Jump to content

Immunology

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromClinical immunology)
"Immunobiology" redirects here. For the journal, seeImmunobiology (journal).
Immunology
MRSA (yellow) enguled byneutrophil(purple) Photo Source:National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
SystemImmune
Subdivisions
Genetic(Immunogenetics)
SignificantdiseasesRheumatoid arthritisInflammation
Significanttests
SpecialistImmunologist
Immunology

Immunologyis a branch ofbiologyandmedicine[1]that covers the study ofimmune systems[2]in allorganisms.

Immunology charts, measures, and contextualizes thephysiologicalfunctioning of the immune system in states of both health and diseases; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (such asautoimmune diseases,hypersensitivities,[3]immune deficiency,[4]andtransplant rejection[5]); and the physical, chemical, and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune systemin vitro,[6]in situ,andin vivo.[7]Immunology has applications in numerous disciplines of medicine, particularly in the fields of organ transplantation, oncology, rheumatology, virology, bacteriology, parasitology, psychiatry, and dermatology.

The term was coined by Russian biologistIlya Ilyich Mechnikov,[8]who advanced studies on immunology and received the Nobel Prize for his work in 1908 withPaul Ehrlich"in recognition of their work on immunity". He pinned small thorns into starfish larvae and noticed unusual cells surrounding the thorns. This was the active response of the body trying to maintain its integrity. It was Mechnikov who first observed the phenomenon ofphagocytosis,[9]in which the body defends itself against a foreign body. Ehrlich accustomed mice to the poisons ricin and abrin. After feeding them with small but increasing dosages of ricin he ascertained that they had become "ricin-proof". Ehrlich interpreted this as immunization and observed that it was abruptly initiated after a few days and was still in existence after several months.

Prior to the designation ofimmunity,[10]from the etymological rootimmunis,which isLatinfor 'exempt', early physicians characterized organs that would later be proven as essential components of the immune system. The important lymphoid organs of the immune system are thethymus,[11]bone marrow,and chief lymphatic tissues such asspleen,tonsils,lymph vessels,lymph nodes,adenoids,andliver.However, many components of the immune system arecellularin nature, and not associated with specific organs, but rather embedded or circulating in varioustissueslocated throughout the body.

Classical immunology

[edit]

Classical immunology ties in with the fields ofepidemiologyandmedicine.It studies the relationship between the body systems,pathogens,and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to theplague of Athensin 430 BCE.Thucydidesnoted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease couldnursethe sick without contracting the illness a second time.[12]Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries before the concept developed into scientific theory.

The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitiveinnate immune systemand, invertebrates,anacquired or adaptive immune system.The latter is further divided intohumoral(orantibody) andcell-mediatedcomponents.[citation needed]

The immune system has the capability of self and non-self-recognition.[13]An antigen is a substance that ignites the immune response. The cells involved in recognizing the antigen are Lymphocytes. Once they recognize, they secrete antibodies. Antibodies are proteins that neutralize the disease-causing microorganisms. Antibodies do not directly kill pathogens, but instead, identify antigens as targets for destruction by other immune cells such as phagocytes or NK cells.

The (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between antibodies andantigens.[14]Antibodies are specificproteinsreleased from a certain class of immune cells known asB lymphocytes,while antigens are defined as anything that elicits the generation of antibodies (antibodygenerators). Immunology rests on an understanding of the properties of these two biological entities and the cellular response to both.

It is now getting clear that the immune responses contribute to the development of many common disorders not traditionally viewed as immunologic,[15]including metabolic, cardiovascular, cancer, and neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer's disease. Besides, there are direct implications of the immune system in the infectious diseases (tuberculosis, malaria, hepatitis, pneumonia, dysentery, and helminth infestations) as well. Hence, research in the field of immunology is of prime importance for the advancements in the fields of modern medicine, biomedical research, and biotechnology.

Immunological research continues to become more specialized, pursuing non-classical models of immunity and functions of cells, organs and systems not previously associated with the immune system (Yemeserach 2010).

