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Coloman, King of Hungary

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Coloman the Learned
Coloman depicted inJános Thuróczy'sChronicle of the Hungarians
King of Hungary
Reign1096 – 3 February 1116
Coronationspring of 1096,Székesfehérvár
PredecessorLadislaus I
SuccessorStephen II
King of Croatia
Reign1097 – 3 February 1116
Coronation1102,Biograd
PredecessorPetar Snačić
SuccessorStephen II
Bornc.1070
Died3 February 1116 (aged 45–46)
Burial
Székesfehérvár Basilica
SpousesFelicia of Sicily
Eufemia of Kiev
Issue
more...		Sophia
Stephen II of Hungary
DynastyÁrpád dynasty
FatherGéza I of Hungary
MotherSophia
ReligionRoman Catholic

Coloman the Learned,[1][2]alsothe Book-Lover[3]orthe Bookish[4](Hungarian:Könyves Kálmán;Croatian:Koloman;Slovak:Koloman Učený;c.1070 – 3February 1116) wasKing of Hungaryfrom 1095 andKing of Croatiafrom 1097 until his death. Because Coloman and his younger brotherÁlmoswere underage when their fatherGéza Idied, their uncleLadislaus Iascended the throne in 1077. Ladislaus prepared Coloman—who was "half-blind and humpbacked", according to late medieval Hungarian chronicles—for a church career, and Coloman was eventually appointedbishop of EgerorVárad(Oradea,Romania) in the early 1090s. The dying King Ladislaus preferred Álmos to Coloman when nominating his heir in early 1095. Coloman fled from Hungary but returned around 19 July 1095 when his uncle died. He was crowned in early 1096; the circumstances of his accession to the throne are unknown. He granted the HungarianDuchy—one-third of theKingdom of Hungary—to Álmos.

In the year of Coloman's coronation, at least five large groups ofcrusadersarrived in Hungary on their way to theHoly Land.He annihilated the bands who were entering his kingdom unauthorized or pillaging the countryside, but the main crusader army crossed Hungary without incident. He invaded Croatia in 1097, defeating its last native kingPetar Snačić.Consequently, he was crowned king of Croatia in 1102. According to the late 14th-centuryPacta conventa(the authenticity of which is not universally accepted by scholars), he was only crowned after having ratified a treaty with the leaders of theCroatian nobility.For centuries thereafter, the Hungarian monarchs were also the kings of Croatia.

Coloman had to face his brother's attempts to dethrone him throughout his life; Álmos devised plots to overthrow him on at least five occasions. In retaliation, he seized his brother's duchy in 1107 or 1108 and had Álmos and Álmos' sonBélablinded in about 1114. Hungarian chronicles, which were compiled in the reigns of kings descending from his mutilated brother and nephew, depict Coloman as a bloodthirsty and unfortunate monarch. On the other hand, he is portrayed as "the most well-versed in the science of letters among all the kings of his day"[5]by the contemporaneous chroniclerGallus Anonymus.Coloman's decrees, which governed many aspects of life—including taxation, trade and relations between his Christian and non-Christian subjects—remained unmodified for more than a century. He was the first Hungarian king to renounce control of the appointment of prelates in his realms.

Early years (c.1070–1095)

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Coloman's father Géza depicted on the lower part(Corona Graeca)of theHoly Crown of Hungary
Coloman's uncle Ladislaus depicted in theChronica Hungarorum

Coloman was the elder of the two sons of KingGéza Iwho survived infancy.[6][7]Géza'sByzantine second wife—whose baptismal name is unknown—left Hungary after her husband's death, implying that she was not his children's mother.[6]Consequently, the mother of Coloman and his younger brother,Álmos,must have been Géza's first wife,Sophia,whose family is unknown.[6]According to historiansGyula Kristóand Márta Font, the brothers were born around 1070, because they were mature enough to hold offices in the early 1090s.[6][8]Coloman's uncommon baptismal name was recorded as Colomanus or Colombanus in medieval documents written inLatin.[8]Kristó writes that he was most probably named after SaintColoman of Stockerau,a missionary who was martyred inAustriain the early 11th century.[6][8]Another possibility is that his name is ofTurkishorigin (meaning "rest" ), because his brother bore a Turkish name.[8]

A map depicting Hungary, surrounded by sparsely inhabited lands
TheKingdom of Hungaryin the 1090s

Coloman's father ascended the throne in 1074.[9]Because Coloman and Álmos wereminorswhen he died on 25April 1077, Géza's brotherLadislaus Isucceeded him.[9][10]The new king decided that Coloman should be prepared for a career in the Church.[8]The king's decision was unusual as Coloman was older than Álmos and elder brothers were rarelyordained priests.[11]The 14th-centuryIlluminated Chroniclestated that Coloman was "of mean stature, but astute and quick of apprehension", adding that he was "shaggy and hirsute, half-blind and humpbacked, and he walked with a limp and stammered in his speech".[12]If the chronicle preserved genuine tradition of his appearance, his physical deformity may have influenced his uncle's decision.[13]However, modern scholars tend to refute this view, emphasizing that the chronicle was completed in the reigns of kings descending from Álmos.[3][14]

In preparation for his clerical life, Coloman learnt to read and write and acquired a good knowledge of Latin.[15]His proficiency incanon lawwas praised in a letter thatPope Urban IIaddressed to him in 1096.[15][16]According to Kristó, upon finishing his studies he was ordained priest and in the early 1090s was appointed bishop.[15]Hungarian chronicles completed in the 14th and 15th centuries say that Coloman was bishop of eitherEgerorVárad.[15][17]For instance, theIlluminated Chroniclestates that he was "bishop of Warad" (or Várad),[18]and LadislausI wanted to appoint him "bishop of Agria" (or Eger).[17][19][20]

