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Commonwealth War Graves Commission
Logo of CWGC of
Logo of CWGC
HeadquartersMaidenhead,United Kingdom
Official languagesEnglish
TypeIntergovernmental organizationandcommission
Membership
Leaders
• Patron
The King
• President
The Princess Royal
• Director-General
Claire Horton
Establishment
• Founded as the Imperial War Graves Commission
21 May 1917(1917-05-21)
• Name changed to Commonwealth War Graves Commission
28 March 1960(1960-03-28)
Website
www.cwgc.orgEdit this at Wikidata

TheCommonwealth War Graves Commission(CWGC) is anintergovernmental organisationof six independentmember stateswhose principal function is to mark, record and maintain the graves and places of commemoration ofCommonwealth of Nationsmilitary service members who died in the two World Wars. The commission is also responsible for commemorating Commonwealth civilians who died as a result of enemy action during theSecond World War.[1]The commission was founded bySir Fabian Wareand constituted throughroyal charterin 1917 as theImperial War Graves Commission.[1]The change to the present name took place in 1960.[2]

The commission, as part of its mandate, is responsible for commemorating all Commonwealth war dead individually and equally. To this end, the war dead are commemorated by a name on a headstone, at an identified site of a burial, or on a memorial. War dead are commemorated uniformly and equally, irrespective of military or civil rank, race or creed.

The commission is currently responsible for the continued commemoration of 1.7 million deceased Commonwealth military service members in 153 countries.[3]Since its inception, the commission has constructed approximately 2,500 war cemeteries and numerous memorials.[1]The commission is currently responsible for the care of war dead at over 23,000 separate burial sites and the maintenance of more than 200 memorials worldwide.[2]In addition to commemorating Commonwealth military service members, the commission maintains, under arrangement with applicable governments, over 40,000 non-Commonwealth war graves and over 25,000 non-war military and civilian graves.[1][4]The commission operates through the continued financial support of the member states: United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India and South Africa. The current and first ever Patron of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission isKing Charles III.[5]The current President of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission isAnne, Princess Royal.[6]

History

[edit]

First World War

[edit]
Six graves marked with white crosses located in a muddy field with trees in the background.
Canadian war graves nearYpres, Belgium.The crosses identify the graves as those of soldiers of the14th Canadian Battalionwho were killed over several days in May 1916.

At the outbreak of the First World War in 1914,Fabian Ware,a director of theRio Tinto Company,found that he was too old, at age 45, to join the British Army.[7]He used the influence of Rio Tinto chairman,Viscount Milner,to become the commander of a mobile unit of theBritish Red Cross.He arrived in France in September 1914 and whilst there was struck by the lack of any official mechanism for documenting or marking the location of graves of those who had been killed and felt compelled to create an organisation within the Red Cross for this purpose.[8]In March 1915, with the support ofNevil Macready,Adjutant-General of theBritish Expeditionary Force,Ware's work was given official recognition and support by the Imperial War Office and the unit was transferred to the British Army as the Graves Registration Commission.[7][8]The new Graves Registration Commission had over 31,000 graves of British and Imperial soldiers registered by October 1915 and 50,000 registered by May 1916.[9]

When municipal graveyards began to overfill Ware began negotiations with various local authorities to acquire land for further cemeteries. Ware began with an agreement with France to build joint British and French cemeteries under the understanding that these would be maintained by the French government.[10]Ware eventually concluded that it was not prudent to leave the maintenance responsibilities solely to the French government and subsequently arranged for France to purchase the land (under thelaw of 29 December 1915), grant it in perpetuity, and leave the management and maintenance responsibilities to the British. The French government agreed under the condition that cemeteries respected certain dimensions,[11]were accessible by public road, were in the vicinity of medical aid stations and were not too close to towns or villages. Similar negotiations began with the Belgian government.[10]

As reports of the grave registration work became public, the commission began to receive letters of enquiry and requests for photographs of graves from relatives of deceased soldiers.[12]By 1917, 17,000 photographs had been dispatched to relatives.[12][13]In March 1915, the commission, with the support of the Red Cross, began to dispatch photographic prints and cemetery location information in answer to the requests. The Graves Registration Commission became the Directorate of Graves Registration and Enquiries in the spring of 1916 in recognition of the fact that the scope of work began to extend beyond simple grave registration and began to include responding to enquiries from relatives of those killed. The directorate's work was also extended beyond theWestern Frontand into other theatres of war, with units deployed in Greece, Egypt and Mesopotamia.[12]

Formal establishment

[edit]
a man carving the a maple leaf onto a gravestone, in a workshop, with a hammer and chisel.
Carving of headstones by hand would take a week

As the war continued, Ware and others became concerned about the fate of the graves in the post-war period. Following a suggestion by the British Army, the government appointed the National Committee for the Care of Soldiers' Graves in January 1916, withEdward, Prince of Walesagreeing to serve as president.[14]The National Committee for the Care of Soldiers' Graves was created with the intention of taking over the work of the Directorate of Graves Registration and Enquiries after the war. The government felt that it was more appropriate to entrust the work to a specially appointed body rather than to any existing government department.[15]By early 1917, a number of members of the committee believed a formal imperial organisation would be needed to care for the graves. With the help ofEdward, Prince of Wales,Ware submitted a memorandum to theImperial War Conferencein 1917 suggesting that an imperial organisation be constituted.[15][16]The suggestion was accepted and on 21 May 1917 the Imperial War Graves Commission was established by Royal Charter, with the Prince of Wales serving as president,Secretary of State for WarLord Derbyas chairman and Ware as vice-chairman.[1][16]The commission's undertakings began in earnest at the end of the First World War. Once land for cemeteries and memorials had been guaranteed, the enormous task of recording the details of the dead could begin. By 1918, some 587,000 graves had been identified and a further 559,000 casualties were registered as having no known grave.[17]

