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Coffea arabica

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This article is about the species of coffee plant. For the Japanese specialty coffee house chain, see% Arabica.For methods of preparation of a drink, seeArabic coffee.

Coffea arabica
Coffea arabicaflowers
Several coffee cherries growing along a branch; some are green and some are beginning to ripen
Coffea arabicafruit
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Gentianales
Family: Rubiaceae
Genus: Coffea
Species:
C. arabica
Binomial name
Coffea arabica

Coffea arabica(/əˈræbɪkə/), also known as theArabica coffee,is a species offlowering plantin the coffee and madder familyRubiaceae.It is believed to be the first species of coffee to have been cultivated and is the dominant cultivar, representing about 60% of global production.[2]Coffeeproduced from the less acidic, more bitter, and more highlycaffeinatedrobusta bean (C. canephora) makes up most of the remaining coffee production. The natural populations ofCoffea arabicaare restricted to the forests of South Ethiopia and Yemen.[3][4]

Taxonomy

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Coffea arabicawas firstdescribedscientifically byAntoine de Jussieu,who named itJasminum arabicumafter studying a specimen from theBotanic Gardens of Amsterdam.Linnaeusplaced it in its own genusCoffeain 1737.[5]

Coffea arabicais one of thepolyploidspecies of the genusCoffea,as it carries 4 copies of the 11 chromosomes (44 total) instead of the 2 copies of diploid species. Specifically,Coffea arabicais itself the result of a hybridization between the diploidsCoffea canephoraandCoffea eugenioides,[6]thus making it anallotetraploid,withtwocopies of two different genomes. This hybridization event at the origin ofCoffea arabicais estimated between 1.08 million and 543,000 years ago and is linked to changing environmental conditions in East Africa.[7][8]

Description

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Wild plants grow between 9 and 12 m (30 and 39 ft) tall, and have an open branching system; theleavesare opposite, simple elliptic-ovate to oblong, 6–12 cm (2.5–4.5 in) long and 4–8 cm (1.5–3 in) broad, glossy dark green. Theflowersare white, 10–15 mm in diameter, and grow in axillary clusters. The seeds are contained in adrupe(commonly called a "cherry" ) 10–15 mm in diameter, maturing bright red to purple and typically containing twoseeds,often calledcoffeebeans.

Distribution and habitat

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Endemic to the southwesternhighlandsofEthiopia,[9]Coffea arabicais grown in dozens of countries between theTropic of Capricornand theTropic of Cancer.[10]It is commonly used as anunderstoryshrub. It has also been recovered from theBoma PlateauinSouth Sudan.Coffea arabicais also found on MountMarsabitin northernKenya,but it is unclear whether this is a truly native or naturalised occurrence; recent studies support it being naturalised.[11][12]The species is widely naturalised in areas outside its native land, in many parts ofAfrica,Latin America,Southeast Asia,India,China,and assorted islands in theCaribbeanand in thePacific.[13]

The coffee tree was first brought toHawaiiin 1813, and it began to be extensively grown by about 1850.[14]It was formerly more widely grown, especially inKona,[14]and it persists after cultivation in many areas. In some valleys, it is a highly invasive weed.[15]In theUdawattakeleand Gannoruwa Forest Reserves near Kandy, Sri Lanka, coffee shrubs are also a problematic invasive species.[16]

Coffee has been produced in Queensland and New South Wales of Australia, starting in the 1980s and 90s.[17]TheWet Tropics Management Authorityhas classifiedCoffea arabicaas an environmental weed for southeast Queensland due to its invasiveness in non-agricultural areas.[18][19]

History

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Main article:History of coffee

The first written record of coffee made fromroastedcoffee beans (botanical seeds) comes fromArabscholars, who wrote that it was useful in prolonging their working hours. The Arab innovation inYemenof making a brew from roasted beans spread first among theEgyptiansandTurks,and later on found its way around the world. Other scholars believe that the coffee plant was introduced from Yemen, based on a Yemeni tradition that slips of both coffee andqatwere planted atUdein('the two twigs') in Yemen in pre-Islamic times.[20]Arabica coffee production in Indonesiabegan in 1699 through the spread of Yemen's trade.Indonesiancoffees, such asSumatranand Java, are known for their heavy body and low acidity. This makes them ideal for blending with the higher acidity coffees fromCentral AmericaandEast Africa.[9]

Cultivation and use

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Botanical drawing ofCoffea arabica,around 1860
Botanical drawing ofC. arabica,dating from around 1880.