According to theIlluminated Chronicle,both Coloman and Álmos accompanied their uncle on a military campaign againstBohemiain early 1095.[21][22]Before reaching the border of his kingdom, LadislausI "was overcome by a grave infirmity"[23]and decided to appoint Álmos as his heir.[22][24]Instead of obeying his uncle's decision, Coloman fled to Poland.[25][26]He returned to Hungary around 29July 1095 when his uncle died.[26]The exact circumstances of his ascension to the throne are uncertain.[27]TheIlluminated Chroniclestates Ladislaus had invited him back from Poland.[27]The same source adds that Álmos, "in the true simplicity of his heart honoured his brother, Coloman, and yielded to him the crown of the kingdom",[23]which suggests that he ascended the throne without bloodshed.[25]On the other hand, Coloman was crowned king in early 1096, the delay implying that the two brothers had been fighting for the crown before they reached an agreement.[26][28]It is also possible, as proposed by Font, that he could only becrownedafter Pope UrbanII had released him from his clerical vows.[25]

Reign

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Facing the crusaders (1095–1096)

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A bishop puts a crown on the head of a bearded man.
Coloman—who is depicted as ahunchbackin accordance with the tradition preserved in late medieval chronicles—is crowned king (from theIlluminated Chronicle).

Coloman was crowned inSzékesfehérvárbyArchbishop Seraphin of Esztergom.[25]According to theIlluminated Chronicle,at the same time he "granted the dukedom with full rights" to Álmos.[16][29]This report shows that Álmos only acknowledged his brother's rule in exchange for receiving theduchyonce held by their father andgrandfather,an area that comprised one third of the territory of the kingdom.[16][30]

Shortly after his coronation, Coloman had to face problems that the armies of theFirst Crusadecaused while passing through Hungary.[2][31]For decades, Hungary had been able to supply a significant number of Western European pilgrims with food during their journey to theHoly Land,but the movement of tens of thousands of crusaders across the country endangered the natives' subsistence.[32]The first group of crusaders, led byWalter Sans Avoir,reached the frontier in early May 1096.[32][33]Coloman received them in a friendly way and allowed them into the kingdom.[32]He also authorized them to buy food in the markets, although harvest had not started yet.[34]They proceeded through Hungary without any major conflicts.[31][32]The only incident occurred near the Hungarian–Byzantine border atZimony(Zemun,Serbia). Here, "certain Hungarians with evil minds"[35]attacked sixteen crusaders who had tried to buy weapons near the town, seizing the crusaders' clothes, armor, and money.[31][36]

The next arrivals, headed byPeter the Hermit,arrived in late May or early June.[32][33]Coloman permitted them to enter Hungary only after Peter pledged that he would prevent them from pillaging the countryside.[32]According toGuibert of Nogent's records, Peter could not keep his promise: the crusaders "burned the public granaries..., raped virgins, dishonored many marriage beds by carrying off many women", although "the Hungarians, as Christians to Christians, had generously offered everything for sale" to them.[37][38]Peter himself claimed that he and his companions had passed through the country without incident until they reached Zimony, where they learnt of the story of the sixteen crusaders who had been robbed by the Hungarians.[39]The crusaders besieged and took the town, where they massacred "[a]bout four thousand Hungarians",[40]according to the contemporaneousAlbert of Aix's estimation.[38][41]They only withdrew when Coloman's troops approached them.[39]

A third band of crusaders reachedNyitra(Nitra,Slovakia) and began plundering the region.[2][42]These were soon routed by the locals.[42][43]A fourth army came toMosonin the middle of June.[33][43]Coloman did not allow them to leave the region, either because he had learnt of their troublesome behavior during their journey, or he had realized that their movement across Hungary could jeopardize the stability of the local economy.[43][44]To seize food and wine, the crusaders made frequent pillaging raids against the nearby settlements.[43]Coloman decided to attack them, but the commanders of the army convinced him to persuade the crusaders to surrender their weapons and money, promising them that they would be supplied with food during their journey.[45]After the crusaders were disarmed, Coloman's troops attacked and massacred them nearPannonhalmain early July.[33][43][46]

[The crusaders] were even granted a licence to buy and sell necessary supplies, and peace was proclaimed on both sides according to [Coloman's] instructions, lest a dispute might arise from such a large army. But when they were delayed there for some days, they began to wander, and theBavariansandSwabians,a bold race, and the rest of the soldiers foolishly drank too much; they violated the proclaimed peace, little by little stealing wine, barley, and other necessities from the Hungarians, finally seizing sheep and cattle in the fields and killing them; they destroyed those who stood up to them and wanted to drive them out. The others committed several crimes, all of which we cannot report, like a people foolish in their boorish habits, unruly and wild. For, as those say who were present, they stabbed a certain young Hungarian in the market street with a stake through his private parts, because of a most contemptible dispute.... [Coloman] was disturbed by this scandal,... so he ordered... that the signal should be given to the whole of Hungary to stir to battle in vengeance of this crime and the other insults, and not one of the pilgrims was to be spared because they had carried out this vile deed.

