Commagene

Commagene
Κομμαγηνή
Commagene Κομμαγηνή
163 BC – 72 AD
	Map showing Commagene (light pink on the left) in 50 AD; nearby areArmenia,Sophene,Osrhoene,and theRomanandParthianEmpires
Capital	Samosata
Common languages	Greek(official); Persian(ruling dynasty); LocalAramaiclanguage
Religion	Greco-Iranianreligious syncretism
Government	Monarchy
King
• 163–130 BC	Ptolemaeus
• 38–72 AD	Antiochus IV
Historical era	Hellenistic Age
• Established	163 BC
• Disestablished	72 AD
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Kingdom of Sophene
Roman Empire
Today part of	Turkey

Commagene(Greek:Κομμαγηνή) was an ancient Greco-Iranian kingdom ruled by aHellenizedbranch of theIranian Orontid dynastythat had ruled overArmenia.^[4]The kingdom was located in and around the ancient city ofSamosata,which served as its capital. TheIron Agename of Samosata,Kummuh,probably gives its name to Commagene.^[5]

Commagene has been characterized as a "buffer state"between Armenia, Parthia, Syria, and Rome;^[6]culturally, it was correspondingly mixed.^[7]^[8]The kings of the Kingdom of Commagene claimed descent fromOronteswithDarius I of Persiaas their ancestor, by his marriage to Rhodogune, daughter ofArtaxerxes IIwho had a family descent from king Darius I.^[9]^[10]The territory of Commagene corresponded roughly to the modern Turkish provinces ofAdıyamanand northernAntep.^[11]

Little is known of the region of Commagene before the beginning of the 2nd century BC. However, it seems that, from what little evidence remains, Commagene formed part of a larger state that also included theKingdom of Sophene.This situation lasted untilc. 163 BC,when the local satrap,Ptolemaeus of Commagene,established himself as an independent ruler following the death of the Seleucid king,Antiochus IV Epiphanes.^[12]

The Kingdom of Commagene maintained its independence until 17 AD, when it was made aRoman provinceby EmperorTiberius.It re-emerged as an independent kingdom whenAntiochus IV of Commagenewas reinstated to the throne by order ofCaligula,then deprived of it by that same emperor, then restored to it a couple of years later by his successor,Claudius.The re-emergent state lasted until 72 AD, when the EmperorVespasianfinally and definitively made it part of theRoman Empire.^[13]

One of the kingdom's most lasting visible remains is the archaeological site onMount Nemrut,a sanctuary dedicated by KingAntiochus Theosto a number of syncretistic Graeco-Iranian deities as well as to himself and the deified land of Commagene.^[14]It is now aWorld Heritage Site.^[15]

Cultural identity

The cultural identity of the Kingdom of Commagene has been variously characterized. Pierre Merlat suggests that the Commagenian city ofDoliche,like others in its vicinity, was "half Iranianized and half Hellenized".^[8]David M. Langdescribes Commagene as "a formerArmeniansatellite kingdom ",^[7]while Blömer and Winter call it a "Hellenistic kingdom".^[16]Millar suggests that a local dialect ofAramaicmight have been spoken there,^[17]Fergus Millarconsiders that, "in some parts of the Euphrates region, such as Commagene, nothing approaching an answer to questions about local culture is possible."^[18]

While the language used on public monuments was typicallyGreek,Commagene's rulers made no secret of their Persian affinities. The kings of Commagene claimed descent from theOrontid dynastyand would therefore have been related to the family that founded theKingdom of Armenia;^[19]while Sartre states the accuracy of these claims is uncertain.^[12]AtAntiochus Theos' sanctuary atMount Nemrut,the king erected monumental statues of deities with mixed Greek and Iranian names, such asZeus-Oromasdes,while celebrating his own descent from the royal families of Persia and Armenia in aGreek-languageinscription.^[7]

The Commagenean rulers had Iranian and Greek names (Antiochus, Samos, Mithridates).^[20]^[21]The various Iranian onomasticons located in Commagene demonstrate the extensive Iranization in the region.^[22]Over the course of the first centuries BC and AD, the names given on a tomb at Sofraz Köy show a mix of "typical Hellenistic dynastic names with an early introduction of Latin personal names."^[23]Lang notes the vitality of Graeco-Roman culture in Commagene.^[6]

