Jump to content

Planned economy

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Part ofa serieson
Economic systems
Major types
By ideology
By coordination
By regional model
Sectors
Property types
Transition
Coordination
Other types
Part ofa serieson
Socialism
Development
Ideas
Models
Variants
People
Organizations
Related topics
Lists

Aplanned economyis a type ofeconomic systemwhere the distribution ofgoodsand services or theinvestment,productionand the allocation ofcapital goodstakes place according to economic plans that are either economy-wide or limited to a category of goods and services. A planned economy may usecentralized,decentralized,participatory,orSoviet-typeforms ofeconomic planning.[1][2]The level ofcentralizationordecentralizationin decision-making and participation depends on the specific type of planning mechanism employed.[3]

Socialist statesbased on the Soviet model have used central planning, although a minority such as the formerSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslaviahave adopted some degree ofmarket socialism.Market abolitionistsocialism replacesfactor marketswith direct calculation as the means to coordinate the activities of the varioussocially ownedeconomic enterprises that make up the economy.[4][5][6]More recent approaches to socialist planning and allocation have come from some economists and computer scientists proposing planning mechanisms based on advances in computer science and information technology.[7]

Planned economies contrast withunplanned economies,specificallymarket economies,where autonomous firms operating inmarketsmake decisions about production, distribution, pricing and investment. Market economies that useindicative planningare variously referred to asplanned market economies,mixed economiesandmixed market economies.Acommand economyfollows anadministrative-command systemand uses Soviet-type economic planning which was characteristic of the formerSoviet UnionandEastern Blocbefore most of these countries converted to market economies. This highlights the central role of hierarchical administration and public ownership of production in guiding the allocation of resources in these economic systems.[8][9][10]

Overview[edit]

In theHellenisticand post-Hellenistic world, "compulsory state planning was the most characteristic trade condition for theEgyptiancountryside, forHellenistic India,and to a lesser degree the more barbaric regions of theSeleucid,thePergamenian,the southernArabian,and theParthianempires ".[11]Scholars have argued that theIncaneconomy was a flexible type of command economy, centered around the movement and utilization of labor instead of goods.[12]One view ofmercantilismsees it as involving planned economies.[13]

The Soviet-style planned economy in Soviet Russia evolved in the wake of a continuing existingWorld War Iwar-economyas well as other policies, known aswar communism(1918–1921), shaped to the requirements of theRussian Civil Warof 1917–1923. These policies began their formal consolidation under an official organ of government in 1921, when the Soviet government foundedGosplan.However, the period of theNew Economic Policy(c. 1921toc. 1928) intervened before the planned system of regularfive-year plansstarted in 1928.Leon Trotskywas one of the earliest proponents of economic planning during theNEPperiod.[14][15][16]Trotsky argued thatspecialization,the concentration ofproductionand the use of planning could "raise in the near future thecoefficientofindustrial growthnot only two, but even three times higher than thepre-war rateof 6% and, perhaps, even higher ".[17]According to historianSheila Fitzpatrick,the scholarly consensus was thatStalinappropriated the position of theLeft Oppositionon such matters asindustrialisationandcollectivisation.[18]

AfterWorld War II(1939–1945) France and Great Britain practiceddirigisme– government direction of the economy through non-coercive means. The Swedish government planned public-housing models in a similar fashion asurban planningin a project calledMillion Programme,implemented from 1965 to 1974. Some decentralized participation in economic planning occurred across Revolutionary Spain, most notably in Catalonia, during theSpanish Revolution of 1936.[19][20]

Relationship with socialism[edit]

Albert Einstein advocated for a socialist planned economy with his 1949 article "Why Socialism?"

In the May 1949 issue of theMonthly Reviewtitled "Why Socialism?",Albert Einsteinwrote:[21]

I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow-men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.

Whilesocialismis not equivalent to economic planning or to the concept of a planned economy, an influential conception of socialism involves the replacement of capital markets with some form of economic planning in order to achieveex-antecoordination of the economy. The goal of such an economic system would be to achieve conscious control over the economy by the population, specifically so that the use of thesurplus productis controlled by the producers.[22]The specific forms of planning proposed for socialism and their feasibility are subjects of thesocialist calculation debate.