— Albert of Aix:History of the Journey to Jerusalem[47]

Alarmed by these incidents, Coloman forbade the crusaders who arrived under the leadership of CountEmichoin the middle of July to enter Hungary.[33][48][49]Ignoring the king's order, they broke through the defensive lines and laid siege to Moson.[2][49]Their catapults destroyed the walls in two places, enabling them to storm into the fortress on 15August.[49]Coloman made preparations to flee toRus',fearing that the crusaders would occupy the whole country.[49]However, for no apparent reason, a panic broke out among the attackers that enabled the garrison to carry out a sortie and rout them.[49][50]Modern scholars agree that rumours about the sudden arrival of Coloman's army frightened the crusaders off from the fortress.[50][51]According to Albert of Aix, contemporaneous Christians thought that Emicho's defeat was a punishment that God inflicted on the pilgrims because they hadmassacred many Jews"rather from greed for their money than for divine justice".[50][52]

A bearded man wearing a crown gives a falcon to a younger man who is accompanied by a woman and a man.
Coloman's meeting withGodfrey of Bouillon

The first crusader army organized by the Holy See reached the borders of Hungary in September 1096.[53]It was led byGodfrey of Bouillon,Duke of Lower Lorraine.[53]Godfrey sent a knight who had already been known to Coloman to start negotiations about the crusaders' entry into Hungary.[54]Eight days later, Coloman agreed to meet with Godfrey inSopron.[53][54]The king allowed the crusaders to march through his kingdom but stipulated that Godfrey's younger brotherBaldwinand his family should stay with him as hostages.[54][55]The crusaders passed through Hungary peacefully along the right bank of theDanube;Coloman and his army followed them on the left bank.[2][53]He only released his hostages after all the crusaders had crossed the riverSava,which marked the kingdom's southern frontier.[56]The uneventful march of the main crusader army across Hungary established Coloman's good reputation throughout Europe.[57]

The contemporaneousCosmas of Praguewrote that "some of the Jews" who had been persecuted by the crusaders in Bohemia arrived in Hungary and "secretly took their wealth away with them".[58][59]Although Cosmas does not specify their number,László Mezeyand other historians say that the Jews represented a large influx.[59][60]Coloman issued a number of decrees and separate statutes—Capitula de Iudeis—regulating the position of Jews in Hungary.[59]For instance, he forbade them from holding Christian slaves and residing "outside episcopal sees".[59][61][62]Historian Nora Berend writes that the "defence of purity of Christians by interdictions against mingling with Jews plays a very minor role" in Coloman's legislation in comparison with late 12th-century canon law.[59]Whereas he did not try to convert the Jews, he issued decrees aimed at the conversion ofhis Muslim subjects.[63]For instance, he prescribed that if a Muslim "has a guest, or anyone invited to dinner, both he and his table companions shall eat only pork for meat"[64]in order to prevent Muslims from observingtheir dietary laws.[65]

Expansion, internal conflicts and legislation (1096–1105)

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After Coloman's victories over the crusaders,Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor,whom LadislausI had supported against Pope UrbanII in his last years, wrote a letter to Duke Álmos.[66]The emperor stated that Coloman had neglected imperial interests "because of his own necessities",[67]and asked the duke to intervene on his behalf.[66]However, Coloman—a former bishop—abandoned his predecessor's foreign policy and supported the pope.[68][69]Historian Gyula Kristó writes that Álmos's close relationship with Emperor Henry may also have influenced Coloman's decision.[69]Coloman marriedFelicia,a daughter ofRoger I of Sicily—a close ally of theHoly See—in 1097.[70]Her sisterConstancehad marriedConrad,the elder son of Emperor HenryIV, after he allied with the pope against his father.[71][72]

Coloman invadedCroatiain 1097.[73][28]LadislausI had already occupied most of the country, butPetar Snačić,the last native king of Croatia, resisted him in theMala Kapelamountains.[74]Petar Snačić died fighting against Coloman's army in theBattle of Gvozd Mountain.[75][76]The Hungarian troops reached theAdriatic Seaand occupiedBiograd na Moru,an important port.[73][75]Threatened by the advance of Coloman's army, the citizens of the towns ofTrogirandSplitswore fidelity to thedoge of Venice,Vitale Michiel,who had sailed toDalmatia.[28][75]Having no fleet, Coloman sent envoys with a letter to the doge to "remove all the former misunderstandings concerning what is due to one of us or the other by right of our predecessors".[75][70]Their agreement of 1098—the so-calledConventio Amicitiae—determined the spheres of interest of each party by allotting the coastal regions of Croatia to Hungary and Dalmatia to theRepublic of Venice.[77]

Taking advantage of Coloman's absence, Álmos began to conspire against the king and mustered his armies.[78]Coloman returned from Croatia and marched his army towards his brother's duchy in 1098.[78]The two armies met atTiszavárkony,with only the riverTiszaseparating them.[79]However, the commanders of the two troops started negotiations and decided not to fight each other, compelling the king and the duke to make peace.[79][80]

[Coloman] and his army marched to [Tiszavárkony] against [Álmos], and [Álmos] drew near to [Tiszavárkony] from the opposite direction, and between them was the river [Tisza]. But loyal Hungarians sought to bring about a truce, in order that they could talk with each other, and they said: "Why do we fight? If they defeat us in battle, we shall die; and if they escape, they will flee: in times pastour fathers fought against each other and brothers against brothers,and they died. Nor do we see any ground for fighting. Let those two fight if fighting pleases them; and whichever of them shall win, let us take as lord. "Having taken this decision, the chief men dispersed. When Grak told [Coloman] of their decision and Ilia informed [Álmos], they kept the peace, though it was not by their own will.