While few things about his origins are known with certainty, 2nd-century Attic Greek poetLucian of Samosataclaimed to have been born inSamosatain the former kingdom of Commagene, and described himself in one satirical work as "an Assyrian".^[17]Despite writing well after the Roman conquest of Commagene, Lucian claimed to be "still barbarous in speech and almost wearing a jacket (kandys) in the Assyrian style ". This has been taken as a possible, but not definitive, allusion to the possibility that his native language was anAramaic dialect.^[24]

In keeping with Commagene Greek and Iranian cultural elements, Antiochus' cult was a synthesis of Greco-Iranian religion, which had existed in Commagene before his time.^[25]

History

Mithras-Helios, inPhrygian capwith solar rays, with Antiochus I of Commagene. (Mt Nemrut, 1st century BC)

Commagene was originally a smallSyro-Hittitekingdom,^[26]located in modern south-centralTurkey,with its capital atSamosata(modernSamsat,near theEuphrates). It was first mentioned inAssyriantexts asKummuhu,which was normally an ally of Assyria, but eventually annexed as a province in 708 BC underSargon II.TheAchaemenid Empirethen conquered Commagene in the 6th century BC andAlexander the Greatconquered the territory in the 4th century BC. After the breakup of the Empire of Alexander the Great, the region became part of the Hellenistic Seleucids, and Commagene emerged in about 163 BC as a state and province in the Greco-SyrianSeleucid Empire.Perhaps Commagene was part of the kingdom of Armenia in the early Hellenistic period, and was possibly annexed to the Seleucid kingdom soon after Armenia's conquest^[27]^[a]

The Hellenistic kingdom of Commagene, bounded byCiliciaon the west andCappadociaon the north, arose in 162 BC when its governor,Ptolemy,asatrapof the disintegrating Seleucid Empire, declared himself independent. Ptolemy's dynasty was related to theParthiankings, but his descendantMithridates I Callinicus(109 BC – 70 BC) embraced Hellenistic culture and married the Syrian Greek PrincessLaodice VII Thea.His dynasty could thus claim ties with bothAlexander the Greatand the Persian kings. This marriage may also have been part of a peace treaty between Commagene and the Seleucid Empire. From this point on, the kingdom of Commagene became more Greek than Persian. WithSophene,it was to serve as an important centre for the transmission of Hellenistic and Roman culture in the region.^[6]Details are sketchy, but Mithridates Callinicus is thought have accepted Armenian suzerainty during the reign ofTigranes II the Great.^[29]

Mithridates and Laodice's son was KingAntiochus I Theos of Commagene(reigned 70 –38 BC). Antiochus was an ally of the Roman generalPompeyduring the latter's campaigns againstMithridates VI of Pontusin 64 BC. Thanks to his diplomatic skills, Antiochus was able to keep Commagene independent from the Romans. In 17 whenAntiochus III of Commagenedied, EmperorTiberiusannexed Commagene to the province ofSyria.According to Josephus, this move was supported by the local nobility but opposed by the mass of the common people, who preferred to remain under their kings as before;^[18]Tacitus, on the other hand, states that "most preferred Roman, but others royal rule".^[30]