Diagnostic immunology

[edit]
Main article:Immunodiagnostics

The specificity of the bond between antibody and antigen has made the antibody an excellent tool for the detection of substances by a variety of diagnostic techniques. Antibodies specific for a desired antigen can be conjugated with anisotopic (radio)orfluorescent labelor with a color-forming enzyme in order to detect it. However, the similarity between some antigens can lead to false positives and other errors in such tests by antibodies cross-reacting with antigens that are not exact matches.[16]

Immunotherapy

[edit]
Main article:Immunotherapy

The use of immune system components or antigens to treat a disease or disorder is known asimmunotherapy.Immunotherapy is most commonly used to treat allergies, autoimmune disorders such asCrohn's disease,Hashimoto's thyroiditisandrheumatoid arthritis,and certaincancers.Immunotherapy is also often used for patients who are immunosuppressed (such as those withHIV) and people with other immune deficiencies. This includes regulating factors such as IL-2, IL-10, GM-CSF B, IFN-α.

Clinical immunology

[edit]

Clinical immunology is the study ofdiseasescaused by disorders of the immune system (failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth of the cellular elements of the system). It also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features.

The diseases caused by disorders of the immune system fall into two broad categories:

Other immune system disorders include various hypersensitivities (such as inasthmaand otherallergies) that respond inappropriately to otherwise harmlesscompounds.

The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself isAIDS,an immunodeficiency characterized by the suppression of CD4+ ( "helper" )T cells,dendritic cellsandmacrophagesby thehuman immunodeficiency virus(HIV).

Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent the immune system's attempts to destroyallografts(transplant rejection).[17]

Clinical immunology and allergy is usually a subspecialty ofinternal medicineorpediatrics.Fellows in Clinical Immunology are typically exposed to many of the different aspects of the specialty and treat allergic conditions, primary immunodeficiencies and systemic autoimmune and autoinflammatory conditions. As part of their training fellows may do additional rotations inrheumatology,pulmonology,otorhinolaryngology,dermatologyand the immunologic lab.[18]

Clinical and pathology immunology

[edit]

When health conditions worsen to emergency status, portions of immune system organs, including the thymus, spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic tissues, can besurgicallyexcised for examination while patients are still alive.

Theoretical immunology

[edit]

Immunology is strongly experimental in everyday practice but is also characterized by an ongoing theoretical attitude. Many theories have been suggested in immunology from the end of the nineteenth century up to the present time. The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century saw a battle between "cellular" and "humoral" theories of immunity. According to the cellular theory of immunity, represented in particular byElie Metchnikoff,it was cells – more precisely, phagocytes – that were responsible for immune responses. In contrast, the humoral theory of immunity, held byRobert Koch[19]andEmil von Behring,[20]among others, stated that the active immune agents were soluble components (molecules) found in the organism's "humors" rather than its cells.[21][22][23]

In the mid-1950s,Macfarlane Burnet,inspired by a suggestion made byNiels Jerne,[24]formulated theclonal selection theory(CST) of immunity.[25]On the basis of CST, Burnet developed a theory of how an immune response is triggered according to the self/nonself distinction: "self" constituents (constituents of the body) do not trigger destructive immune responses, while "nonself" entities (e.g., pathogens, an allograft) trigger a destructive immune response.[26]The theory was later modified to reflect new discoveries regardinghistocompatibilityor the complex "two-signal" activation of T cells.[27]The self/nonself theory of immunity and the self/nonself vocabulary have been criticized,[23][28][29]but remain very influential.[30][31]

More recently, several theoretical frameworks have been suggested in immunology, including "autopoietic"views,[32]"cognitive immune" views,[33]the "danger model"(or" danger theory "),[28]and the "discontinuity" theory.[34][35]The danger model, suggested byPolly Matzingerand colleagues, has been very influential, arousing many comments and discussions.[36][37][38][39]

Developmental immunology

[edit]

The body's capability to react to antigens depends on a person's age, antigen type, maternal factors and the area where the antigen is presented.[40]Neonatesare said to be in a state of physiological immunodeficiency, because both their innate and adaptive immunological responses are greatly suppressed. Once born, a child's immune system responds favorably to protein antigens while not as well toglycoproteinsandpolysaccharides.In fact, many of the infections acquired by neonates are caused by low virulence organisms likeStaphylococcusandPseudomonas.In neonates,opsonicactivity and the ability to activate thecomplement cascadeis very limited. For example, the mean level ofC3in a newborn is approximately 65% of that found in the adult.Phagocyticactivity is also greatly impaired in newborns. This is due to lower opsonic activity, as well as diminishedup-regulationofintegrinandselectinreceptors, which limit the ability ofneutrophilsto interact withadhesion moleculesin theendothelium.Theirmonocytesare slow and have a reducedATPproduction, which also limits the newborn's phagocytic activity. Although, the number of totallymphocytesis significantly higher than in adults, the cellular and humoral immunity is also impaired.Antigen-presenting cellsin newborns have a reduced capability to activate T cells. Also, T cells of a newborn proliferate poorly and produce very small amounts ofcytokineslike IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-12, and IFN-g which limits their capacity to activate the humoral response as well as the phagocitic activity of macrophage. B cells develop early duringgestationbut are not fully active.[41]