The scale, and associated high number of casualties, of the war produced an entirely new attitude towards the commemoration of war dead. Previous to the First World War, individual commemoration of war dead was often on an ad hoc basis and was almost exclusively limited to commissioned officers.[18]However, the war required mobilisation of a significant percentage of the population, either as volunteers or throughconscription.[19]An expectation had consequently arisen that individual soldiers would expect to be commemorated, even if they were low-ranking members of the military.[20]A committee underFrederic Kenyon,Director of theBritish Museum,presented a report to the Commission in November 1918 detailing how it envisioned the development of the cemeteries.[21]Two key elements of this report were that bodies should not be repatriated and that uniform memorials should be used to avoid class distinctions. Beyond the logistical nightmare of returning home so many corpses, it was felt that repatriation would conflict with the feeling of brotherhood that had developed between serving ranks.[22][23]

A wire image of a white Cross of Sacrifice on a background of green with the text "Graves of the Fallen" and "Imperial War Graves Commission".
Cover page ofGraves of the Fallen

An article inThe Timeson 17 February 1919 byRudyard Kiplingcarried the commission's proposal to a wider audience and described what the graves would look like.[24]The article entitledWar Graves: Work of Imperial Commission: Mr. Kipling's Surveywas quickly republished as an illustrated booklet,Graves of the Fallen.The illustrated booklet was intended to soften the impact of Kenyon's report as it included illustrations of cemeteries with mature trees and shrubs; contrasting the bleak landscapes depicted in published battlefield photos.[25]There was an immediate public outcry following the publication of the reports, particularly with regards to the decision to not repatriate the bodies of the dead. The reports generated considerable discussion in the press which ultimately led to a heated debate in Parliament on 4 May 1920.[26][25]SirJames Remnantstarted the debate, followed by speeches byWilliam Burdett-Couttsin favour of the commission's principles andRobert Cecilspeaking for those desiring repatriation and opposing uniformity of grave markers.Winston Churchillclosed the debate and asked that the issue not proceed to a vote. Remnant withdrew his motion, allowing the commission to carry out its work assured of support for its principles.[27][28]The 1920 United States Public Law 66-175 ensured American citizens who were killed while in service of a Commonwealth nation were eligible for burial in national cemeteries in the United States[29]However, the commission made no repatriation policy exception for American citizens and attempts to retrieve loved ones from Commonwealth cemeteries were not supported by the AmericanGraves Registration Service.[30]

First cemeteries and memorials to the missing

[edit]

In 1918, three of the most eminent architects of their day,Sir Herbert Baker,Sir Reginald Blomfield,andSir Edwin Lutyenswere appointed as the organization's initial Principal Architects. Rudyard Kipling was appointed literary advisor for the language used for memorial inscriptions.[31]

a overhead technical drawing of the site layout which shows approximately 10 rows of burials.
The site plan for the Forceville Communal Cemetery and Extension

In 1920, the Commission built three experimental cemeteries atLe Treport,ForcevilleandLouvencourt,following the principles outlined in the Kenyon report.[32]Of these, the Forceville Communal Cemetery and Extension was agreed to be the most successful.[33]Having consulted with garden designerGertrude Jekyll,the architects created a walled cemetery with uniform headstones in a garden setting, augmented by Blomfield'sCross of Sacrificeand Lutyens'Stone of Remembrance.[1]After some adjustments, Forceville became the template for the commission's building programme. Cost overruns at all three experimental cemeteries necessitated some adjustments.[34]To ensure future cemeteries remained within their budget the Commission decided to not build shelters in cemeteries that contained less than 200 graves, to not place a Stone of Remembrance in any cemetery with less than 400 graves, and to limit the height of cemetery walls to 1 metre (3.3 ft).[34]

At the end of 1919, the commission had spent £7,500, and this figure rose to £250,000 in 1920 as construction of cemeteries and memorials increased. By 1921, the commission had established 1,000 cemeteries which were ready for headstone erections, and burials. Between 1920 and 1923, the commission was shipping 4,000 headstones a week to France.[35]In many cases, the Commission closed small cemeteries and concentrated the graves into larger ones. By 1927, when the majority of construction had been completed, over 500 cemeteries had been built, with 400,000 headstones, a thousand Crosses of Sacrifice, and 400 Stones of Remembrance.[36]

A triumphal arch made of red brick and limestone illuminated at night.
TheMenin Gateat night

The commission had also been mandated to individually commemorate each soldier who had no known grave, which amounted to 315,000 in France and Belgium alone. The Commission initially decided to build 12 monuments on which to commemorate the missing; each memorial being located at the site of an important battle along the Western Front.[37]After resistance from the French committee responsible for the approvals of memorials on French territory, the Commission revised their plan and reduced the number of memorials, and in some cases built memorials to the missing in existing cemeteries rather than as separate structures.[38]

Reginald Blomfield'sMenin Gatewas the first memorial to the missing located in Europe to be completed, and was unveiled on 24 July 1927.[39]The Menin Gate (Menenpoort) was found to have insufficient space to contain all the names as originally planned and 34,984 names of the missing were instead inscribed on Herbert Baker'sTyne Cot Memorial to the Missing.[40]Other memorials followed: theHelles MemorialinGallipolidesigned byJohn James Burnet;[41]theThiepval Memorialon theSommeand theArras Memorialdesigned by Edwin Lutyens;[42]and theBasra Memorialin Iraq designed byEdward Prioleau Warren.[43]The Dominions and India also erected memorials on which they commemorated their missing: theNeuve-Chapelle Memorialfor the forces of India, theVimy Memorialby Canada, theVillers-Bretonneux Memorialby Australia, theDelville Wood Memorialby South Africa and theBeaumont-Hamel Memorialby Newfoundland.[44]The programme of commemorating the dead of the Great War was considered essentially complete with the inauguration of the Thiepval Memorial in 1932, though the Vimy Memorial would not be finished until 1936, the Villers-Bretonneux Memorial until 1938 and stonemasons were still conducting work on the Menin Gate when Germany invaded Belgium in 1940.[45][46]The only memorial created by the Commission that was not in the form of a monument or cemetery was the Memorial Ophthalmic Laboratory atGiza,Egypt—complete with library, and bacteriology and pathology departments—as its memorial to men of theEgyptian Labour CorpsandCamel Transport Corps.[47]Its erection was agreed with local political pressure.[48]