Computational economic planning[edit]

Further information:Government by algorithm

In 1959Anatoly Kitovproposed a distributed computing system (Project "Red Book",Russian:Красная книга) with a focus on the management of the Soviet economy. Opposition from theDefence Ministrykilled Kitov's plan.[23]

In 1971 the socialistAllende administrationof Chile launchedProject Cybersynto install a telex machine in every corporation and organization in the economy for the communication of economic data between firms and the government. The data was also fed into a computer-simulated economy for forecasting. A control room was built for real-time observation and management of the overall economy. The prototype-stage of the project showed promise when it was used to redirect supplies around a trucker's strike,[24]but after CIA-backedAugusto Pinochetled acoup in 1973that established amilitary dictatorshipunder his rule the program was abolished and Pinochet moved Chile towards a moreliberalizedmarket economy.

In their bookTowards a New Socialism(1993), the computer scientistPaul Cockshottfrom theUniversity of Glasgowand the economist Allin Cottrell fromWake Forest Universityclaim to demonstrate how a democratically planned economy built on modern computer technology is possible and drives the thesis that it would be both economically more stable than the free-market economies and also morally desirable.[7]

Cybernetics[edit]

Project Cybersynwas an early form of computationaleconomic planning.

The use of computers to coordinate production in an optimal fashion has been variously proposed forsocialist economies.The Polish economistOskar Lange(1904–1965) argued that the computer is more efficient than the market process at solving the multitude of simultaneous equations required for allocating economic inputs efficiently (either in terms of physical quantities or monetary prices).[25]

In the Soviet Union,Anatoly Kitovhad proposed to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union a detailed plan for the re-organization of the control of the Soviet armed forces and of the Soviet economy on the basis of a network of computing centers in 1959.[26]Kitov's proposal was rejected, as later was the 1962OGASeconomy management network project.[27]Sovietcybernetician,Viktor Glushkovargued that his OGAS information network would have delivered a fivefoldsavings returnfor theSoviet economyover the first fifteen-year investment.[28]

Salvador Allende's socialist government pioneered the 1970 Chilean distributeddecision support systemProject Cybersynin an attempt to move towards a decentralized planned economy with theexperimental viable system modelof computed organisational structure of autonomous operative units through analgedonic feedbacksetting and bottom-up participative decision-making in the form ofparticipative democracyby the Cyberfolk component.[29]

Fictional portrayals[edit]

The 1888 novelLooking BackwardbyEdward Bellamydepicts a fictional planned economy in a United States around the year 2000 which has become a socialist utopia.

TheWorld StateinAldous Huxley'sBrave New World(1932) andAirstrip OneinGeorge Orwell'sNineteen Eighty-Four(1949) provide fictional depictions of command economies, albeit with diametrically opposed aims. The former is aconsumer economydesigned to engender productivity while the latter is ashortage economydesigned as an agent of totalitarian social control. Airstrip One is organized by the euphemistically named Ministry of Plenty.

Other literary portrayals of planned economies includeYevgeny Zamyatin'sWe(1924), which influenced Orwell's work. LikeNineteen Eighty-Four,Ayn Rand's dystopian 1938 storyAnthemoffered an artistic portrayal of a command economy that was influenced byWe.The difference is that it was aprimitivistplanned economy as opposed to the advanced technology ofWeorBrave New World.

Central planning[edit]

Advantages[edit]

The government can harnessland,labor,andcapitalto serve the economic objectives of the state. Consumer demand can be restrained in favor of greater capital investment for economic development in a desired pattern. In international comparisons, state-socialist nations have compared favorably with capitalist nations in health indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy. However, according toMichael Ellman,the reality of this, at least regarding infant mortality, varies depending on whether official Soviet orWHOdefinitions are used.[30]

The state can begin building massive heavy industries at once in an underdeveloped economy without waiting years for capital to accumulate through the expansion of light industry and without reliance on external financing. This is what happened in the Soviet Union during the 1930s when the government forced the share ofgross national incomededicated to private consumption down from 80% to 50%. As a result of this development, the Soviet Union experienced massive growth in heavy industry, with a concurrent massive contraction of its agricultural sector due to the labor shortage.[31]