— The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle[81]
A medieval manuscript
The 14th-century manuscript of thePacta conventa

Grand PrinceSvyatopolk II of Kievsent his sonIaroslav– who was the husband of one of Coloman's nieces – to Hungary to seek assistance against the princes of the westernmost regions of Rus' in 1099.[82][83]Iaroslav persuaded Coloman to intervene in the conflict.[83]Coloman and his army crossed theCarpathian Mountainsand laid siege toPeremyshl(Przemyśl, Poland)—the seat ofVolodar Rostislavich,one of the rebellious princes.[83]David Igorevich, one of Volodar Rostislavich's allies, persuaded theCumansto attack the Hungarians.[82]In the ensuing battle, the Hungarian army was soundly defeated.[84]TheIlluminated Chroniclesays that "[r]arely did Hungarians suffer such slaughter as in this battle".[85][86]According to theRussian Primary Chronicle,many Hungarians "were drowned, some in theVyagroand others in theSan",[87]after the battle.[84]Coloman himself narrowly escaped from the battlefield through the valley of the San.[84]Shortly after his return from Rus', Coloman hastened towards the Bohemian border to assist the dukes of Moravia—SvatoplukandOtto—against DukeBretislaus II of Bohemia.[82][88]He had a meeting with Bretislaus on the border river Olšava "in the field of Lučsko" where "they renewed their age-old bonds of friendship and peace and confirmed them with oaths",[89]according to Cosmas of Prague.[82]

Coloman decided to review his predecessors' decrees around 1100.[90]Because he regardedStephen I of Hungary,who had beencanonizedin 1083,[91]as his ideal, he "assembled the magnates of the kingdom and reviewed with the advice of the entire council the text of the laws"[92]of Stephen I.[42][93]The assembly also passed decrees, which regulated several aspects of the economy and tempered the harshness of the legislation of LadislausI.[94][42]One of the decrees prohibited the persecution ofstrigae—vampiresormares—because they "do not exist".[95][96][97]The same law also dealt withmaleficior "sorcerers",[98]punishing their misdeeds.[97]Taxes on trade were increased under Coloman, implying that commerce flourished in his reign.[94]However, his legislation prohibited the export of Hungarian slaves and horses.[99]Coins minted during his reign were smaller than those issued in his predecessor's reign to prevent the cutting down of their smooth edge.[100]

Coloman was crowned king of Croatia in Biograd na Moru in 1102.[76]In the 13thcentury,Thomas the Archdeaconwrote that the union of Croatia and Hungary was the consequence of conquest.[73]However, the late 14th-centuryPacta conventanarrates that he was only crowned after he had reached an agreement with twelve leadingCroatian noblemen,because the Croats were preparing to defend their kingdom against him by force.[73]Whether this document is a forgery[101]or an authentic source[102]is a subject of scholarly debate. According to the historian Pál Engel, even if the document is a forgery, its content "is concordant with reality in more than one respect" concerning the special status of Croatia throughout the Middle Ages.[2]For instance, in case of a foreign invasion, Croatian noblemen were obliged to fight at their own expense only up to the riverDrava,which was considered the border between Croatian territories and Hungary.[73][101]

Coloman was a man of warlike spirit, and resolved to subjugate to his lordship all the land to the Adriatic Sea. He came with a force of arms and took possession of the remaining part of Slavonia, which Ladislas had passed over.

— Thomas the Archdeacon:History of the Bishops of Salona and Split[103]

In an attempt to prevent an alliance between Coloman andBohemond I of Antioch,theByzantine EmperorAlexios I Komnenosarranged a marriage between his son and heir,John,and Coloman's cousin,Piroska,in 1104 or 1105.[104][105]The alliance with the Byzantine Empire also enabled[105]Coloman to invade Dalmatia in 1105.[76]According to theLife of the blessed John of Trogir,he personally commanded his troops besiegingZadar,the most influential among the Dalmatian towns.[105]The siege lasted until Bishop John of Trogir negotiated a treaty between Coloman and the citizens who accepted the king's suzerainty.[106]The town of Split likewise surrendered after a short siege, but two other Dalmatian towns—TrogirandŠibenik—capitulated without resistance.[106][107]TheLife of St Christopher the Martyralso says that a Hungarian fleet subjugated the islands of theGulf of Kvarner,includingCres,Krk,andRab,as well asBrač.[105][107]Thomas the Archdeacon narrates that Coloman granted each Dalmatian town its own "charter of liberties" to secure their loyalty.[105][108]These liberties included the citizens' right to freely elect the bishop of their town and their exemption from any tribute payable to the monarch.[76][109]Following his conquest of Dalmatia, Coloman assumed a new title— "King of Hungary, Croatia and Dalmatia" —which was first recorded in 1108.[104][110]

Family affairs (1105–1113)

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Coloman had his four-year-old sonStephencrowned in 1105, which caused Álmos to openly rebel against the king.[111][112]The duke left Hungary and sought the assistance of Emperor HenryIV.[104]Having realized that the emperor, who was facing arebellion led by his own son,could not help him,[104]Álmos returned to Hungary in 1106, but then fled to his brother-in-law,Boleslaw III of Poland.[79][111]With Polish assistance he captured the fortress ofAbaújvárin Hungary.[113]Coloman had a meeting with BoleslawIII, and the two monarchs "vowed perpetual friendship and brotherhood".[5][113][114]Without the Polish monarch's support, Álmos was forced to yield to Coloman.[113]

A crowned man and a man wearing a hat shake hands before a priest at a church
The reconciliation between Coloman and his brotherÁlmosat the consecration of the monastery ofDömös(from theIlluminated Chronicle)