Second World War

[edit]
TheKranji War Memorial,a Second World War memorial inSingapore,commemorating 24,306 casualties

From the start of the Second World War in 1939, the Commission organised grave registration units and, planning ahead based on the experience gained from the First World War, earmarked land for use as cemeteries.[49]When the war began turning in favour of the Allies, the commission was able to begin restoring its First World War cemeteries and memorials. It also began the task of commemorating the 600,000 Commonwealth casualties from the Second World War.[citation needed]As with the First World War, casualties were commemorated with uniform memorials and bodies should not be repatriated. Exceptionally, the American Graves Registration were permitted to repatriate the remains of an unknown number of American citizens who were in service of a Commonwealth nation during the Second World War.[citation needed]

In 1949, the Commission completedDieppe Canadian War Cemetery,the first of 559 new cemeteries and 36 new memorials.[50][51][52]Eventually, the Commission erected over 350,000 new headstones, many fromHopton Wood stone.[53]The wider scale of the Second World War, coupled with manpower shortages and unrest in some countries, meant that the construction and restoration programmes took much longer. In Albania the graves of 52 of the 54 graves of British SOE personnel had been reburied in Tirana before Major McIntosh from the CWGC Florence base was expelled by the new regime. Three-quarters of the original graves had been in "difficult" or remote locations.[54]Following the war, the Commission implemented a five-year horticultural renovation programme which addressed neglect by 1950. Structural repairs, together with the backlog of maintenance tasks from before the war, took a further ten years to complete.[55]

With the increased number of civilian casualties compared with the First World War,Winston Churchillagreed to Ware's proposal that the commission also maintain a record of Commonwealth civilian war deaths. A supplemental chapter was added to the Imperial War Graves Commission's charter on 7 February 1941, empowering the organisation to collect and record the names of civilians who died from enemy action during the Second World War, which resulted in the creation of the Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour. The roll eventually contained the names of nearly 67,000 civilians. The Commission and theDean of Westminsterreached an agreement that the roll would eventually be placed inWestminster Abbeybut not until the roll was complete and hostilities had ended. The Commission handed over the first six volumes to the Dean of Westminster on 21 February 1956; it added the final volume to the showcase in 1958.[56]

Post–Second World War

[edit]
A cemetery of couple hundred white headstones with a terrain of well-manicured grass with plants between each headstone. The cemetery is surrounded by a waist-high red brick wall.
Fromelles (Pheasant Wood) Military Cemetery,the most recently dedicated cemetery.

Following the Second World War, the Commission recognised that the word 'Imperial' within its name was no longer appropriate. In the spirit of strengthening national and regional feelings the organization changed its name to Commonwealth War Graves Commission in 1960.[57]

More recent conflicts have sometimes made it impossible for the commission to care for cemeteries in a given region or resulted in the destruction of sites altogether. Zehrensdorf Indian Cemetery in Germany was unkempt after the end of the Second World War and until theGerman reunificationbecause it was located in an area occupied by Russian forces and was not entirely rebuilt until 2005.[58]TheSix-Day WarandWar of Attritionresulted in the destruction ofPort Tewfik Memorialand Aden Memorial, and the death of a Commission gardener at Suez War Memorial Cemetery.[59]During theLebanese Civil Wartwo cemeteries in Beirut were destroyed and had to be rebuilt.[58]The maintenance of war graves and memorials in Iraq has remained difficult sinceIran–Iraq Warin the 1980s, with regular maintenance being impractical since after theGulf War.[60][61]

The commission also provides support for war graves outside its traditional mandate. In 1982, the British Ministry of Defence requested the commission's assistance to design and construct cemeteries in theFalkland Islandsfor those killed during theFalklands War.[62]Although these cemeteries are not Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries, the Commission manages the administrative responsibilities for them.[63]Since 2005, the commission has carried out similar management duties on behalf of the British Ministry of Defence for cemeteries and graves of British and Imperial soldiers who died during theSecond Boer War.[64]In 2003,Veterans Affairs Canadaemployed the commission to develop an approach to locate grave markers for which the Canadian Minister of Veterans Affairs has responsibility. As of 2011, the commission conducts a twelve-year cyclical inspection programme of Canadian veterans' markers installed at the expense of theGovernment of Canada.[65]

In 2008, an exploratory excavation discoveredmass graveson the edge of Pheasant Wood outside ofFromelles.Two-hundred and fifty British and Australian bodies were excavated from five mass graves which were interred in the newly constructedFromelles (Pheasant Wood) Military Cemetery.This was the first new Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery in more than 50 years, the last such cemeteries having been built after the Second World War.[66][67]

Burial sites and memorials

[edit]
See also:List of total Commonwealth War Graves Commission burials by country,List of Commonwealth War Graves Commission World War I memorials to the missing,List of Commonwealth War Graves Commission World War I memorials to the missing in Belgium and France,Memorial tablets to the British Empire dead of the First World War,andList of Commonwealth War Graves Commission World War II memorials to the missing

