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Cetiosaurus

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Not to be confused with the sauropod dinosaurCetiosauriscus.

Cetiosaurus
Temporal range:Bajocian-Bathonian
~170–166Ma
↓
Mounted skeleton,Leicester Museum & Art Gallery
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Clade: Dinosauria
Clade: Saurischia
Clade: †Sauropodomorpha
Clade: †Sauropoda
Family: †Cetiosauridae
Subfamily: †Cetiosaurinae
Lydekker,1888
Genus: †Cetiosaurus
Owen,1841
Species:
†C. oxoniensis
Binomial name
†Cetiosaurus oxoniensis
Phillips, 1871

Cetiosaurus(/ˌsiːtioʊˈsɔːrəs,ˌsiːʃi-/)[1]meaning 'whale lizard', from theGreekketeios/κήτειοςmeaning 'sea monster' (later, 'whale') andsauros/σαυροςmeaning 'lizard', is agenusof herbivoroussauropoddinosaurfrom the MiddleJurassicPeriod,living about 168million years agoin what is now Britain.

Cetiosauruswas in 1842 the first sauropod from which bones were described and is the most complete sauropod found inEngland.It was so named because its describer, SirRichard Owen,supposed it was amarinecreature, initially an extremely largecrocodile,and did not recognise it for a land-dwelling dinosaur. Because of the early description many species would be named in the genus, eventually eighteen of them. Most of these have now been placed in other genera or are understood to be dubious names, based on poor fossil material. The last is true also of the originaltype species,Cetiosaurus medius,and soC. oxoniensiswas officially made the new type species in 2014.C. oxoniensisis based on three more or less complete specimens, discovered from 1868 onwards. Together they contain most of the bones, with the exception of the skull.

Cetiosaurus oxoniensiswas aquadrupedal,long-necked, small-headedherbivore.It had a shorter tail and neck than most sauropods. The forelimbs on the other hand, were relatively long.C. oxoniensisis estimated to have been about 16–18 metres (52–59 ft) long and to have weighed roughly 11 tonnes (12 short tons).

Discovery and species[edit]

Initial finds[edit]

Caudal vertebra ofC. longus

Cetiosaurusis, with the exception of the tooth genusCardiodon,the first sauropod to be discovered and named as well as being the best known sauropod from England.[2]Numerous species have been assigned toCetiosaurusover the years belonging to several different groups of sauropod dinosaurs. The genus thus functioned as a typical "wastebasket taxon".[3][4]Fossilized remains once assigned toCetiosaurushave mainly been found inEnglandbut also inFrance,SwitzerlandandMorocco.[3]

The first fossils, vertebrae and limb elements, were discovered nearChipping Nortonin the early nineteenth century and were reported upon by collector John Kingdon in a letter read on 3 June 1825 to the Geological Society; they were seen as possibly belonging to a whale or crocodile. In 1841biologist,comparative anatomistandpalaeontologistSirRichard Owen,named these as the genusCetiosaurus,the year before he coined the termDinosauria.Owen initially did not recogniseCetiosaurusfor a dinosaur but considered it a gigantic sea-dwelling reptile. This was reflected by the name, derived from Greek κήτειος,kèteios,"sea-monster".[5]In 1842 Owen named two species in the genus:Cetiosaurus hypoolithicusandCetiosaurus epioolithicus.Thespecific namesreflected whether the finds had been made below (hypo) or above (epi) the so-calledoolithiclayers. The first species was based on the material of Kingdon; the latter on vertebrae and metacarpals found atWhite NabinYorkshire.[6]The publication did not contain a sufficient description and the species are often considerednomina nuda.[3]The same year in a subsequent publication Owen named four additionalCetiosaurusspecies:Cetiosaurus brevis,"the short one";Cetiosaurus brachyurus,"the short-tailed";Cetiosaurus medius,"the medium-sized", andCetiosaurus longus,"the long one". Owen had abandoned the two earlier names, as shown by the fact that their fossils were referred to several of the new species. These again were each mostly based on disparate material, from often geographically widely separated sites.[7]As became apparent in 1849, some of these bones were not sauropod in nature at all but ofIguanodontidae.That yearAlexander Melville,in a misguided attempt to clear matters up, named the authentic sauropod material ofC. brevisasCetiosaurus conybearibut thereby merely created ajunior objective synonymof the former name.[8]