Disadvantages[edit]

Economic instability[edit]

Studies of command economies of theEastern Blocin the 1950s and 1960s by both American and Eastern European economists found that contrary to the expectations of both groups they showed greater fluctuations inoutputthan market economies during the same period.[32]

Inefficient resource distribution[edit]

Critics of planned economies argue that planners cannot detect consumer preferences, shortages and surpluses with sufficient accuracy and therefore cannot efficiently co-ordinate production (in amarket economy,afree price systemis intended to serve this purpose). This difficulty was notably written about by economistsLudwig von MisesandFriedrich Hayek,who referred to subtly distinct aspects of the problem as theeconomic calculation problemandlocal knowledge problem,respectively.[33][34]These distinct aspects were also present in the economic thought ofMichael Polanyi.[35]

Whereas the former stressed the theoretical underpinnings of a market economy tosubjective value theorywhile attacking thelabor theory of value,the latter argued that the only way to satisfy individuals who have a constantly changing hierarchy of needs and are the only ones to possess their particular individual's circumstances is by allowing those with the most knowledge of their needs to have it in their power to use their resources in a competing marketplace to meet the needs of the most consumers most efficiently. This phenomenon is recognized asspontaneous order.Additionally, misallocation of resources would naturally ensue by redirecting capital away from individuals with direct knowledge and circumventing it into markets where a coercive monopoly influences behavior, ignoring market signals. According toTibor Machan,"[w]ithout a market in which allocations can be made in obedience to the law of supply and demand, it is difficult or impossible to funnel resources with respect to actual human preferences and goals".[36]

HistorianRobert Vincent Danielsregarded theStalinistperiod to represent an abrupt break with Lenin's government in terms of economic planning in which an deliberated,scientific systemof planning that featured formerMenshevikeconomistsatGosplanhad been replaced with a hasty version of planning with unrealistic targets, bureaucratic waste,bottlenecksandshortages.Stalin's formulations of national plans in terms of physical quantity of output was also attributed by Daniels as a source for the stagnant levels of efficiency and quality.[37]

Suppression of economic democracy and self-management[edit]

Main article:Socialist democracy

EconomistRobin Hahnel,who supportsparticipatory economics,a form ofsocialistdecentralized planned economy, notes that even if central planning overcame its inherent inhibitions of incentives and innovation, it would nevertheless be unable to maximize economic democracy and self-management, which he believes are concepts that are more intellectually coherent, consistent and just than mainstream notions of economic freedom.[38]Furthermore, Hahnel states:

Combined with a more democratic political system, and redone to closer approximate a best case version, centrally planned economies no doubt would have performed better. But they could never have delivered economic self-management, they would always have been slow to innovate as apathy and frustration took their inevitable toll, and they would always have been susceptible to growing inequities and inefficiencies as the effects of differentialeconomic powergrew. Under central planning neither planners, managers, nor workers had incentives to promote the social economic interest. Nor did impeding markets for final goods to the planning system enfranchise consumers in meaningful ways. But central planning would have been incompatible with economic democracy even if it had overcome its information and incentive liabilities. And the truth is that it survived as long as it did only because it was propped up by unprecedented totalitarian political power.[38]

Command economy[edit]

Planned economies contrast with command economies in that a planned economy is "an economic system in which the government controls and regulates production, distribution, prices, etc."[39]whereas a command economy necessarily has substantial public ownership of industry while also having this type of regulation.[40]In command economies, important allocation decisions are made by government authorities and are imposed by law.[41]

This is contested by someMarxists.[5][42]Decentralized planning has been proposed as a basis forsocialismand has been variously advocated byanarchists,council communists,libertarian Marxistsand otherdemocraticandlibertariansocialists who advocate a non-market form of socialism, in total rejection of the type of planning adopted in theeconomy of the Soviet Union.[43]

Most of a command economy is organized in a top-down administrative model by a central authority, where decisions regarding investment and production output requirements are decided upon at the top in thechain of command,with little input from lower levels. Advocates of economic planning have sometimes been staunch critics of these command economies.Leon Trotskybelieved that those at the top of the chain of command, regardless of their intellectual capacity, operated without the input and participation of the millions of people who participate in the economy and who understand/respond to local conditions and changes in the economy. Therefore, they would be unable to effectively coordinate all economic activity.[44]