The commission is currently responsible for the continued commemoration of 1.7 million deceased Commonwealth military service members in 153 countries and approximately 67,000 civilians who died as a result of enemy action during the Second World War.[1][4][3]Commonwealth military service members are commemorated by name on either a headstone, at an identified site of a burial, or on a memorial. As a result, the commission is currently responsible for the care of war dead at over 23,000 separate burial sites and maintenance of more than 200 memorials worldwide.[2]The vast majority of burial sites are pre-existing communal or municipal cemeteries and parish churchyards located in the United Kingdom, however the commission has itself constructed approximately 2,500 war cemeteries worldwide.[1][68]The commission has also constructed or commissioned memorials to commemorate the dead who have no known grave; the largest of these is theThiepval Memorial.[69]

Qualifications for inclusion

[edit]

The Commission only commemorates those who have died during the designated war years, while in Commonwealth military service or of causes attributable to service. Death in service included not only those killed in combat but other causes such as those that died in training accidents, air raids and due to disease such as the1918 flu pandemic.[70]The applicable periods of consideration are 4 August 1914 to 31 August 1921 for the First World War and 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947 for the Second World War.[4]The end date for the First World War period is the official end of the war, while for the Second World War the Commission selected a date approximately the same period afterVE Dayas the official end of the First World War was after the 1918 Armistice.[71]

Civilians who died as a result of enemy action during the Second World War are commemorated differently from those that died as a result of military service. They are commemorated by name through the Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour located in St George's Chapel in Westminster Abbey. In addition to its mandated duties, the commission maintains, under arrangement with applicable governments, over 40,000 non-Commonwealth war graves and over 25,000 non-war military and civilian graves.[1][4]

Architects and sculptors

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A black and white portrait of an older gentleman with a receding hairline wearing a suit and tie.
Herbert Baker, one of the original Principal Architects of the Commission

As well as the main Principal Architects for France and Belgium (Baker, Blomfield and Lutyens), there were Principal Architects appointed for other regions as well. SirRobert Lorimerwas Principal Architect for Italy, Macedonia and Egypt, while Sir John James Burnet was Principal Architect for Palestine and Gallipoli, assisted byThomas Smith Tait.The Principal Architect for Mesopotamia was Edward Prioleau Warren.[72]

As well as these senior architects, there was a team of Assistant Architects who were actually responsible for many of the cemetery and memorial designs. These architects were younger, and many of them had served in the war. The Assistant Architects were: George Esselmont Gordon Leith,Wilfred Clement Von Berg,Charles Henry Holden(who in 1920 became a Principal Architect),William Harrison Cowlishaw,William Bryce Binnie,George Hartley Goldsmith, Frank Higginson, Arthur James Scott Hutton, Noel Ackroyd Rew, and John Reginald Truelove.[72][73]Other architects that worked for the commission, or won competitions for the Commission memorials, included George Salway Nicol,[74]Harold Chalton Bradshaw,Verner Owen Rees, Gordon H. Holt, and Henry Philip Cart de Lafontaine.[75]

In January 1944,Edward Maufewas appointed Principal Architect for the UK.[76]Maufe worked extensively for the commission for 25 years until 1969, becoming Chief Architect and also succeeding Kenyon as Artistic Advisor.[77][78]Together with Maufe, the other Principal Architects appointed during and after the Second World War wereHubert Worthington,Louis de Soissons,Philip HepworthandColin St Clair Oakes.[79]

Leading sculptors that worked on the memorials and cemeteries after the First World War includedEric Henri Kennington,Charles Thomas Wheeler,Gilbert Ledward,andCharles Sargeant Jagger.[80]Other sculptors, both in the inter-war period and after the Second World War, includedWilliam Reid Dick,[81]Ernest Gillick,[82]Basil Gotto,[83]Alfred Turner,[84]Laurence A. Turner,[85]Walter Gilbert,[86]Henry Poole,[87]Vernon Hill,[88]Robert Anning Bell,[89]Ferdinand Victor Blundstone,[90]Joseph Armitage,[90]andGilbert Bayes.[89]

Cemetery design

[edit]

Common architectural design features

[edit]
a stone cross with a metal longsword in the middle on an octagonal stone base.
TheCross of Sacrifice.

Structural design has always played an important part in the commission's cemeteries. Apart from a few exceptions, due to local geological conditions, the cemeteries follow the same design and uniform aesthetic all over the world.[91]This makes the cemeteries easily recognisable and distinguishes them from war graves administered by other groups or countries.[91][92]

A typical cemetery is surrounded by a low wall or hedge and with a wrought-iron gate entrance.[93][94]For cemeteries in France and Belgium, a land tablet near the entrance or along a wall identifies the cemetery grounds as having been provided by the French or Belgian governments. All but the smallest cemeteries contain a register with an inventory of the burials, a plan of the plots and rows, and a basic history of the cemetery. The register is located within a metal cupboard that is marked with a cross located in either the wall near the cemetery entrance or in a shelter within the cemetery. More recently, in larger sites, a stainless steel notice gives details of the respective military campaign.[95][94]The headstones within the cemetery are of a uniform size and design and mark plots of equal size.[96]

The cemetery grounds are, except in drier climates, grass-covered with a floral border around the headstones. There is also an absence of any paving between the headstone rows which is intended to make the cemetery feel like a traditional walled garden where visitors could experience a sense of peace.[97]However, Carter and Jackson argue that the uniform aesthetics are designed to evoke a positive experience which deliberately masks and sanitises the nature of the war deaths.[46]

Cross of Sacrifice and Stone of Remembrance

[edit]
Main articles:Cross of SacrificeandStone of Remembrance
A rectangular stone on a multi-stepped stone platform. the words "Their name liveth for evermore" inscribed on the longer side of the stone.
The Stone of Remembrance, a feature of larger cemeteries