Artist's impression ofmonocytes

Maternal factors also play a role in the body's immune response. At birth, most of theimmunoglobulinpresent is maternal IgG. These antibodies are transferred from the placenta to the fetus using the FcRn (neonatal Fc receptor).[42]Because IgM, IgD, IgE and IgA do not cross the placenta, they are almost undetectable at birth. Some IgA is provided bybreast milk.These passively-acquired antibodies can protect the newborn for up to 18 months, but their response is usually short-lived and of lowaffinity.[41]These antibodies can also produce a negative response. If a child is exposed to the antibody for a particular antigen before being exposed to the antigen itself then the child will produce a dampened response.Passively acquired maternal antibodiescan suppress the antibody response to active immunization. Similarly, the response of T-cells to vaccination differs in children compared to adults, and vaccines that induce Th1 responses in adults do not readily elicit these same responses in neonates.[41]Between six and nine months after birth, a child's immune system begins to respond more strongly toglycoproteins,but there is usually no marked improvement in their response topolysaccharidesuntil they are at least one year old. This can be the reason for distinct time frames found invaccination schedules.[43][44]

During adolescence, the human body undergoes various physical, physiological and immunological changes triggered and mediated byhormones,of which the most significant in females is17-β-estradiol(anestrogen) and, in males, istestosterone.Estradiol usually begins to act around the age of 10 and testosterone some months later.[45]There is evidence that thesesteroidsnot only act directly on theprimaryandsecondary sexual characteristicsbut also have an effect on the development and regulation of the immune system,[46]including an increased risk in developingpubescentand post-pubescent autoimmunity.[47]There is also some evidence that cell surface receptors on B cells and macrophages may detect sex hormones in the system.[48]

The female sex hormone 17-β-estradiol has been shown to regulate the level of immunological response,[49]while some maleandrogenssuch as testosterone seem to suppress the stress response to infection. Other androgens, however, such asDHEA,increase immune response.[50]As in females, the male sex hormones seem to have more control of the immune system during puberty and post-puberty than during the rest of a male's adult life.

Physical changes during puberty such asthymic involutionalso affect immunological response.[51]

Ecoimmunology and behavioural immunity

[edit]
Main articles:EcoimmunologyandBehavioral immune system

Ecoimmunology, or ecological immunology, explores the relationship between the immune system of an organism and its social, biotic and abiotic environment.

More recent ecoimmunological research has focused on host pathogen defences traditionally considered "non-immunological", such aspathogen avoidance,self-medication,symbiont-mediated defenses, and fecundity trade-offs.[52]Behavioural immunity, a phrase coined byMark Schaller,specifically refers to psychological pathogen avoidance drivers, such asdisgustaroused by stimuli encountered around pathogen-infected individuals, such as the smell ofvomit.[53]More broadly, "behavioural" ecological immunity has been demonstrated in multiple species. For example, theMonarch butterflyoften lays its eggs on certain toxicmilkweedspecies when infected with parasites. These toxins reduce parasite growth in the offspring of the infected Monarch. However, when uninfected Monarch butterflies are forced to feed only on these toxic plants, they suffer a fitness cost as reduced lifespan relative to other uninfected Monarch butterflies.[54]This indicates that laying eggs on toxic plants is a costly behaviour in Monarchs which has probably evolved to reduce the severity of parasite infection.[52]

Symbiont-mediated defenses are alsoheritableacross host generations, despite a non-genetic direct basis for the transmission.Aphids,for example, rely on several different symbionts for defense from key parasites, and can vertically transmit their symbionts from parent to offspring.[55]Therefore, a symbiont that successfully confers protection from a parasite is more likely to be passed to the host offspring, allowing coevolution with parasites attacking the host in a way similar to traditional immunity.

