, and exotic Alpha bets".
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^Himelfarb, Elizabeth J. "First Alphabet Found in Egypt", Archaeology 53, Issue 1 (January/February 2000): 21.
- ^"Ancient Writing Discovered at Tintagel Castle".Archivedfrom the original on 29 November 2020.Retrieved21 November2020.
- ^Page, Raymond Ian (1989), "Roman and Runic on St Cuthbert's Coffin", in Bonner, Gerald; Rollason, David; Stancliffe, Clare (eds.),St. Cuthbert, his Cult and his Community to AD 1200,Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, pp. 257–63,ISBN978-0-85115-610-1,archivedfrom the original on 15 April 2021,retrieved29 October2020.
- ^abcdefghi Page, Raymond Ian(1999).An Introduction to English Runes(2nd ed.). Woodbridge: Boydell.
- ^abcdefghi Barnes, Michael (2012).Runes: A handbook.Woodbridge: Boydell. pp. 38–41.
- ^ Osborn, Marijane(2010). "Tiw as Mars in the Old English rune poem".ANQ: A Quarterly Journal of Short Articles, Notes and Reviews.16.Taylor & Francis: 3–13.doi:10.1080/08957690309598179.
- ^ Osborn, Marijane;Longland, Stella (1980)."A Celtic intruder in the Old English 'rune poem'".Neuphilologische Mitteilungen.81(4). Modern Language Society: 385–387.ISSN0028-3754.JSTOR43343355.Archivedfrom the original on 26 July 2021.Retrieved26 July2021.
- ^ Page, Raymond Ian(1998).Runes and Runic Inscriptions: Collected essays on Anglo-Saxon and Viking runes.Boydell. pp. 38, 53.
- ^ Hines, John (2011). "[no title cited]".Anglia – Zeitschrift fr englische Philologie.129(3–4): 288–289.
- ^ Waxenberger, Gaby (2017). "[no title cited]".Anglia – Zeitschrift fr englische Philologie.135(4): 627–640.doi:10.1515/ang-2017-0065.
- ^Page, Raymond Ian(1999),An introduction to English runes(2nd ed.), Woodbridge: Boydell, pp. 139, 155.
- ^Page, Raymond Ian(1999),An introduction to English runes(2nd ed.), Woodbridge: Boydell, pp. 186–199,ISBN9780851159461.
- ^Kilpatrick, Kelly (2013),Latin, Runes and Pseudo-Ogham: The Enigma of the Hackness Stone,pp. 1–13.
- ^Birkett, Thomas (2012),Notes and Queries, Volume 59, Issue 4,Boydell, pp. 465–470.
- ^Page, Raymond Ian(1999),An introduction to English runes(2nd ed.), Woodbridge: Boydell, pp. 111–112.
- ^Page, Raymond Ian(1999),An introduction to English runes(2nd ed.), Woodbridge: Boydell, pp. 93, 112–113.
- ^Looijenga, Tineke (1 January 2003).Texts and Contexts of the Oldest Runic Inscriptions.BRILL.ISBN978-9004123960.Archivedfrom the original on 15 April 2021.Retrieved29 October2020– via google.be.
- ^Flickr(photograms), Yahoo!, 20 May 2008,archivedfrom the original on 13 October 2016,retrieved22 July2016
- ^"Silver knife mount with runic inscription",British Museum,archivedfrom the original on 18 October 2015,retrieved22 July2016.
- ^Page, Raymond Ian(1999),An introduction to English runes(2nd ed.), Woodbridge: Boydell, p. 182.
- ^Bammesberger, Alfred (2002), "The Brandon Antler Runic Inscription",Neophilologus,86,Ingenta connect: 129–31,doi:10.1023/A:1012922118629,S2CID160241063.
- ^Hines, John (2019)."Anglo-Saxon Micro-Texts – Practical Runic Literacy in the Late Anglo-Saxon Period: Inscriptions on Lead Sheet".Anglia Book Series.63(1): 29–59.doi:10.1515/9783110630961-003.S2CID165389048.
References[edit]
- Bammesberger, A, ed. (1991), "Old English Runes and their Continental Background",Anglistische Forschungen,217,Heidelberg.
- ——— (2006), "Das Futhark und seine Weiterentwicklung in der anglo-friesischen Überlieferung", in Bammesberger, A; Waxenberger (eds.),Dasfuþarkund seine einzelsprachlichen Weiterentwicklungen,Walter de Gruyter, pp. 171–87,ISBN978-3-11-019008-3.
- Hines, J (1990), "The Runic Inscriptions of Early Anglo-Saxon England", in Bammesberger, A (ed.),Britain 400–600: Language and History,Heidelberg: C. Winter, pp. 437–56.
- Kilpatrick, K (2013),Latin, Runes and Pseudo-Ogham: The Enigma of the Hackness Stone,pp. 1–13
- J. H. Looijenga,Runes around the North Sea and on the Continent AD 150–700,dissertation, Groningen University (1997).
- Odenstedt, Bengt,On the Origin and Early History of the Runic Script,Uppsala (1990),ISBN91-85352-20-9;chapter 20: 'The position of continental and Anglo-Frisian runic forms in the history of the olderfuthark'
- Page, Raymond Ian(1999).An Introduction to English Runes.Woodbridge:Boydell Press.ISBN978-0-85115-768-9.
- Middleton & Tum, Andrew & Julia (2006).Radiography of Cultural Material.Elsevier.ISBN978-0-7506-6347-2.
- Robinson, Orrin W(1992).Old English and its Closest Relatives: A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Languages.Stanford University Press.ISBN978-0-8047-1454-9.
- Frisian runes and neighbouring traditions,Amsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik 45 (1996).
- H. Marquardt,Die Runeninschriften der Britischen Inseln(Bibliographie der Runeninschriften nach Fundorten, Bd. I), Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Phil.-hist. Klasse, dritte Folge, Nr. 48, Göttingen 1961, pp. 10–16.
Further reading[edit]
- Looijenga, Tineke (September 2003).Texts & Contexts of the Oldest Runic Inscriptions (Northern World, 4).Brill.ISBN978-9004123960.
External links[edit]
- Frisia Coast Trail (2023),Scratching runes was not much different from spraying tags
- Anglo-Saxon Runic Texts at Georgetown Univ
- Early Runic Inscriptions in England
- Portable Antiquities Scheme (has information on runic artefacts from England)
- Presenter: The Ruthwell Cross (3D rendering of the Ruthwell Cross)
- The Byrhtferth's Manuscript