Coloman sent envoys to theCouncil of Guastalla,which had been convoked byPope Paschal II.[104]In October 1106 the envoys solemnly informed the pope of their king's renunciation of his royal prerogative to appoint the prelates of his realms.[104][115]According to historians Ferenc Makk and Márta Font, without this declaration the Holy See would not have acknowledged Coloman's conquest of Dalmatia.[104][115]During the civil war between BoleslawIII and his brotherZbigniew,Coloman intervened on the former's behalf and helped him overcome the latter's army inMazoviain 1107.[116]Coloman also sent Hungarian reinforcements to the Byzantine Emperor AlexiosI Komnenos againstBohemond I of Antioch,who had invaded Byzantine territories in October 1107.[113]After suffering a sound defeat, Bohemond withdrew his troops and acknowledged the emperor's suzerainty over thePrincipality of Antiochin theTreaty of Devolin 1108.[113][117]

In 1107 or 1108 Álmos made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land.[113]Coloman decided to take advantage of his absence and seized his duchy.[113]Although Álmos was allowed to keep his own private property, the annexation of his duchy secured Coloman's authority in the whole kingdom.[114]After returning from the Holy Land, Álmos set up a monastery atDömös.[114]On the occasion of its consecration, at which Coloman was also present, Álmos was—falsely, according to theIlluminated Chronicle—accused of trying to assassinate the monarch.[114]Coloman had his brother arrested, but "the most reverend bishops and other well-disposed dignitaries" intervened on Álmos's behalf and "thus reconciliation was solemnly sworn"[118]between the king and his brother.[114]

Álmos left forPassauto meetHenryV of Germany.[113]Upon Álmos's request, HenryV invaded Hungary and laid siege toPressburg(Bratislava, Slovakia) in September 1108.[42][113]At the same time, DukeSvatopluk of Bohemia,who also supported Álmos, made an incursion into the regions north of the Danube.[42]Coloman's ally BoleslawIII invaded Bohemia, forcing the Czech duke to withdraw.[113][119]The emperor's attempt to take Pressburg was a total failure, but he persuaded Coloman to forgive Álmos, who was allowed to return to Hungary.[120]

In the same year, Coloman visited Dalmatia and confirmed the privileges of Split, Trogir, and Zadar.[113]He returned to Zadar around 1111 and reaffirmed the Dalmatian towns' liberties.[113]TheZobor Abbeyreceived two charters of grant from Coloman in 1111 and 1113.[121]The first diploma mentioned aprovostin Nyitra (Nitra, Slovakia), but the second charter referred to the bishop of the same town.[121]According to a scholarly theory, the two documents show that Coloman set up thebishopric at Nyitrabetween 1111 and 1113.[121]These two royal charters also mention aMercuriusas"princeps Ultrasilvanus",which implies he was the firstvoivode of Transylvania,but he may have been only an important landowner in the province without holding any specific office.[122]In 1112 Coloman made an incursion into Austria.[123]He either wanted to take revenge forLeopoldIII of Austria's participation in the 1108 German campaign against Hungary, or simply to seize booty.[123]

In 1112 Coloman—who had been widowed—marriedEuphemia of Kiev,a daughter ofVladimir Monomakh,Prince of Pereyaslavl,in 1112.[123]However, as theIlluminated Chroniclenarrated, the queen "was taken in the sin of adultery"[124]in 1113 or 1114.[125]Coloman soon disowned his wife, sending her back to her father.[123]

Last years (1113–1116)

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A crowned man sitting on a throne gives orders to two soldiers; a young man and a baby lying on cliffs, and a soldier kneels by each
Álmosand his son,Bélaare blinded on Coloman's order (from theIlluminated Chronicle).

In 1113 Duke Boleslaw III of Poland, who had blinded his rebellious brother Zbigniew, causing his death, "undertook a journey of pilgrimage to St.Gilles and St.Stephen the King ",[126]to theSomogyvár Abbey,and to the king's shrine at Székesfehérvár in Hungary.[8][120]Coloman received the Polish monarch cordially in Somogyvár.[8]Shortly afterwards—between 1113 and 1115—Coloman discovered that Álmos was again conspiring to seize the throne.[2][127]Having lost his patience, the king had Álmos and Álmos's young sonBélablinded to secure a peaceful succession for his own son.[2]On the same occasion, many of his brother's partisans were likewise mutilated.[128]According to one of the two versions of these events recorded in theIlluminated Chronicle,the king even ordered that Béla should be castrated but the soldier who was charged with this task refused to execute the order.[129]The chronicle also states that the child was believed to have died after his blinding, but he was actually kept in a monastery for more than a decade.[130]

[The] King took the Duke and his infant son Bela and blinded them. He also gave orders that the infant Bela should be castrated. But the man who was instructed to blind them feared God and the sterility of the royal line, and therefore he castrated a dog and brought its testicles to the King.

— The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle[131]

The fleet of Venice, commanded by DogeOrdelafo Faliero,invaded Dalmatia in August 1115.[132][133]The Venetians occupied the Dalmatian islands and some of the coastal cities but could not take Zadar and Biograd na Moru.[132]By that time, Coloman was gravely ill.[134]The symptoms recorded in theIlluminated Chronicleindicate a seriousotitis,which causedencephalitis.[127]Before his death, he "instructed his son and his great men that after his death they should take vengeance onRussiafor the injury done to him "[135]during his campaign of 1099.[134]Upon his councillor's advice, he also had Álmos, who had taken refuge in the monastery of Dömös, imprisoned.[136]

The King now began to be gravely ill, and he had a Latin doctor, named Draco, in whom he placed too much trust. This doctor applied a poultice to the ears of the King, who was oppressed by headaches, and the strength of the poultice drew out through the cavities of his ears no small part of his brain. When the poultice had been removed because he could endure it no longer, he showed it to Count Othmar. When he inspected it and saw upon it the matter drawn forth from the brain, he said to the King: "Lord, it behoves you to prepare yourself forextreme unction".When the King heard this, he groaned and was afraid.