In 38 AD,Caligulareinstated Antiochus III's sonAntiochus IV^[30]and also gave him the wild areas ofCiliciato govern.^[31]Antiochus IV was the onlyclient kingof Commagene under theRoman Empire.Deposed by Caligula and restored again uponClaudius' accession in 41 AD, Antiochus reigned until 72, when EmperorVespasiandeposed the dynasty and definitively re-annexed the territory to Syria, acting on allegations "that Antiochus was about to revolt from the Romans... reported by the GovernorCaesennius Paetus".^[32]TheLegio VI Ferrata,which Paetus led into Commagene, was not resisted by the populace; a day-long battle with Antiochus' sons Epiphanes and Callinicus ended in a draw, and Antiochus surrendered.^[33]TheLegio III Gallicawould occupy the area by 73 AD.^[33]A 1st-century letter inSyriacbyMara Bar Serapiondescribes refugees fleeing the Romans across the Euphrates and bemoans the Romans' refusal to let the refugees return;^[34]this might describe the Roman takeover of either 18 or 72.^[35] The descendants of Antiochus IV lived prosperously and in distinction inAnatolia,Greece,Italy,and theMiddle East.As a testament to the descendants of Antiochus IV, the citizens ofAthenserected a funeral monument in honor of his grandsonPhilopappos,who was a benefactor of the city, upon his death in 116. Another descendant of Antiochus IV was the historianGaius Asinius Quadratus,who lived in the 3rd century.

Geography

Commagene extended from the right bank of the Euphrates to the Taurus^[36]and Amanus Mountains.Strabo,who counts Commagene as part of Syria,^[37]notes the kingdom's fertility.^[38]Its capital and chief city wasSamosata(now submerged underAtatürk Reservoir).

The boundaries of Commagene fluctuated over time. UnderAntiochus Theos,the Kingdom of Commagene controlled a particularly large area.^[16]Dolichewas under Commagenian rule "for about 35 years";^[16]after being governed by Antiochus Theos, it might have been incorporated into the Roman province of Syria as early as 31 BC.^[23]Germaniceadeclared itself a Commagenian city in Roman times, although originally it was not.^[16]On the other hand,Zeugma,while ruled for a time by Commagene, was popularly and traditionally considered to belong to the region ofCyrrhestica;^[16]Strabo says it had been assigned to Commagene by Pompey.^[39]

Archaeological remains

The limestone propaganda-like statues and reliefs built during Antiochus Theos' reign reflect the Parthian influence in their sculpture.^[40]

When the Romans conquered Commagene, the great royal sanctuary atMount Nemrutwas abandoned. The Romans looted the burialtumuliof their goods and theLegio XVI Flavia Firmabuilt and dedicated a bridge. The surrounding thick forests were cut down and cleared by the Romans for wood, timber and charcoal, causing much erosion to the area.^{[citation needed]}

Another important archaeological site dating to the Kingdom of Commagene is the sanctuary of Zeus Soter at Damlıca, dedicated in the time of Mithridates II.^[41]

In Commagene, there is a column topped by an eagle, which has earned the mound the nameKarakuş,or Black Bird. An inscription there indicates the presence of a royal tomb^[42]that housed three women. The vault of that tomb, however, has also been looted. The main excavations on the site were carried out byFriedrich Karl Dörnerof the University ofMünster.Another royal burial site is atArsameia,which also served as a residence of the kings of Commagene.^[43]

Many of the ancient artifacts from the Kingdom of Commagene are on display at theAdıyaman Archaeological Museum.^[44]

Footnotes

^"Commagene was a district separate fromSeleucis,^[28]bordering onCiliciaandCappadocia.Its natural borders were theTauruson the north and theEuphratesto the east. It occurs inAssyrianandHittiterecords asKummuhu.It was perhaps part of thekingdom of Armeniain the early Hellenistic period, and was possibly annexed to theSeleucid kingdomsoon after Armenia's conquest and partition into the kingdoms of Armenia and Sophene under Antiochus III. "— Butcher (2004)^[27]