Typically, cemeteries of more than 40 graves contain aCross of Sacrificedesigned by architectReginald Blomfield.This cross was designed to imitate medieval crosses found in churchyards in England with proportions more commonly seen in theCeltic cross.The cross is normally a freestanding four-pointlimestoneLatin cross,mounted on an octagonal base, and ranging in height from 14 to 32 feet (4.3 to 9.8 m). Abronzelongsword,blade down, is embedded on the face of the cross. This cross represents the faith of the majority of the dead and the sword represents the military character of the cemetery, intended to link British soldiers and the Christian concept of self-sacrifice.[98][99]

Cemeteries with more than 1000 burials typically have aStone of Remembrance,designed byEdwin Lutyenswith the inscription"Their name liveth for evermore".The concept of the Stone of Remembrance stone was developed byRudyard Kiplingto commemorate those of all faiths and none respectively.[100][101]In contrast to the Cross of Sacrifice, the design for the stone deliberately avoided "shapes associated with particular religions". The geometry of the structure was based on studies of theParthenon.[102]Each stone is 12 feet (3.5 m) long and 5 feet (1.5 m) high.[103]The shape of the stone has been compared both to that of asarcophagus[103]and analtar.[101]The feature was designed using the principle ofentasis.[104]The subtle curves in the design, if extended, would form a sphere 1,801 feet 8 inches (549.15 m) in diameter.[105]

Headstones

[edit]
A standard headstone made of Portland stone
A stone-faced pedestal marker used in the Gallipoli Peninsula due to ground conditions

Every grave is marked with aheadstone.[106]Each headstone contains the national emblem or regimental badge, rank, name, unit, date of death and age of each casualty inscribed above an appropriate religious symbol and a more personal dedication chosen by relatives.[107]The headstones use a standardupper caselettering, Headstone Standard Alphabet, designed byMacDonald Gill.[108]Individual graves are arranged, where possible, in straight rows and marked by uniform headstones, the vast majority of which are made ofPortland stone.The original headstone dimensions were 30 inches (76 cm) tall, 15 in (38 cm) wide, and 3 in (7.6 cm) thick.[109]

Most headstones are inscribed with a cross, except for those deceased known to be atheist or non-Christian. In the case of burials ofVictoria CrossorGeorge Crossrecipients, the regimental badge is supplemented by the Victoria Cross or George Cross emblem. Sometimes a soldier employed a pseudonym because he was too young to serve or was sought by law enforcement; in such cases his primary name is shown along with the notation "served as ".[107]Some American citizens who served with Commonwealth forces during the Second World War have the notation"Of U.S.A.".[110]Those whose exact burial location within a cemetery is not known will contain the superscript "Buried elsewhere in this Cemetery","Known to be buried in this cemetery"or"Believed to be buried in this cemetery".[111]Many headstones are for unidentified casualties; they consequently bear only what could be discovered from the body. The epitaph, developed byRudyard Kipling,that appears on the graves of unidentified soldiers for which no details are known is "A Soldier of the Great Warknown unto God".[101]Some headstones bear the text "believed to be buried in this cemetery" when the grave's exact location within the cemetery is not known. In some cases soldiers were buried in collective graves and distinguishing one body from another was not possible and thus one headstone covers more than one grave.[112]The headstone does not denote any specific details of the death except for its date, and even then only if it is known, and are deliberately ambiguous about the cause of death.[46] Due to local conditions it was sometimes necessary for the commission to deviate from its standard design. In places prone to extreme weather or earthquakes, such as Thailand and Turkey, stone-faced pedestal markers are used instead of the normal headstones.[113]These measures are intended to prevent masonry being damaged during earthquakes or sinking into sodden ground.[114]In Italy, headstones were carved from Chiampo Perla limestone because it was in more plentiful supply.[113]In Struma Military Cemetery, in Greece, to avoid risk of earthquake damage, small headstones are laid flush to the ground.[115]Due to their smaller size, the markers often lack unit insignia.[116]

Horticulture

[edit]
Roses around headstones in Belgium
Dry landscaping in Egypt
Tropical landscaping in Thailand

Commission cemeteries are distinctive in treatingfloricultureas an integral part of the cemetery design. Originally, the horticultural concept was to create an environment where visitors could experience a sense of peace in a setting, in contrast to traditionally bleak graveyards. Recommendations given byArthur William Hill,the Assistant Director of theRoyal Botanical Gardens at Kewenabled the commission to develop cemetery layouts and architectural structures that took into account the placement of suitable plant life.[117]Combining structural and horticultural elements were not unfamiliar to the commission's architects. Sir Edwin Lutyens furthered his long-standing working relationship with horticulturistGertrude Jekyll,whose devotion to traditional cottage garden plants and roses greatly influenced the appearance of the cemeteries. Where possible, indigenous plants were utilised to enhance sentimental associations with the gardens of home.[118]

Variety in texture, height and timing of floral display were equally important horticultural considerations. The beds around each headstone are planted with a mixture offloribunda rosesandherbaceous perennials.[119]Low-growing plants are chosen for areas immediately in front of headstones, ensuring that inscriptions are not obscured and preventing soil from splashing back during rain. In cemeteries where there are pedestal grave markers, dwarf varieties of plants are used instead.[118]

The absence of any form of paving between the headstone rows contributes to the simplicity of the cemetery designs. Lawn paths add to the garden ambience and are irrigated during the dry season in countries where there is insufficient rain. Where irrigation is inappropriate or impractical, dry landscaping is an ecological alternative favoured by the commission's horticulturists, as is the case in Iraq. Drier areas require a different approach not only for lawns but also to plants and styles of planting. Similarly, there are separate horticultural considerations in tropical climates. When many cemeteries are concentrated within a limited area, like along theWestern FrontorGallipoli peninsula,mobile teams of gardeners operate from a local base. Elsewhere, larger cemeteries have their own dedicated staff while small cemeteries are usually tended by a single gardener working part-time.[120]