— The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle[135]

Coloman died on 3 February 1116.[136]According to theIlluminated Chronicle,"divine vengeance made him drink the bitterness of early death" because of his "shedding of innocent blood"[137]when ordering the punishment of Álmos, Béla, and their partisans.[134]He was the first monarch to be buried near the shrine of StephenI in theSzékesfehérvár Cathedral.[134]

Family

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Coloman's first wife Felicia—who is incorrectly named Busilla in earlier historiography—was the daughter of CountRoger I of Sicily.[78]There is scholarly uncertainty whether her mother was the count's first wifeJudith of Évreuxor his second wifeEremburga of Mortain.[140]The marriage of Coloman and Felicia took place in the spring of 1097.[141]She gave birth to at least three children.[70]According to Font, the eldest childSophiawas born in or before 1100.[70]In 1101 Sophia was followed by twin brothersStephenand Ladislaus.[70][142]Felicia's death preceded that of Ladislaus, who died in 1112.[70][142]

Coloman married his second wife Eufemia in the summer of 1112.[112][123]Born in 1096 or 1097, she was at least 25 years younger than Coloman.[112]She was the daughter ofVladimir II Monomakh,who was Prince of Pereyaslavl at the time of her marriage.[112]After Coloman repudiated her on a charge of adultery, Eufemia fled to Kiev, where she gave birth to a son,Boris,who was never regarded as Coloman's son by his Hungarian relatives.[143]

The following family tree presents Coloman's ancestors and some of his relatives who are mentioned in the article.[142]

Béla IRicheza or Adelaide
Sophia*Géza Iunnamed Synadene*Ladislaus I
Felicia of SicilyColomanEufemia of KievÁlmosPiroskaJohn II Komnenos
SophiaStephen IILadislausKings of Hungary
(from 1131)
Saul

*Whether Géza's first or second wife was his children's mother is uncertain.

Legacy

[edit]
Coloman's statue
Coloman's statue (Heroes' Square,Budapest,Hungary)

Late medieval Hungarian chronicles, written under kings descended from Álmos, preserved an unfavorable image of Coloman and his rule.[1]According to theIlluminated Chronicle,many "evil things were done" in Coloman's reign.[1][29]It states that the saintly LadislausI predicted that Coloman "would shed blood".[23][1]Modern historians—including Font,[1]László Kontler,[3]and Kristó,[134]—agree that this negative view was a form of "revenge" by his brother's descendants, who persuaded their chroniclers to emphasize Coloman's failures and to hide his successes. Earlier sources show that he was not always regarded as an evil and unlucky monarch.[57]In 1105 the abbess of anunneryin Zadar stated that Coloman had restored the "peace of the land and the sea".[144]The 13th-centuryRoger of Torre Maggiorewrites that he was "inscribed in the catalogue of saints"[145]along with the members of theÁrpád dynastywho were actually canonized.[1][134]Coloman's decrees, which moderated the severity of LadislausI's laws, also contradict the chroniclers' reports of his bloodthirsty nature.[146]The preamble to his decrees described him as "the most Christian King Columban", who is "endowed with the artless grace of a dove and with all discernment of the virtues".[57][92]

Coloman's statesmanship is appreciated in modern historiography. According to Kontler, "it was... under Coloman's reign that the medieval Hungarian state became consummate and acquired its final structure".[147]Font and Kristó write that Coloman's laws governed his kingdom without modifications for more than a century, even under monarchs hostile towards his memory.[148][149]Likewise,coinagein Hungary followed the pattern established by Coloman's small denars throughout the 12th century.[150]

His contemporaries Pope Urban II and Gallus Anonymus were aware of Coloman's "uncommon erudition".[3][151]According to the chronicles, the Hungarians called himCunues[18]orQunwes—the Learned or the Book-Lover— "because of the books he owned".[150][152]TheIlluminated Chroniclesays that Coloman "read thecanonical hourslike a bishop "[18]in his books.[150]According to Kristó, Coloman's court was a center of learning and literature.[153]BishopHartvikcompiled hisLife of King Stephen of Hungaryunder Coloman.[153][154]Kristó writes that it is probable that theLesser Legendof SaintGerard of Csanád(Cenad, Romania) was also written during Coloman's reign.[153]Historians also attribute the first compilation of Hungarian historical records to his efforts.[153][155]