References

^Shayegan (2016),p. 13.
^Ball (2002),p. 436.
^Shayegan 2016,p. 13;Ball (2002),p. 436;Strootman (2020),p. 214
^Canepa 2010,p. 13;Garsoian 2005;Erskine, Llewellyn-Jones & Wallace 2017,p. 75;Canepa 2015,p. 80;Sartre 2005,p. 23;Widengren 1986,pp. 135–136;Merz & Tieleman 2012,p. 68;Ball 2002,p. 436;Shayegan 2016,pp. 8, 13;Strootman 2020,p. 205;Facella 2021;Michels 2021,p. 485;Toumanoff 1963,p. 278;Gaggero 2016,p. 79;Allsen 2011,p. 37;Olbrycht 2021,p. 38;Drower et al. 2021;Ferguson 2021,p. 170;Boyce & Grenet 1991,p. 309;Vlassopoulos 2013,p. 312;Crone 2012,p. 351;Graf 2019,p. III;Jacobs & Rollinger 2021,p. 1660;Russell 1986,pp. 438–444;Spawforth 2016;Sherwin-White & Kuhrt 1993,p. 193;Campbell 2015,p. 27
^Blömer & Winter (2011),p. 142.
^^a ^b ^cLang (1983),p. 510.
^^a ^b ^cLang (1983),p. 535.
^^a ^bPierre Merlat (1960). "Le site de Doliché".Jupiter Dolichenus: Essai d'interprétation et de synthèse.Presses Universitaires de France. p. 3.une de ces nombreuses localités mi-iranisées, mi-hellénisées d'Asie Mineure et de Syrie du Nord.
^Cook, J.M. (1993).The Persian Empire(Repr. ed.). New York: Barns & Noble Books. pp. 170, 173, 193, 212, 213, 216, 217, 221–223, 257, 263.ISBN 978-1-56619-115-9.
^Hovannisian, Richard G. (1997).The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times - 2 Vols.St. Martin's Press, New York.
^Blömer & Winter (2011),p. 13.
^^a ^bSartre, M.,The Middle East under Rome(2007), p. 23
^Hazel, J. (2002).Who's Who in the Roman World.Psychology Press. p. 13.ISBN 9780415291620.Retrieved20 February2014.
^Blömer & Winter (2011),pp. 10–11.
^UNESCO World Heritage Centre."Nemrut Dağ".Retrieved12 October2017.
^^a ^b ^c ^d ^eBlömer & Winter (2011),p. 19.
^^a ^bMillar (1993),p. 454.
^^a ^bMillar (1993),p. 452.
^Canepa 2010,p. 13;Garsoian 2005;Erskine, Llewellyn-Jones & Wallace 2017,p. 75;Canepa 2015,p. 80;Sartre 2005,p. 23;Widengren 1986,pp. 135–136;Merz & Tieleman 2012,p. 68;Ball 2002,p. 436;Shayegan 2016,pp. 8, 13;Strootman 2020,p. 205
^Curtis & Stewart (2007),p. 15.
^Cameron (2018),pp. 16–17.
^Jacobs & Rollinger (2021),p. 739.
^^a ^bMillar (1993),p. 453.
^Millar (1993),pp. 453, 456.
^Boyce & Grenet (1991),p. 347.
^Trevor Bryce (2012).The World of the Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History.Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 110–114, 304.ISBN 978-0-19-921872-1.
^^a ^b Butcher, Kevin (2004).Coinage in Roman Syria: Northern Syria, 64 BC-AD 253.Royal Numismatic Society. p. 454.ISBN 0901405582.
^Strabo,XVI.2.2
^Blömer & Winter (2011),pp. 24–25.
^^a ^bMillar (1993),p. 53.
^Millar (1993),p. 59.
^ Ewald, Heinrich (1886).The History of Israel.Vol. 8. Longmans, Green, & Co. p. 23.
^^a ^bMillar (1993),p. 82.
^Millar (1993),pp. 460–462.
^Anna F. C. Collar (2012). "Commagene, Communication and the Cult of Jupiter Dolichenus". In Michael Blömer; Engelbert Winter (eds.).Iuppiter Dolichenus: Vom Lokalkult zur Reichsreligion.Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. 102–103.ISBN 978-3-16-151797-6.
^Blömer & Winter (2011),p. 20.
^StraboXVI.2.2
^Strabo XVI.2, cited inMillar (1993),p. 53
^StraboXVI.2.3
^Colledge (1979),p. 229.
^Blömer & Winter (2011),p. 150-155.
^Blömer & Winter (2011),pp. 96–97.
^"Yeni Kale / Eski Kâhta - Türkei"(in German). 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 23 September 2015.Retrieved25 July2015.
^Blömer & Winter (2011),p. 124.