The preserved immune tissues of extinct species, such as the thylacine (Thylacine cynocephalus), can also provide insights into their biology.[56]

Cancer immunology

[edit]
Main article:Cancer immunology

The study of the interaction of the immune system with cancer cells can lead to diagnostic tests and therapies with which to find and fight cancer. The immunology concerned with physiological reaction characteristic of the immune state.

Reproductive immunology

[edit]
Main article:Reproductive immunology

This area of the immunology is devoted to the study of immunological aspects of the reproductive process includingfetusacceptance. The term has also been used by fertility clinics to address fertility problems, recurrent miscarriages, premature deliveries and dangerous complications such aspre-eclampsia.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Fossen C."What is Biology?".ntnu.edu.Retrieved2018-07-25.
  2. ^Villani AC, Sarkizova S, Hacohen N (April 2018)."Systems Immunology: Learning the Rules of the Immune System".Annual Review of Immunology.36(1): 813–42.doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-042617-053035.PMC6597491.PMID29677477.
  3. ^"Hypersensitivities | Microbiology".courses.lumenlearning.Retrieved2018-07-25.
  4. ^"Specific Disease Types | Immune Deficiency Foundation".primaryimmune.org.Retrieved2018-07-25.
  5. ^"Transplant rejection: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia".medlineplus.gov.Retrieved2018-07-25.
  6. ^Pierce CW, Solliday SM, Asofsky R (March 1972)."Immune responses in vitro. IV. Suppression of primary M, G, and A plaque-forming cell responses in mouse spleen cell cultures by class-specific antibody to mouse immunoglobulins".The Journal of Experimental Medicine.135(3): 675–97.doi:10.1084/jem.135.3.675.PMC2139142.PMID4536706.
  7. ^Miyahara S, Yokomuro K, Takahashi H, Kimura Y (November 1983). "Regeneration and the immune system. I. In vitro and in vivo activation of lymphocytes by liver regeneration and the role of Kupffer cells in stimulation".European Journal of Immunology.13(11): 878–83.doi:10.1002/eji.1830131104.PMID6227489.S2CID22400759.
  8. ^"Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (Elie Metchnikoff) (1845–1916)".The Embryo Project.Arizona State University.
  9. ^"Phagocytosis: Definition, Process, & Examples".Encyclopedia Britannica.Retrieved2018-07-25.
  10. ^"Definition of immunity in English".Oxford Dictionaries.Archived fromthe originalon July 25, 2018.
  11. ^Lee DK, Hakim FT, Gress RE (October 2010)."The thymus and the immune system: layered levels of control".Journal of Thoracic Oncology.5(10 Suppl 4): S273–76.doi:10.1097/JTO.0b013e3181f20474.PMC2951290.PMID20859118.
  12. ^Gherardi, E (2007-01-02)."The Concept of Immunity. History and Applications".Immunology Course Medical School, University of Pavia.Archived fromthe originalon 2007-01-02.Retrieved2018-07-27.
  13. ^Rich, Robert R.; Chaplin, David D. (2019). "The Human Immune Response".Clinical Immunology.Principles and Practice (5th ed.). pp. 3–17.e1.doi:10.1016/B978-0-7020-6896-6.00001-6.ISBN9780702068966.S2CID88829315.
  14. ^Janeway CA, Travers P, Walport M, Shlomchik MJ (2001)."Chapter 9: The Humoral Immune Response".Immunobiology the immune system health & disease(5th ed.). New York: Garland.ISBN978-0-8153-3642-6.
  15. ^"What is immunology? | British Society for Immunology".immunology.org.Archived fromthe originalon 2018-07-21.Retrieved2018-07-21.
  16. ^Miller JJ, Valdes R (February 1991)."Approaches to minimizing interference by cross-reacting molecules in immunoassays".Clinical Chemistry.37(2): 144–53.doi:10.1093/clinchem/37.2.144.PMID1993317.
  17. ^"Transplant rejection: T-helper cell paradigm | British Society for Immunology".immunology.org.Archived fromthe originalon April 23, 2019.Retrieved2019-04-23.
  18. ^"Clinical Immunology and Allergy Competencies"(PDF).The Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2021-09-26.Retrieved2021-09-26.
  19. ^"Robert Koch | German bacteriologist".Encyclopedia Britannica.Retrieved2018-07-25.