Organisation

[edit]
a six-storey building with a dark-brown brick veneer.
Headquarters of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission inMaidenhead,Berkshire,UK

Commissioners

[edit]

The affairs of the CWGC are overseen by a Board of Commissioners. The President of the board is HRHPrincess Anne, Princess Royal,the Chairman is the United Kingdom'sSecretary of State for Defence,John Healey MP,and the Vice Chairman isVice Admiral Peter Hudson CB CBE.[121]Claire Hortonwas appointed Director-General of the CWGC in 2020[122]

The members are: the High Commissioner for New Zealand to the United Kingdom,Phil Goff;the High Commissioner of Australia to the United Kingdom,Stephen Smith;the High Commissioner of the Republic of South Africa to the United Kingdom, Jeremiah Nyamane Mamabolo; the High Commissioner for India to the United Kingdom,Vikram Doraiswami;the High Commissioner for Canada to the United Kingdom,Ralph E. Goodale;Keryn James; Sir Tim Hitchens;Vice Admiral Peter Hudson;Hon Philip Dunne; DameDiana Johnson;Vasuki Shastry; DameJudith Mayhew Jonas;Lieutenant General SirBen Bathurst;Air Marshal SirStuart Atha.[121]

Functional structure

[edit]

The CWGC is headquartered inMaidenhead,England. Offices or agencies that are each responsible for a specific geographical area manage the worldwide affairs of the organisation. They are:[123]

  1. United Kingdom and Northern Area- UKNA:responsible forUnited Kingdom,Ireland,Iceland,Faroe Islands,Sweden,Norway,Denmark,Gibraltar,Latvia,Lithuania,Estonia,Russia(West) /Ukraine
  2. Central and Southern Europe Area - C&SEA:responsible forBelgium,Germany,Netherlands,Luxembourg,Poland,Austria,Albania,Bulgaria,Croatia,Cyprus,Czech Republic,Hungary,Italy,Malta,North Macedonia Republic,Romania,San Marino,Serbia,Greece
  3. France Area- FA:responsible forFrance,Switzerland,Monaco,Spain,Portugal,Azores,Madeira
  4. Canada, Americas and Pacific Area- CAPA:responsible forCanada,United States,Antigua and Barbuda,Argentina,The Bahamas,Barbados,Belize,Bermuda,Brazil,Chile,Costa Rica,Cuba,Dominica,Falkland Islands,Grenada,Guatemala,Guyana,Honduras,Jamaica,Martinique,Netherlands Antilles,Panama,Peru,Puerto Rico,Saint Kitts,Saint Lucia,Saint Vincent,Trinidad and Tobago,Uruguay,Venezuela,Virgin Islands,British China (includingHong Kong),Fiji,Japan,Philippines,RussiaVladivostok,Indonesia,Malaysia,Myanmar,Singapore,Thailand
  5. Africa and Asia Area- AAA:responsible forArmenia,Bangladesh,Botswana,British Indian Ocean Territories,Cameroon,Cape Verde,Chad,Congo,Congo (Democratic Republic),Côte d'Ivoire,Djibouti,Equatorial Guinea,Eritrea,Swasiland(Eswatini),Ethiopia,Gambia,Georgia,Ghana,Guinea,India,Iran,Iraq,Kenya,Lesotho,Liberia,Madagascar,Malawi,Maldives,Mali,Mauritius,Mozambique,Namibia,Nepal,Nigeria,Pakistan,Senegal,Seychelles,Sierra Leone,Somalia(includingSomaliland),South Africa,Sri Lanka,St HelenaandAscension,Tanzania,Togo,Uganda,Zambia,Zimbabwe,Algeria,Egypt,Libya,Mauritania,Morocco,Sudan,Tunisia,Yemen,Azerbaijan,IsraelandPalestine,Jordan,Lebanon,Oman,Saudi Arabia,Syria,United Arab Emirates,Turkey,Bahrain

Financing

[edit]

The CWGC's work is funded predominantly by grants from the governments of the six member states. In thefiscal year2020/21, these grants amounted to £66.1 million of the organisation's £74.5 million of income.[124]This equates to an approximate cost ofCA$85 per commemorated war dead.[125]The contribution from each country is proportionate to the number of graves the CWGC maintains on behalf of that country. The percentage of total annual contributions for which each country is responsible is United Kingdom79%, Canada10%, Australia6%, New Zealand2%, South Africa2% and India1%.[124]

Ongoing projects and issues

[edit]

Reburials and identifications

[edit]
four men dressed entirely in black are carrying a wood casket draped in a flag.
Reburial of a New Zealand soldier in February 2012

Immediately following the First World War, the British Army remained responsible for the exhumation of remains. The Western Front was divided into sectors and combed for bodies by 12-man exhumation units. Between the Armistice and September 1921, the exhumation units reburied 204,695 bodies. After 1921, no further comprehensive search for bodies was undertaken, and in February 1921 responsibility for the cemeteries was transferred to the commission. Nevertheless, despite the rigour of the searches, bodies continued to be discovered in large numbers. In the three years following the conclusion of the general search 38,000 bodies were discovered. In the mid-1920s, 20 to 30 bodies were being discovered weekly.[126][127]

two people standing in from a memorial that is three pillars on a circular black stone base.
The dedication of the Brookwood 1914–1918 Memorial