Coffea arabicaaccounts for 60% of the world's coffee production.[2][21]

C. arabicatakes approximately seven years to mature fully, and it does best with 1.0–1.5 metres (39–59 in) of rain, evenly distributed throughout the year.[citation needed]It is usually cultivated at an altitude between 1,300 and 1,500 m (4,300 and 4,900 ft),[citation needed]but there are plantations that grow it as low as sea level and as high as 2,800 m (9,200 ft).[22]

The plant can tolerate low temperatures, but not frost, and it does best with an average temperature between 15 and 24 °C (59 and 75 °F).[23]Commercialcultivarsmostly only grow to about 5 m, and are frequently trimmed as low as 2 m to facilitate harvesting. UnlikeCoffea canephora,C. arabicaprefers to be grown in light shade.[24]

Two to four years after planting,C. arabicaproduces small, white, highly fragrant flowers. The sweet fragrance resembles the sweet smell ofjasmineflowers. Flowers opening on sunny days result in the greatest number of berries. This can be problematic and deleterious, however, as coffee plants tend to produce too many berries; this can lead to an inferior harvest and even damage yield in the following years, as the plant will favor the ripening of berries to the detriment of its own health.

On well-kept plantations, overflowering is prevented by pruning the tree. The flowers only last a few days, leaving behind only the thick, dark-green leaves. The berries then begin to appear. These are as dark green as the foliage until they begin to ripen, at first to yellow and then light red and finally darkening to a glossy, deep red. At this point, they are called "cherries",which fruit they then resemble, and are ready for picking.

The berries are oblong and about 1 cm long. Inferior coffee results from picking them too early or too late, so many are picked by hand to be able to better select them, as they do not all ripen at the same time. They are sometimes shaken off the tree onto mats, which means ripe and unripe berries are collected together.

The trees are difficult to cultivate and each tree can produce from 0.5 to 5.0 kilograms (1.1 to 11.0 lb) of dried beans, depending on the tree's individual character and the climate that season. The most valuable part of thiscash cropis the beans inside. Each berry holds twoloculescontaining the beans. The coffee beans are actually two seeds within the fruit; sometimes, a third seed or one seed, apeaberry,grows in the fruit at the tips of the branches. These seeds are covered in two membranes; the outer one is called the "parchment coat" and the inner one is called the "silver skin".

OnJava,trees are planted at all times of the year and are harvested year-round. In parts ofBrazil,however, the trees have a season and are harvested only in winter. The plants are vulnerable to damage in such poor growing conditions as cold orlow pH soil,and they are also more vulnerable to pests than theC. robustaplant.[25]

It is expected that a medium-term depletion of indigenous populations ofC. arabicamay occur, due to projectedglobal warming,based onIPCCmodelling.[26]Climate change—rising temperatures, longer droughts, and excessive rainfall—appears to threaten the sustainability of arabica coffee production, leading to attempts to breed new cultivars for the changing conditions.[27]

Gourmet coffees are almost exclusively high-quality mild varieties of arabica coffee, and among the best known arabica coffee beans in the world are those fromJamaican Blue Mountain,Colombian Supremo,Tarrazú,Costa Rica,GuatemalanAntigua,andEthiopian Sidamo.[28][29][30]

Blends consisting only of Arabica are often labelled "100% Arabica" as a sign of quality. In 2023, several large coffee roasters dropped the "100% Arabica" declaration previously residing on some of their packages and started to blend less expensiveRobustacoffee into the mix. To avoid making larger changes to the visual design of the package the Arabica label was replaced by other labeling, keeping the previous ornamental design, thereby presenting a case ofshrinkflation.In some case, the coffee is still advertised as "100% Arabica" in flyers in 2024, but is no longer declared so on the actual package.