Cetiosaurus oxoniensis[edit]

Fossils ofC. oxoniensisat theOxford University Museum of Natural History

In March 1868, workers nearBletchingdondiscovered a sauropod right femur. Between March 1869 and June 1870 ProfessorJohn Phillips,further investigating the site, in a layer dating from theBathonianuncovered three skeletons and additional bone material. In 1871 based on these he named two species:Cetiosaurus oxoniensis(originally spelledCeteosaurus Oxoniensis) andCetiosaurus glymptonensis."Oxoniensis" refers toOxford,"glymptonensis" toGlympton.[9]Already in 1870Thomas Huxleyhad published a letter by Phillips in which the latter named aCetiosaurus giganteusbased on specimen OUMNH J13617, a left femur earlier found at Bletchingdon;[10]as the letter did not contain a description, this is anomen nudum.[3]

Hind view of the RutlandC. oxoniensismount

A century later, a newC. oxoniensisspecimen (LCM G468.1968) called the "Rutland Dinosaur" was discovered on 19 June 1968 by the driver of anexcavating vehicle.It was found at the base of theRutland Formationdating to theBajocian.Staff from Leicester City Museums arrived on 20 June 1968. It was not confirmed that all the preserved material was collected. It is the most complete sauropod fossil, and one of the most complete specimens of a dinosaur, ever found in the United Kingdom. It was only in around 1980 that there was interest in the fossil. It took around four years to find the dinosaur bones. Of the about two hundred bones in a cetiosaurus, it has preserved a nearly completecervical series(2–14), most of thedorsal vertebrae,a small part of thesacrumandanterior caudals,thechevrons,theilium,the rightfemur,and rib and limb fragments.[11]

The incomplete fossil is 15 metres (49 ft) long and has been displayed since 1985 in theLeicester Museum & Art Gallery.Only the more structurally-sound parts of the dinosaur are on display, with the more-fragile parts stored elsewhere. Much of what can be seen in the display is a representation (replica), and not the actual dinosaur. The model's vertebral column seen on display has fourteen cervicals, ten dorsals, fivesacralsand about fifty caudals.[3][11]The dinosaur display was taken to London to be featured on the children's television programmeBlue Peter.[citation needed]

Later species[edit]

In 1874,John Whitaker HulkenamedCetiosaurus humerocristatus,"with a crested humerus", based on specimen BMNH 44635, a humerus found that year atSandsfootnearWeymouthinDorset.[12]In 2010, this was made a separate genusDuriatitan.[13]In 1905,Arthur Smith WoodwardrenamedOrnithopsis leedsiiHulke 1887 intoCetiosaurus leedsi.[14]This today is often considered anomen dubium.[3]In 1970Rodney SteelrenamedCardiodonOwen 1841, based on a now lost tooth, intoCetiosaurus rugulosus,"the wrinkled one".[15]If the species were cogeneric toCetiosaurus,the name of the genus would however beCardiodonas this name has priority. In 2003, Upchurch & Martin rejected the identity.[3]

In addition to the thirteen species based on British material, three were named by French researchers. In 1874,Henri-Émile SauvagenamedCetiosaurus rigauxibased on a vertebra found byEdouard Edmond Joseph RigauxatLe Portel,west ofBoulogne-sur-Mer,[16]in layers dating from theTithonian.In 1903 however, he was forced to conclude it represented apliosaurid.[17]In 1880, Sauvage named another species:Cetiosaurus philippsi.[18]In 1955,Albert-Félix de LapparentnamedCetiosaurus mogrebiensisbased on three skeletons found inMoroccofrom theEl Mers Formationdating to the Bathonian. The specific name refers to theMaghreb.[19]This is today sometimes seen as a valid taxon, but one not belonging toCetiosaurus.[3]In 2011,Eric Buffetaute.a. referred a chevron found in theFrench Ardennes,specimen A775, to aCetiosaurussp.[20]

ACetiosaurusspecies has been based onSwissmaterial. In 1932,Friedrich von HuenerenamedOrnithopsisgreppiniHuene 1922 intoCetiosaurus greppini.[21]This is today considered anomen dubium.[22]In 2020, it was proposed to assignedC. greppinito the new genusAmanzia.[23]

The question of the type species[edit]