Historians have associated planned economies withMarxist–Leninist statesand theSoviet economic model.Since the 1980s, it has been contested that the Soviet economic model did not actually constitute a planned economy in that a comprehensive and binding plan did not guide production and investment.[45]The further distinction of anadministrative-command systememerged as a new designation in some academic circles for the economic system that existed in the formerSoviet UnionandEastern Bloc,highlighting the role of centralized hierarchical decision-making in the absence of popular control over the economy.[46]The possibility of a digital planned economy was explored in Chile between 1971 and 1973 with the development ofProject Cybersynand byAleksandr Aleksandrovich Kharkevich,head of the Department of Technical Physics in Kiev in 1962.[47][48]

While both economic planning and a planned economy can be either authoritarian ordemocraticandparticipatory,democratic socialistcritics argue that command economies under modern-day communism is highly undemocratic and totalitarian in practice.[49][50]Indicative planningis a form of economic planning in market economies that directs the economy through incentive-based methods. Economic planning can be practiced in a decentralized manner through different government authorities. In some predominantly market-oriented and Western mixed economies, the state utilizes economic planning in strategic industries such as the aerospace industry. Mixed economies usually employmacroeconomicplanning while micro-economic affairs are left to the market and price system.

Decentralized planning[edit]

Leon Trotsky was among the earliest Soviet figures that supportedeconomic planninganddecentralization[14]but opposed theStalinistmodel.[51]

A decentralized-planned economy, occasionally called horizontally planned economy due to itshorizontalism,is a type of planned economy in which theinvestmentandallocationofconsumerandcapital goodsis explicated accordingly to an economy-wide plan built and operatively coordinated through a distributed network of disparate economic agents or even production units itself. Decentralized planning is usually held in contrast to centralized planning, in particular theSoviet-type economic planningof theSoviet Union's command economy, where economic information is aggregated and used to formulate a plan for production, investment and resource allocation by a single central authority. Decentralized planning can take shape both in the context of amixed economyas well as in apost-capitalisteconomic system. This form of economic planning implies some process of democratic and participatory decision-making within the economy and within firms itself in the form ofindustrial democracy.Computer-based forms of democratic economic planning and coordination between economic enterprises have also been proposed by variouscomputer scientistsandradical economists.[25][7][24]Proponents present decentralized and participatory economic planning as an alternative tomarket socialismfor a post-capitalist society.[52]

Decentralized planning has been a feature ofanarchistandsocialist economics.Variations of decentralized planning such aseconomic democracy,industrial democracy andparticipatory economicshave been promoted by various political groups, most notablyanarchists,democratic socialists,guild socialists,libertarian Marxists,libertarian socialists,revolutionary syndicalistsandTrotskyists.[44]During theSpanish Revolution,some areas where anarchist and libertarian socialist influence through theCNTandUGTwas extensive, particularly rural regions, were run on the basis of decentralized planning resembling the principles laid out byanarcho-syndicalistDiego Abad de Santillanin the bookAfter the Revolution.[53]Trotsky had urged economicdecentralisationbetween the state,oblastregions and factories during theNEPperiod to counter structural inefficiency and the problem of bureaucracy.[54]

Models[edit]

Negotiated coordination[edit]

EconomistPat Devinehas created a model of decentralized economic planning called "negotiated coordination" which is based uponsocial ownershipof themeans of productionby those affected by the use of the assets involved, with theallocationofconsumerandcapital goodsmade through a participatory form of decision-making by those at the most localized level of production.[55]Moreover, organizations that utilizemodularityin their production processes may distribute problem solving and decision making.[56]

Participatory planning[edit]

See also:Participatory economics

The planning structure of a decentralized planned economy is generally based on a consumers council and producer council (or jointly, a distributive cooperative) which is sometimes called aconsumers' cooperative.Producers and consumers, or their representatives, negotiate the quality and quantity of what is to be produced. This structure is central toguild socialism,participatory economicsand the economic theories related toanarchism.