The discovery of remains of First and Second World War casualties remains a common occurrence, with approximately 30 bodies discovered annually.[127]For example, in 2006 eight bodies of Canadian soldiers from the78th Battalion (Winnipeg Grenadiers), CEFwere discovered in a backyard inHallu,France.[128][129]In April 2013, the remains of four British soldiers discovered by a French farmer clearing land with a metal detector in 2009 were re-interred at H.A.C. Cemetery nearArras,France.[130]In March 2014, the remains of 20 Commonwealth and 30 German soldiers were discovered inVendin-le-Vieil,France, with the Commonwealth soldiers being subsequently reburied at Loos British Cemetery.[131][132]When the remains of a Commonwealth soldier from the First or Second World War is discovered the commission is notified, and a Commission burial officer tries to collect any associated artefacts that may help identify the individual. The details are then registered and archived at the commission's headquarters. Evidence used for identification purposes may include artifacts found with the remains, anthropological data and DNA.[133]

Investigation of archival records by members of the public periodically results in the identification of previously buried casualties. The archival records of the commission are open to the public to permit individuals to conduct their own research.[133]In December 2013, it was discovered that Second Lieutenant Philip Frederick Cormack, who was previously commemorated on the Arras Flying Services Memorial, had in fact been buried in a French military cemetery inMachelen,East Flandersin Belgium.[134]Sergeant Leonard Maidment was identified in 2013 after a visitor to Marfaux British Cemetery discovered a headstone of an unknown sergeant with theHampshire Regimentkilled on 20 July 1918, and was subsequently able to show that only one sergeant from that regiment had been killed in France on that date.[135]As of July 2022, the In From The Cold Project has so far identified 7,255 individuals with either unmarked graves or names missing from the Roll of Honour maintained at Westminster Abbey.[136]The majority of the casualties commemorated on the Brookwood 1914–1918 Memorial are servicemen and women identified by the In From The Cold Project as having died while in care of their families and were not commemorated by the Commission at the time.[137][138]

Vandalism

[edit]

Cemeteries, including those of war dead, are targets for vandalism. The gravestones, cemeteries and buildings of the Commission are no exception.[139]The Commission believes that graffiti and damage to stonework are usually the work of young people, noting that the number of incidents increases when schoolchildren are on school holidays.[140]Metal theftis also a problem: determined thieves target the bronze swords from the Cross of Sacrifice, which are now replaced with replicas made of fibreglass.[141]

The vandalism of Commission cemeteries has also been connected to the participation of Commonwealth countries in contemporary conflicts. In the 1970s, duringthe Troubles,Commission cemeteries in Ireland experienced vandalism.[142]Vandals defaced the central memorial of theÉtaples Military Cemeteryin northern France with anti-British and anti-American graffiti on 20 March 2003 immediately after the beginning of theIraq War.[143]On 9 May 2004, thirty-three headstones were demolished in theGaza cemetery,which contains 3,691 graves,[144]allegedly in retaliation for theAbu Ghraib prisoner abusescandal.[145]On 24 February 2012, during theLibyan Civil War,Islamist militia damaged over 200 headstones in theBenghaziwar cemetery, as well as the central memorial.[146]

Inequalities in commemoration

[edit]