Sources

Allsen, Thomas T. (2011).The Royal Hunt in Eurasian History.University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 37.ISBN 978-0812201079.
Ball, Warwick (2002).Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire.Routledge.ISBN 9781134823871.
Blömer, Michael; Winter, Engelbert (2011).Commagene: The Land of the Gods between the Taurus and the Euphrates.Homer Kitabevi.ISBN 978-9944-483-35-3.
Boyce, Mary;Grenet, Frantz (1991). Beck, Roger (ed.).A History of Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman Rule.Leiden: Brill.ISBN 978-9004293915.
Cameron, Hamish (2018).Making Mesopotamia: Geography and Empire in a Romano-Iranian Borderland.Brill.ISBN 978-9004388628.
Canepa, Matthew (2010). "Achaemenid and Seleukid Royal Funerary Practices and Middle Iranian Kingship". In Börm, H.; Wiesehöfer, J. (eds.).Commutatio et Contentio. Studies in the Late Roman, Sasanian, and Early Islamic Near East in Memory of Zeev Rubin.Düsseldorf. pp. 1–21.
Canepa, Matthew P.(2015). "Dynastic Sanctuaries and the Transformation of Iranian Kingship between Alexander and Islam". InBabaie, Sussan;Grigor, Talinn (eds.).Persian Kingship and Architecture: Strategies of Power in Iran from the Achaemenids to the Pahlavis.I.B.Tauris. pp. 1–288.ISBN 9780857734778.
Canepa, Matthew (2021). "Commagene Before and Beyond Antiochos I".Common Dwelling Place of all the Gods: Commagene in its Local, Regional, and Global Context.Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 71–103.ISBN 978-3515129251.
Colledge, Malcolm A.R.(1979). "Sculptors' Stone-Carving Techniques in Seleucid and Parthian Iran, and Their Place in the" Parthian "Cultural Milieu: Some Preliminary Observations".East and West.29, No. 1/4 (December). Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO): 221-240.
Drower, M; Grey, E.; Sherwin-White, S.; Wiesehöfer, J. (2021)."Armenia".Oxford Classical Dictionary.doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.777.ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5.
Campbell, Leroy A. (2015).Mithraic iconography and ideology.Brill.ISBN 978-90-04-29617-6.
Crone, Patricia (2012).The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran: Rural Revolt and Local Zoroastrianism.Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-1107642386.
Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh; Stewart, Sarah, eds. (2007),The Age of the Parthians,Ideas of Iran, vol. 2, London: I. B. Tauris
Erskine, Andrew; Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd; Wallace, Shane (2017).The Hellenistic Court: Monarchic Power and Elite Society from Alexander to Cleopatra.The Classical Press of Wales.ISBN 978-1910589625.Another self-designated descendant from a member of one of the seven great house, Hydarnes, was the Orontid Dynasty of Armenia
Facella, Margherita (2021)."Orontids".InYarshater, Ehsan(ed.).Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition.Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
Ferguson, John (2021).Among the Gods: An Archaeological Exploration of Ancient Greek Religion.Routledge.ISBN 978-0367750633.
Gaggero, Gianfranco (2016). "Armenians in Xenophon".Greek Texts and Armenian Traditions: An Interdisciplinary Approach.De Gruyter.The above mentioned Orontids..[..]..but also because the two satraps who were contemporaries of Xenophon's are explicitly stated to be Persian.
Garsoian, Nina (2005)."Tigran II".Encyclopaedia Iranica.
Graf, David F. (2019).Rome and the Arabian Frontier: From the Nabataeans to the Saracens.Aldershot: Ashgate.ISBN 978-0-86078-658-0.
Jacobs, Bruno; Rollinger, Robert (2021).A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire.John Wiley & Sons.ISBN 978-1119174288.
Lang, David M (1983). "Iran, Armenia and Georgia". InYarshater, Ehsan(ed.).The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 512–537.ISBN 0-521-20092-X..
Marciak, Michał (2017).Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West.BRILL.ISBN 9789004350724.
Merz, Annette; Tieleman, Teun L (2012).The Letter of Mara bar Sarapion in Context: Proceedings of the Symposium Held at Utrecht University, 10-12 December 2009.Leiden: Brill.ISBN 9789004233010.
Michels, Christoph (2021). "'Achaemenid' and 'Hellenistic' Strands of Representation in the Minor Kingdoms of Asia Minor ".Common Dwelling Place of all the Gods: Commagene in its Local, Regional, and Global Context.Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 475–496.ISBN 978-3515129251.
Millar, Fergus (1993).The Roman Near East, 31 BC – AD 337.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.ISBN 978-0-674-77885-6.
Olbrycht, Marek Jan (2021).Early Arsakid Parthia (ca. 250-165 B.C.).Brill.ISBN 978-9004460751.
Russell, J. R. (1986)."Armenia and Iran iii. Armenian Religion".Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 4.pp. 438–444.
Sartre, Maurice (2005).The Middle East Under Rome.Harvard University Press.ISBN 9780674016835.
Shayegan, M. Rahim (2016). "The Arsacids and Commagene". In Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh; Pendleton, Elizabeth J.; Alram, Michael; Daryaee, Touraj (eds.).The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: Adaptation and Expansion.Oxbow Books.ISBN 9781785702082.
Sherwin-White, Susan M.; Kuhrt, Amélie (1993).From Samarkhand to Sardis: A New Approach to the Seleucid Empire.University of California Press.ISBN 9780520081833.
Spawforth, Antony (2016)."Nemrut Dağ".Oxford Classical Dictionary.doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.4376.ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5.
Strootman, Rolf (2020)."Hellenism and Persianism in Iran".Dabir.7:201–227.doi:10.1163/29497833-00701016.hdl:1874/408015.
Toumanoff, Cyril (1963).Studies in Christian Caucasian history.Georgetown University Press.
Vlassopoulos, Kostas (2013).Greeks and Barbarians.Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0521148023.
Widengren, G. (1986)."Antiochus of Commagene".Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 2.pp. 135–136.