Practice[edit]

Kerala[edit]

Main article:People's Planning in Kerala
See also:District planning in India

Some decentralized participation in economic planning has been implemented in various regions and states inIndia,most notably inKerala.Local level planning agencies assess the needs of people who are able to give their direct input through the Gram Sabhas (village-based institutions) and the planners subsequently seek to plan accordingly.[57]

Revolutionary Catalonia[edit]

Main article:Collectivist anarchism
See also:Revolutionary Catalonia

Some decentralized participation in economic planning has been implemented across Revolutionary Spain, most notably in Catalonia, during theSpanish Revolution of 1936.[19][20]

Similar concepts in practice[edit]

Community participatory planning[edit]
Main article:Participatory planning

TheUnited Nationshas developed local projects that promote participatory planning on a community level. Members of communities make decisions regardingcommunity developmentdirectly.[citation needed]

See also[edit]

Case studies (Soviet-type economies)
Case studies (mixed-market economies)

References[edit]

  1. ^Alec Nove(1987). "Planned Economy".The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics.vol. 3. p. 879.
  2. ^Devine, Pat (2010).Democracy and Economic Planning.Polity.ISBN978-0745634791.
  3. ^Gregory, Paul R.; Stuart, Robert C. (2003).Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century.Boston: Houghton Mifflin. pp. 23–24.ISBN978-0-618-26181-9.
  4. ^Prychito, David L. (2002).Markets, Planning, and Democracy: Essays After the Collapse of Communism.Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 72.ISBN978-1840645194.Traditional socialism strives to plan all economic activities comprehensively, both within and between enterprises. As such, it seeks to integrate the economic activities of society (the coordination of socially owned property) into a single coherent plan, rather than to rely upon the spontaneous or anarchic ordering of the market system to coordinate plans.
  5. ^abMandel, Ernest (1986)."In Defence of Socialist Planning"(PDF).New Left Review.159:5–37.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2008-05-16.Planning is not equivalent to 'perfect' allocation of resources, nor 'scientific' allocation, nor even 'more humane' allocation. It simply means 'direct' allocation,ex ante.As such, it is the opposite of market allocation, which isex post.
  6. ^Ellman, Michael (1989).Socialist Planning.Cambridge University Press. p. 327.ISBN978-0521358668.'[S]ocialist planning', in the original sense of a national economy which replaced market relationships by direct calculation and direct product exchange, has nowhere been established [...].
  7. ^abcCottrell, Allin; Cockshott, W. Paul (1993).Towards a New SocialismArchived2018-06-27 at theWayback Machine.(Nottingham, England: Spokesman. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
  8. ^Zimbalist, Sherman and Brown, Andrew, Howard J. and Stuart (1988).Comparing Economic Systems: A Political-Economic Approach.Harcourt College Pub. p.4.ISBN978-0-15-512403-5.Almost all industry in the Soviet Union is government owned and all production is directed, in theory, by a central plan (though in practice much is left for local discretion and much happens that is unplanned or not under government control).{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^Wilhelm, John Howard (1985). "The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy".Soviet Studies.37(1): 118–130.doi:10.1080/09668138508411571.
  10. ^Ellman, Michael (2007). "The Rise and Fall of Socialist Planning". In Estrin, Saul; Kołodko, Grzegorz W.; Uvalić, Milica (eds.).Transition and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Mario Nuti.New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 22.ISBN978-0-230-54697-4.In the USSR in the late 1980s the system was normally referred to as the 'administrative-command' economy. What was fundamental to this system was not the plan but the role of administrative hierarchies at all levels of decision making; the absence of control over decision making by the population [...].
  11. ^Heichelheim, Friedrich Moritz(1949)."Commerce, Greek and Roman".InHammond, Nicholas G. L.;Scullard, H. H.(eds.).The Oxford Classical Dictionary(2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press (published 1970). p.274.ISBN0198691173.