  20. ^"Emil von Behring: The Founder of Serum Therapy".nobelprize.org.Retrieved2018-07-25.
  21. ^Silverstein AM (1989).A history of immunology.San Diego: Academic Press.ISBN978-0-12-643770-6.OCLC909269335.
  22. ^Tauber AI, Chernyak L (1991).Metchnikoff and the Origins of Immunology.New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-506447-6.OCLC22906314.
  23. ^abTauber AI (1994). "The Immune Self: Theory or Metaphor?".Immunology Today.15(3). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 134–6.doi:10.1016/0167-5699(94)90157-0.OCLC4930079483.PMID8172646.
  24. ^Jerne NK (November 1955)."The natural-selection theory of antibody selection".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.41(11): 849–57.Bibcode:1955PNAS...41..849J.doi:10.1073/pnas.41.11.849.PMC534292.PMID16589759.
  25. ^Burnet FM (1959).The Clonal Selection Theory of Acquired Immunity.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  26. ^Burnet FM (1969).Cellular Immunology: Self and Notself.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  27. ^Bretscher P, Cohn M (September 1970). "A theory of self-nonself discrimination".Science.169(3950): 1042–49.Bibcode:1970Sci...169.1042B.doi:10.1126/science.169.3950.1042.PMID4194660.S2CID26916828.
  28. ^abMatzinger P (April 2002)."The danger model: a renewed sense of self"(PDF).Science.296(5566): 301–05.Bibcode:2002Sci...296..301M.CiteSeerX10.1.1.127.558.doi:10.1126/science.1071059.PMID11951032.S2CID13615808.
  29. ^Pradeu T, Vitanza E (2012).The limits of the self: immunology and biological identity.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-977528-6.OCLC793571104.
  30. ^Langman RE, Cohn M (June 2000). "A minimal model for the self-nonself discrimination: a return to the basics".Seminars in Immunology.12(3): 189–95, discussion 257–344.doi:10.1006/smim.2000.0231.PMID10910739.
  31. ^Clark WR (2008).In defense of self: how the immune system really works.New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-533663-4.OCLC917294223.
  32. ^Coutinho A, Forni L, Holmberg D, Ivars F, Vaz N (1984). "From an antigen-centered, clonal perspective of immune responses to an organism-centered network perspective of autonomous reactivity of self-referential immune systems".Immunological Reviews.79:151–68.doi:10.1111/j.1600-065x.1984.tb00492.x.PMID6235170.S2CID46481630.
  33. ^Irun C (2000).Tending Adam's garden: Evolving the cognitive immune self.San Diego: Academic Press.
  34. ^Pradeu T, Carosella ED (November 2006)."On the definition of a criterion of immunogenicity".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.103(47): 17858–61.Bibcode:2006PNAS..10317858P.doi:10.1073/pnas.0608683103.PMC1693837.PMID17101995.
  35. ^Pradeu T, Jaeger S, Vivier E (October 2013)."The speed of change: towards a discontinuity theory of immunity?"(PDF).Nature Reviews. Immunology.13(10): 764–69.doi:10.1038/nri3521.PMID23995627.S2CID11366176.
  36. ^Janeway CA, Goodnow CC, Medzhitov R (May 1996)."Danger – pathogen on the premises! Immunological tolerance".Current Biology.6(5): 519–22.doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(02)00531-6.PMID8805259.S2CID14347980.
  37. ^Vance RE (2000)."Cutting edge commentary: a Copernican revolution? Doubts about the danger theory".Journal of Immunology.165(4): 1725–28.doi:10.4049/jimmunol.165.4.1725.PMID10925247.
  38. ^Matzinger P (May 2012)."The evolution of the danger theory. Interview by Lauren Constable, Commissioning Editor".Expert Review of Clinical Immunology.8(4): 311–17.doi:10.1586/eci.12.21.PMC4803042.PMID22607177.
  39. ^Pradeu T, Cooper EL (2012)."The danger theory: 20 years later".Frontiers in Immunology.3:287.doi:10.3389/fimmu.2012.00287.PMC3443751.PMID23060876.
  40. ^Goldsby RA, Kindt TK (2003).Immunology(5th ed.). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.ISBN978-0-7167-4947-9.
  41. ^abcJaspan HB, Lawn SD, Safrit JT, Bekker LG (February 2006)."The maturing immune system: implications for development and testing HIV-1 vaccines for children and adolescents".AIDS.20(4): 483–94.doi:10.1097/01.aids.0000210602.40267.60.PMID16470112.S2CID20277590.