1871 illustration of material referred toC. oxoniensis

In principle for every genus atype speciesmust be indicated to serve as its type in anostensive definition.Traditionally,C. mediushad been considered the type species ofCetiosaurus.In 1888Richard Lydekkerhad formally assignedC. oxoniensisas the type species but by the modern rules of theICZNone of the species named by the original author, in this case Owen, must be selected. In 2003,Paul UpchurchandJohn Martindetermined thatC."hypoolithicus" andC."epioolithicus" could not be used because they werenomina nuda.Of the four species named in Owen's second 1842 article,C. brevis,C. brachyurus,C. longusandC. medius,onlyC. breviswould not be anomen dubium.This they interpreted as implying thatC. breviswas the type species. This conclusion, if correct, would cause considerable taxonomic instability, because the genusPelorosaurushad since been based on its fossils, and recognized as a totally different kind of sauropod. Therefore, Upchurch & Martin suggested to request the ICZN to change the type species intoC. oxoniensis,the best known species from the Middle Jurassic, which the genusCetiosaurushad generally come to be identified with.[3][4]

However, in 2009, when their request was officially filed, Upchurch and Martin had changed their position. They acknowledged that being designated anomen dubiumdoes not prevent a species from having been made the type of a genus. Furthermore, they had identified a passage in the 1842 article in which Owen himself had already assignedC. mediusas thetype species:"it is principally on these bones [i.e. those ofC. medius], with others subsequently discovered and in the collection of Mr. Kingdon, that the characters of theCetiosauruswere first determined ". Nevertheless, they still advocated a change in type becauseC. mediusis known only from undiagnostic material. Itssyntypeseries consists of eleven separate tail vertebrae, (specimina OUMNH J13693–13703), some sacral ribs with a foot bone (metatarsal,OUMNH J13704–13712), a hand bone (metacarpal,OUMNH J13748), and a claw (OUMNH J13721), probably from different fossil sites and different individuals.

TheICZNaccepted the proposal to change the type species in 2014 (Opinion 2331), officially makingC. oxoniensisthe type species in place of the originalC. medius.[24]MakingC. oxoniensisthe type species ofCetiosaurussecured the nameCetiosaurusfor the animal with which it has been traditionally associated.[4]

Valid Species[edit]

Right scapula ofC. oxoniensis

The complex naming history can be summarised in a list ofCetiosaurusspecies:

  • Cetiosaurus oxoniensisPhillips, 1871:type speciesofCetiosaurus

Doubtful species[edit]

  • Cetiosaurus hypoolithicusOwen, 1841:nomen nudum
  • Cetiosaurus epioolithicusOwen, 1841:nomen nudum
  • Cetiosaurus brachyurusOwen, 1842:nomen dubium
  • Cetiosaurus longusOwen, 1842:nomen dubium;=Cetiosauriscus longus(Owen, 1842) McIntosh, 1990
  • Cetiosaurus mediusOwen, 1842:nomen dubium
  • Cetiosaurus giganteusOwen vide Huxley, 1870:nomen nudum
  • Cetiosaurus philippsiSauvage, 1880

Misassigned and reclassified species[edit]

Description[edit]

Size comparison

Cetiosaurus,or specifically the neotype speciesC. oxoniensis,is known from relatively complete fossils. These include the three skeletons found by Phillips. One of these is a larger animal (catalogued as OUMNH J13605–13613, J13615–16, J13619–J13688 and J13899), which was chosen by Upchurch & Martin as thelectotypeof the species; the second consists of limb bones of a smaller individual (OUMNH J13614) and the third skeleton represents the shoulder blade and hindlimb of a juvenile animal (OUMNNH J13617–8, J13780–1). The Rutland specimen, about 40% complete, increases considerably the number of known skeletal elements, especially in the neck. The skull is largely unknown, perhaps with the exception of the brain case represented by specimen OUMNH J13596.[25]A single tooth crown, OUMNH J13597, has provisionally been referred to the species.[3]

Life restoration ofC. oxoniensisbased on the Rutland specimen

Cetiosauruswas, as any sauropod, a long-neckedquadrupedalanimal. In 2010,Gregory S. Paulestimated the body length at 16 metres (52 ft) and body mass at 11 tonnes (12 short tons).[26]Its neck was moderately long; no longer than its body. The tail was considerably longer, consisting of at least forty caudal vertebrae. Its dorsal vertebrae, the bones along the back, had the original heavy build with limited air chambers, unlike the extremely hollowed-out bones of later sauropods likeBrachiosaurus.Its forearm was as long as theupper arm,unlike most other sauropods, resulting in a forelimb equalling the hindlimb in length. Itsthigh bonewas approximately six feet long.