References

[edit]
  1. ^abcdefFont 2001,p. 7.
  2. ^abcdefghEngel 2001,p. 35.
  3. ^abcdKontler 1999,p. 63.
  4. ^Klaniczay 2002,p. 129.
  5. ^abThe Deeds of the Princes of the Poles(ch. 2.29), p. 173.
  6. ^abcdeKristó & Makk 1996,p. 125.
  7. ^Font 2001,p. 12.
  8. ^abcdefgFont 2001,p. 13.
  9. ^abBartl et al. 2002,p. 27.
  10. ^Kontler 1999,p. 61.
  11. ^Font 2001,pp. 13–14.
  12. ^The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle(ch. 143.102), p. 131.
  13. ^Kristó & Makk 1996,pp. 126–127.
  14. ^Kristó & Makk 1996,p. 127.
  15. ^abcdFont 2001,p. 14.
  16. ^abcKristó & Makk 1996,p. 133.
  17. ^abKristó & Makk 1996,p. 128.
  18. ^abcThe Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle(ch. 152.108), p. 133.
  19. ^The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle(ch. 139.100), p. 130.
  20. ^Font 2001,pp. 7, 14.
  21. ^Kristó & Makk 1996,p. 129.
  22. ^abFont 2001,p. 15.
  23. ^abcThe Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle(ch. 140.101), p. 130.
  24. ^Engel 2001,p. 34.
  25. ^abcdFont 2001,p. 16.
  26. ^abcMakk 1989,p. 11.
  27. ^abKristó & Makk 1996,p. 131.
  28. ^abcStephenson 2000,p. 197.
  29. ^abThe Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle(ch. 142.102), p. 131.
  30. ^Font 2001,p. 20.
  31. ^abcFont 2001,p. 67.
  32. ^abcdefRubenstein 2011,p. 56.
  33. ^abcdeÉrszegi & Solymosi 1981,p. 97.
  34. ^Tyerman 2006,p. 96.
  35. ^Albert of Aachen:Historia Ierosolimitana—History of the Journey to Jerusalem(ch. i.6), p. 11.
  36. ^Rubenstein 2011,pp. 56–58.
  37. ^The Deeds of God through the Franks—Gesta Dei per Francos (Book Two), p. 148.
  38. ^abRubenstein 2011,p. 60.
  39. ^abRubenstein 2011,p. 61.
  40. ^Albert of Aachen:Historia Ierosolimitana—History of the Journey to Jerusalem(ch. i.8), p. 17.
  41. ^Runciman 1951,p. 124.
  42. ^abcdefBartl et al. 2002,p. 28.
  43. ^abcdeRubenstein 2011,p. 64.
  44. ^Tyerman 2006,p. 100.
  45. ^Rubenstein 2011,p. 65.
  46. ^Tyerman 2006,p. 95.
  47. ^Albert of Aachen:Historia Ierosolimitana—History of the Journey to Jerusalem(ch. i.23–24), pp. 45–47.
  48. ^Font 2001,pp. 67–68.
  49. ^abcdeRubenstein 2011,p. 66.
  50. ^abcRunciman 1951,p. 141.
  51. ^Tyerman 2006,p. 103.
  52. ^Albert of Aachen:Historia Ierosolimitana—History of the Journey to Jerusalem(ch. i.29), p.59.
  53. ^abcdFont 2001,p. 68.
  54. ^abcRubenstein 2011,p. 72.
  55. ^Runciman 1951,p. 148.
  56. ^Rubenstein 2011,p. 73.
  57. ^abcFont 2001,p. 86.
  58. ^Cosmas of Prague: The Chronicle of the Czechs(3.5), p. 187.
  59. ^abcdeBerend 2001,p. 75.
  60. ^Kontler 1999,p. 75.
  61. ^Laws of King Coloman(Coloman:75), p. 30.
  62. ^Font 2001,p. 60.
  63. ^Berend 2001,pp. 84–85.
  64. ^Laws of King Coloman(Coloman:49), p. 28.
  65. ^Berend 2001,p. 211.
  66. ^abFont 2001,p. 21.
  67. ^The letters of Henry IV: Henry thanks Duke Almus for his support and promises him a reward,p.171.
  68. ^Font 2001,pp. 21–22.
  69. ^abKristó & Makk 1996,p. 136.
  70. ^abcdefFont 2001,p. 78.
  71. ^Font 2001,p. 77.
  72. ^Norwich 1992,pp. 272, 333.
  73. ^abcdeMagaš 2007,p. 51.
  74. ^Curta 2006,p. 265.
  75. ^abcdFine 1991,p. 284.
  76. ^abcdCurta 2006,p. 266.
  77. ^Stephenson 2000,pp. 197–198.
  78. ^abcKristó & Makk 1996,p. 137.
  79. ^abcFont 2001,p. 22.
  80. ^Kristó & Makk 1996,p. 138.
  81. ^The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle(ch. 144.102–103), p. 131.
  82. ^abcdMakk 1989,p. 13.
  83. ^abcFont 2001,p. 73.
  84. ^abcFont 2001,p. 74.
  85. ^Kristó & Makk 1996,p. 142.
  86. ^The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle(ch. 145.104), p. 132.
  87. ^Russian Primary Chronicle(year 6605), p. 196.
  88. ^Engel 1994,p. 560.
  89. ^Cosmas of Prague: The Chronicle of the Czechs(3.9), pp. 190–191.
  90. ^Makk 1989,p. 31.
  91. ^Engel 2001,p. 33.
  92. ^abLaws of King Coloman(Coloman:Preamble), p. 24.
  93. ^Font 2001,p. 31.
  94. ^abKontler 1999,p. 65.
  95. ^Laws of King Coloman(Coloman:57), p. 24.
  96. ^Engel 2001,p. 47.
  97. ^abTóth, Béla (22 October 2004) [1984]."Könyves Kálmán és a boszorkányok [Coloman the Learned and the witches]".Mendemondák: A világtörténelem furcsaságai [Rumours: Strange Facts of World History].Helikon / Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár.Retrieved3 January2014.
  98. ^Laws of King Coloman(Coloman:60), p. 24.
  99. ^Font 2001,pp. 45–46.
  100. ^Font 2001,p. 47.
  101. ^abCurta 2006,p. 267.
  102. ^Fine 1991,pp. 284–285.
  103. ^Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split(ch. 17), p. 95.
  104. ^abcdefgMakk 1989,p. 14.
  105. ^abcdeStephenson 2000,p. 199.
  106. ^abStephenson 2000,p. 200.
  107. ^abFont 2001,p. 66.
  108. ^Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split(ch. 17), p. 97.
  109. ^Stephenson 2000,pp. 200–201.
  110. ^Engel 2001,p. 36.
  111. ^abKristó & Makk 1996,p. 143.
  112. ^abcdFont 2001,p. 79.
  113. ^abcdefghijklMakk 1989,p. 15.
  114. ^abcdeFont 2001,p. 23.
  115. ^abFont 2001,p. 70.
  116. ^Manteuffel 1982,p. 106.
  117. ^Stephenson 2000,pp. 182–183.
  118. ^The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle(ch. 148.105), p. 132.
  119. ^Manteuffel 1982,p. 108.
  120. ^abKristó & Makk 1996,p. 146.
  121. ^abcFont 2001,p. 71.
  122. ^Curta 2006,p. 355.
  123. ^abcdeMakk 1989,p. 16.
  124. ^The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle(ch. 149.106), p. 132.
  125. ^Font 2001,p. 80.
  126. ^The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles(ch. 2.25), p. 277.
  127. ^abFont 2001,p. 82.
  128. ^Makk 1989,pp. 16–17.
  129. ^Kristó & Makk 1996,p. 161.
  130. ^Kristó & Makk 1996,p. 164.
  131. ^The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle(ch. 150.106), p. 133.
  132. ^abStephenson 2000,p. 203.
  133. ^Makk 1989,p. 17.
  134. ^abcdefKristó & Makk 1996,p. 148.
  135. ^abThe Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle(ch. 151.107), p. 133.
  136. ^abFont 2001,p. 83.
  137. ^The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle(ch. 150.107), p. 133.
  138. ^Kristó & Makk 1996,pp. Appendices 1–2.
  139. ^Wiszewski 2010,pp. 29–30, 60, 376.
  140. ^Norwich 1992,pp. 146, 333.
  141. ^Makk 1989,p. 12.
  142. ^abcKristó & Makk 1996,p. Appendix 2.
  143. ^Font 2001,p. 81.
  144. ^Font 2001,pp. 86–87.
  145. ^Master Roger's Epistle(ch. 1.), pp. 135–137.
  146. ^Font 2001,p. 85.
  147. ^Kontler 1999,p. 64.
  148. ^Font 2001,p. 35.
  149. ^Kristó & Makk 1996,p. 144.
  150. ^abcFont 2001,p. 48.
  151. ^Kristó & Makk 1996,p. 126.
  152. ^Simon of Kéza: The Deeds of the Hungarians(ch. 2.64), pp. 138–139.
  153. ^abcdKristó & Makk 1996,p. 147.
  154. ^Klaniczay 2002,p. 135.
  155. ^Font 2001,p. 28.