  12. ^La Lone, Darrell E. (1982)."The Inca as a Nonmarket Economy: Supply on Command versus Supply and Demand".Contexts for Prehistoric Exchange:292.Archivedfrom the original on 19 October 2020.Retrieved17 December2018.
  13. ^Blaug, Mark,ed. (1991).The Early mercantilists: Thomas Mun (1571–1641), Edward Misselden (1608–1634), Gerard de Malynes (1586–1623).Pioneers in economics. E. Elgar Pub. Co. p. 136.ISBN978-1852784669.Retrieved7 September2018.To this approach belongs at least in part an attempt to view mercantilism aseconomic dirigee,a planned economy with national economic objectives – 'wealth', 'plenty' or simply 'welfare' within the framework of the nation and at the expense of other nations.
  14. ^abTwiss, Thomas M. (2014).Trotsky and the Problem of Soviet Bureaucracy.Brill. pp. 88–113.ISBN978-90-04-26953-8.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-07-26.Retrieved2023-10-27.
  15. ^Day, Richard B. (1973).Leon Trotsky and the Politics of Economic Isolation.Cambridge University Press. p. 109.ISBN978-0-521-52436-0.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-07-26.Retrieved2023-10-27.
  16. ^Deutscher, Isaac (1965).The prophet unarmed: Trotsky, 1921–1929.New York, Vintage Books. p. 468.ISBN978-0-394-70747-1.
  17. ^Rogovin, Vadim Zakharovich (2021).Was There an Alternative? Trotskyism: a Look Back Through the Years.Mehring Books. pp. 404–405.ISBN978-1-893638-97-6.
  18. ^Fitzpatrick, Sheila (22 April 2010)."The Old Man".London Review of Books.32(8).ISSN0260-9592.Archivedfrom the original on 3 February 2024.Retrieved3 February2024.
  19. ^abWetzel, Tom."Workers Power and the Spanish Revolution"Archived2020-11-07 at theWayback Machine.
  20. ^abDolgoff, Sam, ed. (1974).The Anarchist Collectives(1st ed.). Free Life Editions. p. 114.ISBN978-0914156024.
  21. ^Einstein, Albert (May 1949)."Why Socialism?"Archived2011-03-17 at theWayback Machine,Monthly Review.
  22. ^Feinstein, C. H. (1975).Socialism, Capitalism and Economic Growth: Essays Presented to Maurice Dobb.Cambridge University Press. p. 174.ISBN0-521-29007-4.We have presented the view that planning and market mechanisms are instruments that can be used both in socialist and non-socialist societies. [...] It was important to explode the primitive identification of central planning and socialism and to stress the instrumental character of planning.
  23. ^ Kitov, Vladimir A.; Shilov, Valery V.; Silantiev, Sergey A. (5 October 2016). "Trente ans ou la Vie d'un scientifique". In Gadducci, Fabio; Tavosanis, Mirko (eds.).History and Philosophy of Computing: Third International Conference, HaPoC 2015, Pisa, Italy, October 8–11, 2015, Revised Selected Papers.Volume 487 of IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology. Cham, Switzerland: Springer (published 2016). p. 191.ISBN978-3319472867.ISSN1868-4238.Retrieved12 September2021.[...] "Measures to overcome the shortcomings in the development, production and introduction of computers in the Armed Forces and national economy". Today this project is known among the specialists as the 'Red Book' project. It was the first project in the USSR, which proposed to combine all the computers in the country into a unified network of compter centers. In peacetime this network must have fulfilled both national economic and defense tasks [...].
  24. ^abEden Medina (2006). "Designing Freedom, Regulating a Nation: Socialist Cybernetics in Allende's Chile".J. Lat. Am. Stud.38(38). Cambridge University Press: 571–606.doi:10.1017/S0022216X06001179.S2CID26484124.
  25. ^abLange, Oskar (1979)."The Computer and the Market".Calculemus.org.Archivedfrom the original on 17 April 2021.Retrieved12 September2012.
  26. ^Kitova, O."Kitov Anatoliy Ivanovich. Russian Virtual Computer Museum".computer-museum.ru.Translated by Alexander Nitusov.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-02-04.Retrieved2021-10-11.
  27. ^Peters, Benjamin (25 March 2016).How Not to Network a Nation: The Uneasy History of the Soviet Internet.MIT Press.ISBN978-0262034180.
  28. ^Peters, Benjamin (2016).How not to network a nation: the uneasy history of the Soviet internet.Cambridge, Massachusetts. p. 114.ISBN978-0262034180.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  29. ^ "Cyberfolk".Project Cybersyn.Archived12 May 2011 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 6 August 2020.