ACoffea arabicaplantation in São João do Manhuaçu,Minas Gerais,Brazil

Strains

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Structure of coffee berry and beans:
1: Center cut
2: Bean (endosperm)
3: Silver skin (testa,epidermis)
4: Parchment coat (hull,endocarp)
5:Pectinlayer
6: Pulp (mesocarp)
7: Outer skin (pericarp,exocarp)

OnestrainofCoffea arabicanaturally contains very little caffeine. While beans of normalC. arabicaplants contain 12 mg of caffeine per gram of dry mass, these mutants contain only 0.76 mg of caffeine per gram, but with a taste similar to normal coffee.[31]

Threats

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Although it has a huge wild population of 13.5 to 19.5 billion individuals throughout its native range,C. arabicais still consideredendangeredon theIUCN Red Listdue to numerous threats it faces. Due to being anunderstoryplant, it requires standing forest, making it highly susceptible to the historically significantdeforestationlevels in Ethiopia; prior to major deforestation, forest cover was thought to be between 25–31% of Ethiopia's total land surface, but has dropped to just 4%, and deforestation still continues. In addition,climate changemay have a major effect on growing areas for wildC. arabicain Ethiopia due to its high-temperature sensitivity, and estimates indicate that population could reduce by 50–80% with a 40–50% reduction inarea of occupancyby 2088; climate change can also impact reproductive success. In addition, the main pest of coffee, thecoffee berry borer(Hypothenemus hampei) may benefit from climate change and colonize higher altitudes that were formerly too cold for it, which can also impact coffee populations.[12]

The conservation of the genetic variation ofC. arabicarelies on conserving healthy populations of wild coffee in theAfromontanerainforestsof Yemen. Genetic research has shown coffeecultivationis threatening the genetic integrity ofwild coffeebecause it exposes wildgenotypestocultivars.[32]Nearly all of the coffee that has been cultivated over the past few centuries originated from just a handful of wild plants from Yemen, and the coffee growing on plantations around the world contains less than 1% of the diversity in the wilds of Yemen alone.[33]

Climate change also serves as a threat to cultivatedC. arabicadue to their temperature sensitivity, and some studies estimate that by 2050, over half of the land used for cultivating coffee could be unproductive. The more heat-tolerantCoffea stenophyllamay replaceC. arabicaas the dominant coffee species in cultivation in order to guard against this.[34]

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  • Coffee germinating.
    Coffee germinating.
  • Coffea arabica growing at Olinda, Maui.
    Coffea arabicagrowing atOlinda,Maui.
  • Coffee flowers.
    Coffee flowers.
  • Fresh coffee fruits.
    Fresh coffee fruits.
  • Fresh coffee seeds ("beans").
    Fresh coffee seeds ( "beans" ).
  • Fermented coffee seeds.
    Fermented coffee seeds.
  • Fermented coffee (green) seeds without hulls.
    Fermented coffee (green) seeds without hulls.
  • Fermented and roasted coffee seeds.
    Fermented and roasted coffee seeds.
  • Unroasted ("green") coffee (Coffea arabica) seeds from Brazil.
    Unroasted ( "green" ) coffee (Coffea arabica) seeds fromBrazil.