External links

[29] "Commagene was a district separate fromSeleucis,^[28]bordering onCiliciaandCappadocia.Its natural borders were theTauruson the north and theEuphratesto the east. It occurs inAssyrianandHittiterecords asKummuhu.It was perhaps part of thekingdom of Armeniain the early Hellenistic period, and was possibly annexed to theSeleucid kingdomsoon after Armenia's conquest and partition into the kingdoms of Armenia and Sophene under Antiochus III. "— Butcher (2004)^[27]

[FOOTNOTEShayegan201613-1] Shayegan (2016),p. 13.

[FOOTNOTEBall2002436-2] Ball (2002),p. 436.

[3] Shayegan 2016,p. 13;Ball (2002),p. 436;Strootman (2020),p. 214

[4] Canepa 2010,p. 13;Garsoian 2005;Erskine, Llewellyn-Jones & Wallace 2017,p. 75;Canepa 2015,p. 80;Sartre 2005,p. 23;Widengren 1986,pp. 135–136;Merz & Tieleman 2012,p. 68;Ball 2002,p. 436;Shayegan 2016,pp. 8, 13;Strootman 2020,p. 205;Facella 2021;Michels 2021,p. 485;Toumanoff 1963,p. 278;Gaggero 2016,p. 79;Allsen 2011,p. 37;Olbrycht 2021,p. 38;Drower et al. 2021;Ferguson 2021,p. 170;Boyce & Grenet 1991,p. 309;Vlassopoulos 2013,p. 312;Crone 2012,p. 351;Graf 2019,p. III;Jacobs & Rollinger 2021,p. 1660;Russell 1986,pp. 438–444;Spawforth 2016;Sherwin-White & Kuhrt 1993,p. 193;Campbell 2015,p. 27

[FOOTNOTEBlömerWinter2011142-5] Blömer & Winter (2011),p. 142.

[FOOTNOTELang1983510-6] Lang (1983),p. 510.

[FOOTNOTELang1983535-7] Lang (1983),p. 535.

[merlat3-8] Pierre Merlat (1960). "Le site de Doliché".Jupiter Dolichenus: Essai d'interprétation et de synthèse.Presses Universitaires de France. p. 3.une de ces nombreuses localités mi-iranisées, mi-hellénisées d'Asie Mineure et de Syrie du Nord.