  30. ^Ellman, Michael (2014).Socialist Planning.Cambridge University Press. p. 372.ISBN978-1107427327.Archivedfrom the original on 2024-02-07.Retrieved2020-11-02.For the USSR, the official Soviet statistics of infant mortality give too favourable a picture. There are two reasons for this. First, the USSR used a definition of 'birth' different from the WHO one (Chapter 8, pp. 321–322). The percentage increase in the infant mortality rate caused by switching from the Soviet definition to the WHO one seems to have ranged from 13 per cent in Moldova to 40 per cent in Latvia. In Poland, which has a much larger population than the two previously mentioned countries, it was about 21 per cent. Secondly, there seems to have been significant under-registration of deaths, particularly in certain regions, such as Central Asia and Azerbaijan. Estimates of 'true' infant mortality in 1987–2000 show very high increases over the official figures in Central Asia, Azerbaijan, Albania, Romania, and Bulgaria. In Russia – which was supposed to have adopted the WHO definition of 'birth' by 1993 and where under-registration is much less than in Central Asia or Azerbaijan – in 1987–2000 the estimated increase of the official figures to measure 'true' infant mortality is 26.5 percent.
  31. ^Kennedy, Paul (1987).The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers.New York: Random House. pp.322–323.ISBN0-394-54674-1.
  32. ^Zielinski, J. G. (1973).Economic Reforms in Polish Industry.New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-215323-4.
  33. ^Von Mises, Ludwig(1990).Economic calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth(PDF).Ludwig von Mises Institute.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 16 December 2014.Retrieved8 September2008.
  34. ^Hayek, Friedrich A. (1945). "The Use of Knowledge".American Economic Review.XXXV: 4. pp. 519–530.
  35. ^Biro, Gabor (2022)."From Red Spirit to Underperforming Pyramids and Coercive Institutions: Michael Polanyi Against Economic Planning," History of European Ideas, 2022 ".History of European Ideas.48(6): 811–847.doi:10.1080/01916599.2021.2009359.S2CID225260656.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-08-16.Retrieved2022-08-16.
  36. ^Machan, Tibor (2002)."Some Skeptical Reflections on Research and Development"(PDF).Liberty and Research and Development: Science Funding in a Free Society.Hoover Press.ISBN0-8179-2942-8.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2006-10-31.
  37. ^Daniels, Robert V. (2002).The End of the Communist Revolution.Routledge. pp. 90–92.ISBN978-1-134-92607-7.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-11-07.Retrieved2023-10-30.
  38. ^abHahnel, Robin (2002).The ABC's of Political Economy.London: Pluto Press. p. 262.ISBN0-7453-1858-4.
  39. ^"Planned economy"Archived2007-02-28 at theWayback Machine.Dictionary. Unabridged (v. 1.1). Random House, Inc. Retrieved 11 May 2008).
  40. ^"Command economy"Archived2007-01-24 at theWayback Machine.Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.Retrieved 11 May 2008.
  41. ^Rosser, Mariana V.; Rosser, J. Barkley (2003).Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy.MIT Press. p. 7.ISBN978-0-262-18234-8.In a command economy the most important allocation decisions are made by government authorities and are imposed by law.
  42. ^Schweickart, David; Lawler, James; Ticktin, Hillel; Ollman, Bertell (1998). "Definitions of Market and Socialism".Market Socialism: The Debate Among Socialists.New York: Routledge. pp. 58–59.ISBN978-0-415-91967-8."For an Anti-Stalinist Marxist, socialism is defined by the degree to which the society is planned. Planning here is understood as the conscious regulation of society by the associated producers themselves. Put it differently, the control over the surplus product rests with the majority of the population through a resolutely democratic process. [...] The sale of labour power is abolished and labour necessarily becomes creative. Everyone participates in running their institutions and society as a whole. No one controls anyone else."
  43. ^Schweickart, David (2007)."Democratic Socialism".In Anderson, Gary L.; Herr, Kathryn G., eds.Encyclopedia of Activism and Social Justice.Sage Publications. p. 448.ISBN978-1452265650.Archived17 June 2012 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 6 August 2020. "Virtually all socialists have distanced themselves from the economic model long synonymous withsocialism(i.e., the Soviet model of a nonmarket, centrally planned economy. [...] Some have endorsed the concept ofmarket socialism,a postcapitalist economy that retains market competition but socializes the means of production and, in some versions, extends democracy to the workplace. Some hold out for a nonmarket, participatory economy. All democratic socialists agree on the need for a democratic alternative to capitalism ".