Skeletal drawing ofC. oxoniensis

In his original descriptions, Owen was unable to indicate any differences betweenCetiosaurusand other sauropods for the simple reason these latter were not yet discovered. Now that such relatives have been found, the uniqueness ofCetiosaurus oxoniensisand its status as a validtaxonmust be proven by indicating its new derived traits orautapomorphies.In their 2003 revision of the genus, Upchurch & Martin identified five autapomorphies ofC. oxoniensis.The rear neck vertebrae and the front back vertebrae have spines on their tops that are low, symmetrical and in the shape of a pyramid. With the spines of all back vertebrae a ridge is absent between the spine and thediapophysis,the top rib joint; it has been lost or perhaps fused with the ridge running between the spine and thepostzygapophysis,the rear joint process. The vertebrae of the middle tail have a tongue-shaped process at the top of the front face of the vertebral body; this is an extension of the floor of theneural canal.The chevrons of the front tail vertebrae have shafts of which the lower ends are flattened from the front to the rear instead of transversely. The lower process of theilium,to which thepubic bonewas attached, features on the outer surface of its base a triangular depression.[3]

Classification and phylogeny[edit]

Right femur ofC. oxoniensis

Owen initially was unsure about the precise relationships ofCetiosaurus.He understood it was areptileand most researchers at the time accordingly assigned it to theSauria.[27]However, he at first did not recognise its dinosaurian nature; when in 1842 he named the Dinosauria,Cetiosauruswas not included. This was influenced by the preconception that such a large animal must have been sea-dwelling. Owen assumed crocodylian affinities. In the early 1850s,Gideon Mantellbegan to suspect thatCetiosauruswas a land animal as a result of his studies ofPelorosaurus.This idea however, was only slowly accepted by other scientists. In 1859 Owen still classifiedCetiosaurusin theCrocodylia.[28]In 1861, Owen concentrated all such forms in a group of their own: theOpisthocoelia.[29]In 1869Thomas Huxleystated explicitly thatCetiosauruswas a dinosaur.[30]

In 1888 Lydekker assignedCetiosaurusto its own family: theCetiosauridae.[31]For a long time this functioned as a large ill-defined family of typically "primitive" sauropods. Today however, many considerably more basal sauropods thanCetiosaurusare known. Modern exactcladisticresearch has not resulted in a single clear outcome about the position ofCetiosaurus oxoniensisin the sauropod tree. Sometimes a Cetiosauridae was recovered, acladeunitingCetiosaurus oxoniensiswith species as the IndianBarapasaurus,the South AmericanPatagosaurusor the AfricanChebsaurus.Other studies indicate that the traditional Cetiosauridae wereparaphyleticand recoverCetiosaurus oxoniensisin a basal position in theEusauropoda,basal in theNeosauropoda[32]or just outside of this clade.[33]

Paleobiology[edit]

Other dinosaurs roughly contemporaneous toCetiosaurusinclude the theropod dinosaursMegalosaurus,DuriavenatorandProceratosaurus,as well as indeterminatethyreophoransandparavians.[34][35]The environment in whichCetiosauruslived wasfloodplainand open woodland. Paul consideredCetiosaurusa feeding generalist,[26]eating at both a low and a medium-high level, in view of its moderately long neck and limb proportions.

References[edit]