See also

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iconCoffee portal

References

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  1. ^Moat, J.; O'Sullivan, R.J.; Gole, T.W.; Davis, A.P. (2020)."Coffea arabica".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2020:e.T18289789A174149937.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T18289789A174149937.en.Retrieved19 November2021.
  2. ^ab"Coffee: World Markets and Trade"(PDF).United States Department of Agriculture–Foreign Agricultural Service.16 June 2017. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 8 December 2017.Retrieved8 December2017– viaCornell University.
  3. ^Meyer, Frederick G. 1965. Notes on wildCoffea arabicafrom Southwestern Ethiopia, with some historical considerations. Economic Botany 19: 136–151.
  4. ^Söndahl, M. R.; van der Vossen, H. A. M. (2005)."The plant: Origin, production and botany".In Illy, Andrea; Viani, Rinantonio (eds.).Espresso Coffee: The Science of Quality(Second ed.). Elsevier Academic Press. p. 21.ISBN978-0-12-370371-2.
  5. ^Charrier, A.; Berthaud, J. (1985). "Botanical Classification of Coffee". In Clifford, M. H.; Wilson, K. C. (eds.).Coffee: Botany, Biochemistry and Production of Beans and Beverage.Westport, Connecticut: AVI Publishing. p. 14.ISBN978-0-7099-0787-9.
  6. ^Lashermes, P.; Combes, M.-C.; Robert, J.; Trouslot, P.; D'Hont, A.; Anthony, F.; Charrier, A. (1 March 1999). "Molecular characterisation and origin of the Coffea arabica L. genome".Molecular and General Genetics.261(2): 259–266.doi:10.1007/s004380050965.ISSN0026-8925.PMID10102360.S2CID7978085.
  7. ^Yves Bawin, Tom Ruttink, Ariane Staelens, Annelies Haegeman, Piet Stoffelen, Jean‐Claude Ithe Mwanga Mwanga, Isabel Roldán‐Ruiz, Olivier Honnay, Steven B. Janssens (2020)."Phylogenomic analysis clarifies the evolutionary origin of Coffea arabica".Journal of Systematics and Evolution.59(5): 953–963.doi:10.1111/jse.12694.S2CID234481707.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^Salojärvi, Jarkko; Rambani, Aditi; Yu, Zhe; Guyot, Romain; Strickler, Susan; Lepelley, Maud; Wang, Cui; Rajaraman, Sitaram; Rastas, Pasi; Zheng, Chunfang; Muñoz, Daniella Santos; Meidanis, João; Paschoal, Alexandre Rossi; Bawin, Yves; Krabbenhoft, Trevor J.; Wang, Zhen Qin; Fleck, Steven J.; Aussel, Rudy; Bellanger, Laurence; Charpagne, Aline; Fournier, Coralie; Kassam, Mohamed; Lefebvre, Gregory; Métairon, Sylviane; Moine, Déborah; Rigoreau, Michel; Stolte, Jens; Hamon, Perla; Couturon, Emmanuel; Tranchant-Dubreuil, Christine; Mukherjee, Minakshi; Lan, Tianying; Engelhardt, Jan; Stadler, Peter; Correia De Lemos, Samara Mireza; Suzuki, Suzana Ivamoto; Sumirat, Ucu; Wai, Ching Man; Dauchot, Nicolas; Orozco-Arias, Simon; Garavito, Andrea; Kiwuka, Catherine; Musoli, Pascal; Nalukenge, Anne; Guichoux, Erwan; Reinout, Havinga; Smit, Martin; Carretero-Paulet, Lorenzo; Filho, Oliveiro Guerreiro; Braghini, Masako Toma; Padilha, Lilian; Sera, Gustavo Hiroshi; Ruttink, Tom; Henry, Robert; Marraccini, Pierre; Van de Peer, Yves; Andrade, Alan; Domingues, Douglas; Giuliano, Giovanni; Mueller, Lukas; Pereira, Luiz Filipe; Plaisance, Stephane; Poncet, Valerie; Rombauts, Stephane; Sankoff, David; Albert, Victor A.; Crouzillat, Dominique; de Kochko, Alexandre; Descombes, Patrick (2024)."The genome and population genomics of allopolyploid Coffea arabica reveal the diversification history of modern coffee cultivars".Nature Genetics.56(4): 721–731.doi:10.1038/s41588-024-01695-w.PMC11018527.
  9. ^abMartinez-Torres, Maria Elena (2006).Organic Coffee.Ohio University.ISBN9780896802476.Retrieved26 January2016.
  10. ^Hoffmann, James (2018).The World Atlas of Coffee 2nd Edition.Great Britain: Mitchell Beazley. p. 12.ISBN978-1-78472-429-0.
  11. ^Charrier & Berthaud (1985),p.20.
  12. ^abMoat, J.; O'Sullivan, R. J.; Gole, T.; Davis, A. P. (2020)."Coffea arabica".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2020:e.T18289789A174149937.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T18289789A174149937.en.