  44. ^abTrotsky, Leon.Writings 1932–33.p. 96.
  45. ^Wilhelm, John Howard (1985). "The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy".Soviet Studies.37(1): 118–130.doi:10.1080/09668138508411571.
  46. ^Ellman, Michael (2007). "The Rise and Fall of Socialist Planning". In Estrin, Saul; Kołodko, Grzegorz W.; Uvalić, Milica (eds.).Transition and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Mario Nuti.New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 22.ISBN978-0-230-54697-4.Realization of these facts led in the 1970s and 1980s to the development of new terms to describe what had previously been (and still were in United Nations publications) referred to as the 'centrally planned economies'. In the USSR in the late 1980s the system was normally referred to as the 'administrative-command' economy. What was fundamental to this system was not the plan but the role of administrative hierarchies at all levels of decision making; the absence of control over decision making by the population [...].
  47. ^"Machine of communism. Why the USSR did not create the Internet"Archived2022-03-08 at theWayback Machine.
  48. ^Kharkevich, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1973).Theory of information. The identification of the images. Selected works in three volumes. Volume 3.Information and technology: Moscow: Publishing House "Nauka", 1973. – Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Institute of information transmission problems. p. 524.
  49. ^Busky, Donald F. (2000).Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey.Praeger. pp. 7–8.ISBN978-0275968861."Sometimes simply called socialism, more often than not, the adjectivedemocraticis added by democratic socialists to attempt to distinguish themselves from Communists who also call themselves socialists. All but communists, or more accurately, Marxist-Leninists, believe that modern-day communism is highly undemocratic and totalitarian in practice, and democratic socialists wish to emphasise by their name that they disagree strongly with the Marxist-Leninist brand of socialism. "
  50. ^Prychito, David L. (2002).Markets, Planning, and Democracy: Essays After the Collapse of Communism.Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 72.ISBN978-1840645194."It is perhaps less clearly understood that advocates of democratic socialism (who are committed to socialism in the above sense but opposed to Stalinist-style command planning) advocate a decentralized socialism, whereby the planning process itself (the integration of all productive units into one huge organisation) would follow the workers' self-management principle."
  51. ^Van Ree, Erik (1998)."Socialism in One Country: A Reassessment".Studies in East European Thought.50(2): 77–117.doi:10.1023/A:1008651325136.ISSN0925-9392.JSTOR20099669.S2CID146375012.
  52. ^Kotz, David (2008)."What Economic Structure for Socialism?"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 2011-01-02.Retrieved12 September2012.
  53. ^"After the Revolution".Membres.multimania.fr. 7 January 1936. Archived fromthe originalon 29 August 2012.Retrieved12 September2012.
  54. ^Twiss, Thomas M. (8 May 2014).Trotsky and the Problem of Soviet Bureaucracy.BRILL. pp. 105–106.ISBN978-90-04-26953-8.
  55. ^"Participatory Planning Through Negotiated Coordination"(PDF).1 March 2002.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2011-08-17.Retrieved30 October2011.
  56. ^Kostakis, Vasilis (2019)."How to Reap the Benefits of the 'Digital Revolution'? Modularity and the Commons"Archived2023-06-19 at theWayback Machine.Halduskultuur: The Estonian Journal of Administrative Culture and Digital Governance.20(1): 4–19.
  57. ^Sivaramakrishnan, K.C. (2006).People's Participation in Urban Governance: A Comparative Study of the Working of Wards Committees in Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and West Bengal.New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. p. 140.ISBN8180693260.
  58. ^Crittenden, Ann (18 December 1977)."The Cuban Economy: How It Works".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 29 June 2018.Retrieved29 June2018.

Further reading[edit]

Library resourcesabout
Planned economy

External links[edit]

Wikiquote has quotations related toPlanned Economy.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Planned_economy&oldid=1231615387#Central_planning"