Sources

[edit]

Primary sources

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  • Albert of Aachen:Historia Ierosolimitana—History of the Journey to Jerusalem(Edited and translated by Susan B. Edgington) (2007). Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-920486-1.
  • Anna Comnena: The Alexiad(Translated by E. R. A. Sewter) (1969). Penguin Books.ISBN978-0-14-044958-7.
  • Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split(Latin text by Olga Perić; edited, translated and annotated by Damir Karbić, Mirjana Matijević Sokol, and James Ross Sweeney) (2006). CEU Press.ISBN963-7326-59-6.
  • Cosmas of Prague: The Chronicle of the Czechs(Translated with an introduction and notes by Lisa Wolverton) (2009). The Catholic University of America Press.ISBN978-0-8132-1570-9.
  • Master Roger's Epistle to the Sorrowful Lament upon the Destruction of the Kingdom of Hungary by the Tatars(Translated and Annotated by János M. Bak and Martyn Rady) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László; Bak, János M. (2010);Anonymus and Master Roger;CEU Press;ISBN978-963-9776-95-1.
  • Simon of Kéza: The Deeds of the Hungarians(Edited and translated by László Veszprémy and Frank Schaer with a study by Jenő Szűcs) (1999). CEU Press.ISBN963-9116-31-9.
  • The Deeds of God through the Franks—Gesta Dei per Francos, Guibert de Nogent (Translated by Robert Levine) (1997). The Boydell Press.ISBN978-0-85115-693-4.
  • The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles(Translated and annotated by Paul W. Knoll and Frank Schaer with a preface by Thomas N. Bisson) (2003). CEU Press.ISBN963-9241-40-7.
  • The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle:Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum (Edited by Dezső Dercsényi) (1970). Corvina, Taplinger Publishing.ISBN0-8008-4015-1.
  • "The Laws of King Coloman (1095–1116)". InThe Laws of the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary, 1000–1301(Translated and Edited by János M. Bak, György Bónis, James Ross Sweeney with an essay on previous editions by Andor Czizmadia, Second revised edition, In collaboration with Leslie S. Domonkos) (1999). Charles Schlacks Jr. Publishers. pp. 23–31.ISBN1-884445-29-2.OCLC495379882.OCLC248424393.LCCN89-10492.OL12153527M.(ISBN may be misprinted in the book as 88445–29–2).
  • "The letters of Henry IV: Henry thanks Duke Almus for his support and promises him a reward" (2000). InImperial Lives & Letters of the Eleventh Century(Translated by Theodor E. Mommsen and Karl F. Morrison, with a historical introduction and new suggested readings by Karl F. Morrison, edited by Robert L. Benson). Columbia University Press. pp. 52–100.ISBN978-0-231-12121-7.
  • The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text(Translated and edited by Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor) (1953). Medieval Academy of America.ISBN978-0-915651-32-0.

Secondary sources

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[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related toColoman of Hungary.
Coloman, King of Hungary
Born:c.1070Died:3 February 1116
Regnal titles
Preceded by King of Hungary
1095–1116 		Succeeded by
Preceded by King of Croatia
1097–1116
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coloman,_King_of_Hungary&oldid=1226929779"