  1. ^"Cetiosaurus".Merriam-Webster Dictionary.Retrieved10 July2018.
  2. ^"Cetiosaurus." In: Dodson, Peter & Britt, Brooks & Carpenter, Kenneth & Forster, Catherine A. & Gillette, David D. & Norell, Mark A. & Olshevsky, George & Parrish, J. Michael & Weishampel, David B.The Age of Dinosaurs.Publications International, LTD. p. 65.ISBN0-7853-0443-6.
  3. ^abcdefghijkUpchurch P & Martin J (2003). "The Anatomy and Taxonomy ofCetiosaurus(Saurischia, Sauropoda) from the Middle Jurassic of England ".Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.23(1): 208–231.doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2003)23[208:TAATOC]2.0.CO;2.S2CID55360032.
  4. ^abcUpchurch, P.; Martin, J.; Taylor, M. (2009)."Case 3472:CetiosaurusOwen, 1841 (Dinosauria, Sauropoda): proposed conservation of usage by designation ofCetiosaurus oxoniensisPhillips, 1871 as the type species "(PDF).Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature.66(1): 51–55.doi:10.21805/bzn.v66i1.a6.S2CID81928676.
  5. ^Owen, R., 1841, "A description of a portion of the skeleton of theCetiosaurus,a gigantic extinct saurian reptile occurring in the oolitic formations of different portions of England ",Proceedings of the Geological Society of London3:457–462
  6. ^Owen, R., 1842, "Second rapport sur les reptiles fossiles de la Grande-Bretagne",L’Institut, Journal général des Sociétés et Travaux Scientifique de la France et de l’Étranger10:11–13
  7. ^Owen, R., 1842, "Report on British Fossil reptiles, Pt. II".Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 11:60–204
  8. ^Melville, A.G., 1849, "Notes on the vertebral column ofIguanodon",Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London139:285–300
  9. ^J. Phillips. 1871.Geology of Oxford and the Valley of the Thames.Clarendon Press, Oxford 523 pp
  10. ^Wikisource referenceHuxley, Thomas H. (1870). "Further Evidence of the Affinity between the Dinosaurian Reptiles and Birds".Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London.Vol. 26. pp. 12–31.doi:10.1144/GSL.JGS.1870.026.01-02.08– viaWikisource.
  11. ^abUpchurch P & Martin J (2002)."The RutlandCetiosaurus:the anatomy and relationships of a Middle Jurassic British sauropod dinosaur ".Palaeontology.45(6): 1049–1074.Bibcode:2002Palgy..45.1049U.doi:10.1111/1475-4983.00275.
  12. ^Hulke, J.W., 1874, "Note on a very large saurian limb-bone adapted for progression upon land, from the Kimmeridge clay of Weymouth, Dorset",Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London30(1–4): 16–17
  13. ^Barrett, P.M., Benson, R.B.J. & Upchurch, P., 2010, "Dinosaurs of Dorset: Part II, the sauropod dinosaurs (Saurischia, Sauropoda) with additional comments on the theropods",Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Archaeological Society131:113–126
  14. ^Woodward, A.S., 1905, "On parts of skeleton ofCetiosaurus leedsi,a sauropodous dinosaur from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough ",Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London1:232–243
  15. ^Steel, R., 1970,Saurischia. Handbuch der Paläoherpetologie 14,87 pp
  16. ^Sauvage, H.-E., 1874, "Mémoire sur les dinosauriens et les crocodiliens des terrains jurassiques de Boulogne-sur-Mer",Mémoires de la Société Géologique de France, série 210(2): 1–57
  17. ^Sauvage, H.-E., 1903, "Note sur quelques reptiles du Jurassique supérieur du Boulonnais",Bulletin de la Société académique de l'arrondissement de Boulogne-sur-Mer,6:380–398
  18. ^Sauvage, H.-E., 1880, "Sur les dinosauriens jurassiques",Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, 3e série8:522–524
  19. ^A-F. de Lapparent, 1955, "Étude paléontologique des vertébrés du Jurassique d'El Mers (Moyen Atlas),Notes et Mémoires du Service Géologique du Maroc124:1–36
  20. ^E. Buffetaut, B. Gibout, I. Launois, C. Delacroix, 2011, "The sauropod dinosaurCetiosaurusOWEN in the Bathonian (Middle Jurassic) of the Ardennes (NE France): insular, but not dwarf "/" Le sauropode dinosaurienCetiosaurusOWEN dans le Bathonien (Jurassique Moyen) des Ardennes (NE France): insulaire, mais pas nain ",Carnets de Géologie,2011:149–161