[9] Cook, J.M. (1993).The Persian Empire(Repr. ed.). New York: Barns & Noble Books. pp. 170, 173, 193, 212, 213, 216, 217, 221–223, 257, 263.ISBN 978-1-56619-115-9.

[10] Hovannisian, Richard G. (1997).The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times - 2 Vols.St. Martin's Press, New York.

[FOOTNOTEBlömerWinter201113-11] Blömer & Winter (2011),p. 13.

[Sartre,_M._2007_p._23-12] Sartre, M.,The Middle East under Rome(2007), p. 23

[13] Hazel, J. (2002).Who's Who in the Roman World.Psychology Press. p. 13.ISBN 9780415291620.Retrieved20 February2014.

[FOOTNOTEBlömerWinter201110–11-14] Blömer & Winter (2011),pp. 10–11.

[15] UNESCO World Heritage Centre."Nemrut Dağ".Retrieved12 October2017.

[FOOTNOTEBlömerWinter201119-16] Blömer & Winter (2011),p. 19.

[FOOTNOTEMillar1993454-17] Millar (1993),p. 454.

[FOOTNOTEMillar1993452-18] Millar (1993),p. 452.

[19] Canepa 2010,p. 13;Garsoian 2005;Erskine, Llewellyn-Jones & Wallace 2017,p. 75;Canepa 2015,p. 80;Sartre 2005,p. 23;Widengren 1986,pp. 135–136;Merz & Tieleman 2012,p. 68;Ball 2002,p. 436;Shayegan 2016,pp. 8, 13;Strootman 2020,p. 205

[FOOTNOTECurtisStewart200715-20] Curtis & Stewart (2007),p. 15.

[FOOTNOTECameron201816–17-21] Cameron (2018),pp. 16–17.

[FOOTNOTEJacobsRollinger2021739-22] Jacobs & Rollinger (2021),p. 739.

[FOOTNOTEMillar1993453-23] Millar (1993),p. 453.

[FOOTNOTEMillar1993453,_456-24] Millar (1993),pp. 453, 456.

[FOOTNOTEBoyceGrenet1991347-25] Boyce & Grenet (1991),p. 347.

[26] Trevor Bryce (2012).The World of the Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History.Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 110–114, 304.ISBN 978-0-19-921872-1.

[Butcher-2004-27] Butcher, Kevin (2004).Coinage in Roman Syria: Northern Syria, 64 BC-AD 253.Royal Numismatic Society. p. 454.ISBN 0901405582.

[28] Strabo,XVI.2.2

[FOOTNOTEBlömerWinter201124–25-30] Blömer & Winter (2011),pp. 24–25.

[FOOTNOTEMillar199353-31] Millar (1993),p. 53.

[FOOTNOTEMillar199359-32] Millar (1993),p. 59.

[ewald-33] Ewald, Heinrich (1886).The History of Israel.Vol. 8. Longmans, Green, & Co. p. 23.

[FOOTNOTEMillar199382-34] Millar (1993),p. 82.

[FOOTNOTEMillar1993460–462-35] Millar (1993),pp. 460–462.

[36] Anna F. C. Collar (2012). "Commagene, Communication and the Cult of Jupiter Dolichenus". In Michael Blömer; Engelbert Winter (eds.).Iuppiter Dolichenus: Vom Lokalkult zur Reichsreligion.Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. 102–103.ISBN 978-3-16-151797-6.

[FOOTNOTEBlömerWinter201120-37] Blömer & Winter (2011),p. 20.

[38] StraboXVI.2.2

[39] Strabo XVI.2, cited inMillar (1993),p. 53

[40] StraboXVI.2.3

[FOOTNOTEColledge1979229-41] Colledge (1979),p. 229.

[FOOTNOTEBlömerWinter2011150-155-42] Blömer & Winter (2011),p. 150-155.

[FOOTNOTEBlömerWinter201196–97-43] Blömer & Winter (2011),pp. 96–97.