  13. ^Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families,Coffea arabica
  14. ^abHargreaves, Dorothy; Hargreaves, Bob (1964).Tropical Trees of Hawaii.Kailua, Hawaii: Hargreaves. p. 17.
  15. ^"Coffea arabica (PIER species info)".Archived fromthe originalon 21 October 2012.Retrieved15 July2011.
  16. ^Nyanatusita, Bhikkhu; Dissanayake, Rajith (2013)."Udawattakele: 'A Sanctuary Destroyed From Within'"(PDF).Loris, Journal of the Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka.26(5 & 6): 44.
  17. ^"Coffee".AgriFutures Australia.Retrieved2 September2022.
  18. ^Cripps, Sally (21 September 2015)."Coffee eradication wins weed award".Queensland Country Life.
  19. ^Batianoff, George N.; Butler, Don W. (2002)."Assessment of invasive naturalized plants in south-east Queensland"(PDF).Plant Protection Quarterly.17(1): 27–34.
  20. ^Western Arabia and the Red Sea,Naval Intelligence Division, London 2005, p. 490ISBN0-7103-1034-X
  21. ^Marchant, Andrew (4 February 2023)."Intro to Arabica Coffee - Is 100% Arabica the Best Coffee?".Make Espresso.Archivedfrom the original on 1 March 2023.Retrieved1 March2023.
  22. ^Schmitt, Christine B. (2006).Montane Rainforest with Wild Coffea Arabica in the Bonga Region (SW Ethiopia): Plant Diversity, Wild Coffee Management and Implications for Conservation.Cuvillier Verlag. p. 4.ISBN978-3-86727-043-4.
  23. ^Taye Kufa Obso (2006).Ecophysiological Diversity of Wild Arabica Coffee Populations in Ethiopia: Growth, Water Relations and Hydraulic Characteristics Along a Climatic Gradient.Cuvillier Verlag. p. 10.ISBN978-3-86727-990-1.
  24. ^Prado, Sara Guiti; Collazo, Jaime A.; Stevenson, Philip C.; Irwin, Rebecca E. (14 May 2019)."A comparison of coffee floral traits under two different agricultural practices".Scientific Reports.9(1): 7331.Bibcode:2019NatSR...9.7331P.doi:10.1038/s41598-019-43753-y.ISSN2045-2322.PMC6517588.PMID31089179.
  25. ^"Coffee: The World in Your Cup." Seattle, WA: Burke Museum at the University of Washington.
  26. ^Davis, Aaron P.; Gole, Tadesse Woldemariam; Baena, Susana; Moat, Justin (2012)."The impact of climate change on indigenous arabica coffee (Coffea arabica): Predicting future trends and identifying priorities".PLOS ONE.7(11): e47981.Bibcode:2012PLoSO...747981D.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0047981.PMC3492365.PMID23144840.
  27. ^van der Vossen, Herbert; Bertrand, Benoît; Charrier, André (2015). "Next generation variety development for sustainable production of arabica coffee (Coffea arabicaL.): A review ".Euphytica.204(2): 244.doi:10.1007/s10681-015-1398-z.S2CID17384126.
  28. ^"Os melhores grãos do mundo".Revista Veja(in Portuguese).Editora Abril.31 July 2008. Archived fromthe originalon 5 August 2008.Retrieved29 July2008.Edition 2071. Print edition p. 140
  29. ^Fussell, Betty (5 September 1999)."The World Before Starbucks".The New York Times.Retrieved29 July2008.
  30. ^Fabricant, Florence (2 September 1992)."Americans Wake Up and Smell the Coffee".The New York Times.Retrieved29 July2008.
  31. ^Silvarolla, Maria B.; Mazzafera, Paulo; Fazuoli, Luiz C. (2004)."Plant biochemistry: A naturally decaffeinated arabica coffee".Nature.429(6994): 826.Bibcode:2004Natur.429..826S.doi:10.1038/429826a.PMID15215853.S2CID4428420.
  32. ^Silvarolla, M. B.; Mazzafera, P.; Fazuoli, L. C. (2004)."Plant biochemistry: A naturally decaffeinated arabica coffee".Nature.429(6994): 826.Bibcode:2004Natur.429..826S.doi:10.1038/429826a.PMID15215853.S2CID4428420.
  33. ^Rosner, Hillar y (October 2014). "Saving Coffee".Scientific American.311(4): 68–73.Bibcode:2014SciAm.311d..68R.doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1014-68.PMID25314878.
  34. ^"Climate change: Future-proofing coffee in a warming world".BBC News.19 April 2021.Retrieved24 April2021.

Further reading

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