  21. ^Huene, F. von, 1932,Die fossile Reptil-Ordnung Saurischia, ihre Entwicklung und Geschichte,Monographien zur Geologie und Palaeontologie, serie 1, heft 4, 361 pp
  22. ^P.D. Mannion, P. Upchurch, O. Mateus, R.N. Barnes, and M.E.H. Jones, 2012, "New information on the anatomy and systematic position ofDinheirosaurus lourinhanensis(Sauropoda: Diplodocoidea) from the Late Jurassic of Portugal, with a review of European diplodocoids ",Journal of Systematic Palaeontology10(3): 521–551
  23. ^Schwarz, Daniela; Mannion, Philip D.; Wings, Oliver; Meyer, Christian A. (2020-02-24)."Re-description of the sauropod dinosaur Amanzia (" Ornithopsis/Cetiosauriscus ") greppini n. gen. and other vertebrate remains from the Kimmeridgian (Late Jurassic) Reuchenette Formation of Moutier, Switzerland".Swiss Journal of Geosciences.113(1): 2.doi:10.1186/s00015-020-00355-5.ISSN1661-8734.
  24. ^International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 2014. "OPINION 2331 (Case 3472):CetiosaurusOwen, 1841 (Dinosauria, Sauropoda): usage conserved by designation ofCetiosaurus oxoniensisPhillips, 1871 as the type species ".Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature71(1): 48-50
  25. ^Bronzati, Mario; Benson, Roger B. J.; Rauhut, Oliver W. M. (2017-12-18)."Rapid transformation in the braincase of sauropod dinosaurs: integrated evolution of the braincase and neck in early sauropods?".Palaeontology.61(2): 289–302.doi:10.1111/pala.12344.ISSN0031-0239.S2CID134495145.
  26. ^abPaul, G.S., 2010,The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs,Princeton University Press p. 177
  27. ^F.A. Quenstedt, 1851,Handbuch der Petrefaktenkunde,H. Laupp'schen, Tübingen 792 pp
  28. ^R. Owen, 1859,Monograph on the fossil Reptilia of the Wealden and Purbeck formations. Supplement no. II. Crocodilia,The Palaeontographical Society, London 1857: 20-44
  29. ^R. Owen. 1861.Palaeontology, or a Systematic Summary of Extinct Animals and their Geological Relations. Second Edition.Adam and Charles Black, Edinburgh 463 pp
  30. ^Debus A.A. (1994). "Mysterious Giants: Historical Sauropods".Dinosaur Report(Spring): 8–9.
  31. ^R. Lydekker. 1888.Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum (Natural History). Part I, Containing the Orders Ornithosauria, Crocodilia, Dinosauria, Squamata, Rhynchocephalia, and Proterosauria.British Museum (Natural History), London 309 pp
  32. ^J.A. Wilson, 2002, "Sauropod dinosaur phylogeny: critique and cladistic analysis",Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society136:217-276
  33. ^D.T. Ksepka and M.A. Norell, 2010, "The Illusory Evidence for Asian Brachiosauridae: New Material ofErketu ellisoniand a Phylogenetic Reappraisal of Basal Titanosauriformes ",American Museum Novitates3700:1-27
  34. ^Wills, S.; Underwood, C. J.; Barrett, P. M. (2023)."Machine learning confirms new records of maniraptoran theropods in Middle Jurassic UK microvertebrate faunas".Papers in Palaeontology.9(2). e1487.Bibcode:2023PPal....9E1487W.doi:10.1002/spp2.1487.
  35. ^Wills, Simon; Bernard, Emma Louise; Brewer, Philippa; Underwood, Charlie J.; Ward, David J. (April 2019)."Palaeontology, stratigraphy and sedimentology of Woodeaton Quarry (Oxfordshire) and a new microvertebrate site from the White Limestone Formation (Bathonian, Jurassic)"(PDF).Proceedings of the Geologists' Association.130(2): 170–186.Bibcode:2019PrGA..130..170W.doi:10.1016/j.pgeola.2019.02.003.

Bibliography[edit]

  • Fastovsky D.E., Weishampel D.B. (2005). "Sauropodomorpha:The Big, The Bizarre & The Majestic". In Fastovsky D.E., Weishampel D.B. (ed.).The Evolution and Extinction of the Dinosaurs(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 229–264.ISBN978-0-521-81172-9.
  • Owen, R. 1842. Second rapport sur les reptiles fossiles de la Grande-Bretagne. L’Institut, Journal général des Sociétés et Travaux Scientifique de la France et de l’ Étranger,10:11–14on Google Books.
  • Owen, R. 1875. Monograph of the Mesozoic Reptilia, part 2: Monograph on the genus Cetiosaurus. Palaeontolographical Society Monograph, 29: 27–43.
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