[44] "Yeni Kale / Eski Kâhta - Türkei"(in German). 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 23 September 2015.Retrieved25 July2015.

[FOOTNOTEBlömerWinter2011124-45] Blömer & Winter (2011),p. 124.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[a]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[28]

v t e Historical states andregions of Armenia
Independent Armenian states	Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)(Orontids,ArtaxiadsandArsacids,553 BC–428 AD) Kingdom of Armenia (Middle Ages)(Bagratunis,884–1045) Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia(Rubenids,HethumidsandLusignans,1080–1375) Republic of Armenia(1918–1920) Republic of Armenia(1991–present)
Minor or dependent Armenian states	Satrapy of Armenia(Orontids,522–331 BC) Principality of Hamamshen(790–1486) Kingdom of Vaspurakan(Artsrunis,908–1021) Kingdom of Vanand(963–1064) Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget(Kiurikians, 979–1118) Kingdom of Syunik(Siunis,987–1170) Kingdom of Artsakh(Khachen, 1000–1261) Zakarid Principality of Armenia(Zakarians,1201–1335) Melikdoms of Karabakh(Beglarians, Israelians,Hasan-Jalalians,Shanazarians and Avanians, 1603–1822) Republic of Mountainous Armenia(1921, unrecognized) Soviet Armenia(1920–1991) Artsakh(1991–2023, unrecognized)
Provinces orAshkhars of Armenia Major	Upper Armenia Sophene Arzanene Turuberan Moxoene Corduene Nor Shirakan Vaspurakan Syunik Artsakh Paytakaran Utik Gugark Tayk Ayrarat
Other Armenian regions	Lesser Armenia First Second Third Armenian Mesopotamia Cilicia Mountainous Plain Rocky
Other provinces under Tigranes the Great	Syria Atropatene Adiabene Assyria Iberia Albania Cappadocia Judea Osroene

v t e Hellenisticrulers
Argeads	Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV
Antipatrids	Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes
Antigonids	Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI(pretender)
Ptolemies	Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra(regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion
Monarchs of Cyrene	Magas Berenice II Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Cleopatra Selene II
Seleucids	Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Cleopatra Thea Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Cleopatra Selene I Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus
Lysimachids	Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos
Attalids	Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III
Greco-Bactrians	Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I
Indo-Greeks	Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III
Monarchs of Bithynia	Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta(regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus
Monarchs of Pontus	Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator PhiladephoswithLaodice Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II
Monarchs of Commagene	Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV
Monarchs of Cappadocia	Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus
Monarchs of the Cimmerian Bosporus	Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon(regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V[ru] Kamasarye Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces AsanderwithDynamis Mithridates II AsanderwithDynamis Scribonius's attempted rule withDynamis DynamiswithPolemon Polemon Aspurgus Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I
Monarchs of Epirus	Admetus Tharrhypas Alcetas I Neoptolemus I Arybbas Alexander I Aeacides Neoptolemus II Alcetas II Pyrrhus I Alexander II Olympias II(regent) Pyrrhus II Ptolemy Pyrrhus III Deidamia
Hellenistic rulers were preceded byHellenistic satrapsin most of their territories.

v t e Ancient kingdoms of Anatolia
Bronze Age	Ahhiyawa Arzawa Assuwa League Carchemish Hapalla Hatti Hayasa-Azzi Hittite Empire Hurrian States(Isuwa,Kizzuwatna,Mitanni) Kalašma Kaskia Kussara Lukka Luwia Miletus Mira Mysia Nairi Pala Pisidia/Sagalassos Purushanda Seha Shupria Urshu Urumu Wilusa/Troy Zalpuwa
Iron Age	Aeolia Caria Cimmerians Colchis Diauehi Doris Etiuni Ionia Lycia Lydia Mushki Neo-Hittites(Atuna,Carchemish,Gurgum,Ḫilakku,Kammanu,Kummuh,Quwê,Tabal) Phrygia Urartu
Classical Age	Antigonids Armenia Armenia Minor Bithynia Cappadocia Cilicia Commagene Galatia Osroene Paphlagonia Pergamon Pontus
Turkey Portal