  42. ^"Neonatal Immunology | British Society for Immunology".immunology.org.
  43. ^Glezen WP (December 2001). "Maternal vaccines".Primary Care.28(4): 791–806, vi–vii.doi:10.1016/S0095-4543(05)70041-5.PMID11739030.
  44. ^Holt PG, Macaubas C, Cooper D, Nelson DJ, McWilliam AS (1997). "Th-1/Th-2 Switch Regulation in Immune Responses to Inhaled Antigens".Dendritic Cells in Fundamental and Clinical Immunology.Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 417. pp. 301–06.doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-9966-8_49.ISBN978-1-4757-9968-2.PMID9286377.
  45. ^Sizonenko PC, Paunier L (November 1975). "Hormonal changes in puberty III: Correlation of plasma dehydroepiandrosterone, testosterone, FSH, and LH with stages of puberty and bone age in normal boys and girls and in patients with Addison's disease or hypogonadism or with premature or late adrenarche".The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism.41(5): 894–904.doi:10.1210/jcem-41-5-894.PMID127002.
  46. ^Verthelyi D (June 2001). "Sex hormones as immunomodulators in health and disease".International Immunopharmacology.1(6): 983–93.doi:10.1016/S1567-5769(01)00044-3.PMID11407317.
  47. ^Stimson WH (September 1988). "Oestrogen and human T lymphocytes: presence of specific receptors in the T-suppressor/cytotoxic subset".Scandinavian Journal of Immunology.28(3): 345–50.doi:10.1111/j.1365-3083.1988.tb01459.x.PMID2973658.S2CID38920551.
  48. ^Benten WP, Stephan C, Wunderlich F (June 2002). "B cells express intracellular but not surface receptors for testosterone and estradiol".Steroids.67(7): 647–54.doi:10.1016/S0039-128X(02)00013-2.PMID11996938.S2CID1056135.
  49. ^Beagley KW, Gockel CM (August 2003)."Regulation of innate and adaptive immunity by the female sex hormones estradiol and progesterone".FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology.38(1): 13–22.doi:10.1016/S0928-8244(03)00202-5.PMID12900050.
  50. ^Kanda N, Tamaki K (February 1999). "Estrogen enhances immunoglobulin production by human PBMCs".The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology.103(2 Pt 1): 282–88.doi:10.1016/S0091-6749(99)70503-8.PMID9949320.
  51. ^McFarland RD, Douek DC, Koup RA, Picker LJ (April 2000)."Identification of a human recent thymic emigrant phenotype".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.97(8): 4215–20.Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.4215M.doi:10.1073/pnas.070061597.PMC18202.PMID10737767.
  52. ^abParker BJ, Barribeau SM, Laughton AM, de Roode JC, Gerardo NM (May 2011). "Non-immunological defense in an evolutionary framework".Trends in Ecology & Evolution.26(5): 242–48.doi:10.1016/j.tree.2011.02.005.PMID21435735.
  53. ^"Commentaries on Evolutionary Foundations of Cultural Variation: Evoked Culture and Mate Preferences".Psychological Inquiry.17(2): 96–137. 2006.doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1702_2.S2CID219729311.
  54. ^Lefèvre T, Oliver L, Hunter MD, De Roode JC (December 2010)."Evidence for trans-generational medication in nature"(PDF).Ecology Letters.13(12): 1485–93.doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01537.x.hdl:2027.42/79381.PMID21040353.
  55. ^Koga R, Meng XY, Tsuchida T, Fukatsu T (May 2012)."Cellular mechanism for selective vertical transmission of an obligate insect symbiont at the bacteriocyte-embryo interface".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.109(20): E1230–37.doi:10.1073/pnas.1119212109.PMC3356617.PMID22517738.
  56. ^Old J (2015)."Immunological insights into the life and times of the extinct Tasmanian tiger (Thylacinus cynocephalus) ".PLOS ONE.10(12): e0144091.Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1044091O.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0144091.PMC4684372.PMID26655868.
[edit]
AtWikiversity,you can learn more and teach others aboutImmunologyat theDepartment of Immunology
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immunology&oldid=1233167580#Clinical_immunology"