In April 2021, a special committee of the CWGC published a report on historical inequalities in commemoration, concerning "failures to properly commemorate black and Asian troops" after the First World War.[147][148]A set of public statements by CWGC and the Special Committee on the issue and the next steps to be taken were published on the CWGC website, and the Defence SecretaryBen Wallacemade an official apology in the House of Commons.[148][149]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^abcdefghiPeaslee 1974,p. 300.
  2. ^abcGibson & Ward 1989,p. 63.
  3. ^abCommonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2013,p. 2.
  4. ^abcd"Facts and figures".Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Archived fromthe originalon 5 November 2011.Retrieved15 December2009.
  5. ^Majesty Magazine [@MajestyMagazine] (10 November 2023)."The King becomes Patron of CWGC"(Tweet) – viaTwitter.
  6. ^Majesty Magazine [@MajestyMagazine] (10 November 2023)."The Princess Royal becomes President of CWGC"(Tweet) – viaTwitter.
  7. ^ab"Major General Sir Fabian Ware".Ministry of Defence Veterans Agency. Archived fromthe originalon 28 December 2013.Retrieved26 May2008.
  8. ^abStamp 2007,p. 72.
  9. ^van Emden 2011,p. 149.
  10. ^abGeurst 2010,p. 13.
  11. ^Graves were to be 23 to 30 centimetres (9.1 to 11.8 in) apart with pathways no more than 90 centimetres (35 in) wide.Geurst 2010,p. 13
  12. ^abcSummers 2007,p. 15.
  13. ^"A History of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission"(PDF).Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archived(PDF)from the original on 26 February 2013.Retrieved14 August2013.
  14. ^Summers 2007,pp. 15–16.
  15. ^ab"WO 32/9433 – Text of Memorandum put before the Imperial War Conference in April 1917".The Catalogue.The National Archives.Archivedfrom the original on 7 March 2009.Retrieved15 December2009.
  16. ^abSummers 2007,p. 16.
  17. ^"History of CWGC".Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Archived fromthe originalon 3 August 2013.Retrieved14 August2013.
  18. ^Carter & Jackson 2000,p. 182.
  19. ^Winter 1998,p. 80.
  20. ^Wittman 2011.
  21. ^The document was entitledWar Graves: How Cemeteries Abroad will be Designed.Braybon 2004,p. 32
  22. ^Longworth 2003,p. 33.
  23. ^Longworth 2003,p. 42.
  24. ^Scutts 2009,p. 387.
  25. ^abBraybon 2004,p. 32.
  26. ^"Imperial War Graves Commission HC Deb vol 128 cc1929-72".Parliamentary Debates (Hansard).4 May 1920.Archivedfrom the original on 25 June 2009.Retrieved15 December2009.
  27. ^Longworth 2003,pp. 51–55.
  28. ^"A History of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission".Commonwealth War Graves Commission. p. 3.Archivedfrom the original on 31 December 2013.Retrieved28 December2013.
  29. ^Pub. L. 66-175 - An AN ACT To amend section 4878 of the Revised Statutes as amended by the Act of March 3 1897. April 15, 1920 552(PDF),uslaw.link,retrieved18 November2021
  30. ^Dickon 2014.
  31. ^Dickon 2011,p. 62.
  32. ^Geurst 2010,p. 58.
  33. ^Summers 2007,p. 34.
  34. ^abGeurst 2010,pp. 48–50.
  35. ^Summers 2007,p. 27.
  36. ^Longworth 2003,p. 125.
  37. ^Geurst 2010,p. 56.
  38. ^Geurst 2010,p. 57.
  39. ^Hucker, Jacqueline."Monuments of the First and Second World Wars".The Canadian Encyclopedia.Archivedfrom the original on 10 August 2011.Retrieved21 November2011.
  40. ^Summers 2007,p. 22.
  41. ^Summers 2007,p. 23.
  42. ^Geurst 2010,p. 2889.
  43. ^Summers 2007,p. 35.
  44. ^Ware 1937,p. 33.
  45. ^Longworth 2003,p. 126.
  46. ^abcCarter & Jackson 2000,p. 190.
  47. ^"Giza Eye Hospital".Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Archived fromthe originalon 21 November 2021.Retrieved21 November2021.
  48. ^Longworth 2003,p. 97.
  49. ^"A History of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission".Commonwealth War Graves Commission. p. 5.Archivedfrom the original on 31 December 2013.Retrieved28 December2013.
  50. ^"Second World War".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 31 December 2013.Retrieved26 February2014.
  51. ^Gibson & Ward 1989,p. 60.
  52. ^Stanford, Peter (2013).How to Read a Graveyard: Journeys in the Company of the Dead.Bloomsbury. p. 119.ISBN978-1-4411-7977-7.
  53. ^Thomas 2005.
  54. ^Bailey, Roderick (2008).The Wildest Province: SOE in the Land of the Eagle.London: Jonathan Cape. pp. 2–6.ISBN978-0224079167.
  55. ^Edwards 2008,p. 30.
  56. ^"Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour 1939–1945 – Westminster Abbey".The Dean and Chapter of Westminster. Archived fromthe originalon 30 December 2013.Retrieved28 December2013.
  57. ^Summers 2007,p. 50.
  58. ^abSummers 2007,p. 45.
  59. ^Commonwealth War Graves Commission."Heliopolis (Port Tewfik) Memorial".Archivedfrom the original on 31 January 2018.Retrieved31 October2007.
  60. ^Freeman, Colin (10 November 2013)."Iraq cemetery containing graves of British servicemen is destroyed".The Daily Telegraph.Archived fromthe originalon 26 February 2014.Retrieved5 April2014.
  61. ^"The Commission in Iraq"(PDF)(PDF). Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archived(PDF)from the original on 7 April 2014.Retrieved5 April2014.
  62. ^Summers 2007,p. 51.
  63. ^"March 2012 Newsletter: Commonwealth War Graves Commission in The Falkland Islands"(PDF)(PDF). Commonwealth War Graves Commission. n.d.Archived(PDF)from the original on 7 April 2014.Retrieved5 April2014.
  64. ^"January 2011"(PDF).Commonwealth War Graves Commission. January 2011.Archived(PDF)from the original on 3 September 2013.Retrieved14 August2013.
  65. ^"CWGC – Contract Service".Commonwealth War Graves Commission (Canada). Archived fromthe originalon 19 December 2013.Retrieved5 April2014.
  66. ^"WWI war dead reburied in special service".BBC News.30 January 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 7 April 2014.Retrieved5 April2014.
  67. ^Jackson, Peter (29 January 2010)."Putting names to the lost soldiers of Fromelles".BBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 7 April 2014.Retrieved5 April2014.
  68. ^Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2007–2008.Commonwealth War Graves Commission. pp. 48–52.
  69. ^Stamp 2007,p. 153.
  70. ^UK Home Front,Commonwealth War Graves Commission, archived fromthe originalon 1 May 2017,retrieved8 January2017
  71. ^Gibson & Ward 1989,p. 64.
  72. ^abSummers 2007,p. 20.
  73. ^Stamp 2007,pp. 90–91.
  74. ^Bernard Dolman, ed. (1927).Who's Who in Art.Art Trade Press. p.170.
  75. ^Stamp & Harris 1977,pp. 20–27.
  76. ^Longworth 2003,p. 179.
  77. ^Richardson, Margaret.Maufe, EdwardOxford Dictionary of National BiographyArchived19 July 2021 at theWayback Machine,Oxford University Press, accessed 25 September 2013(subscription orUK public library membershiprequired)
  78. ^Longworth 2003,p. 207.
  79. ^Longworth 2003,pp. 179–180.
  80. ^Longworth 2003,p. 130.
  81. ^"Ypres (Menin Gate) Memorial".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 28 September 2013.Retrieved26 September2013.
  82. ^"Vis-en-Artois Memorial".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 28 September 2013.Retrieved26 September2013.
  83. ^"Beaumont-Hamel (Newfoundland) Memorial".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 28 September 2013.Retrieved26 September2013.
  84. ^'Alfred Turner RA', Mapping the Practice and Profession of Sculpture in Britain and Ireland 1851–1951, University of Glasgow History of Art and HATII, online database 2011accessed 26 Sep 2013Archived27 April 2015 at theWayback Machine
  85. ^"Pozieres Memorial".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 24 September 2013.Retrieved26 September2013.
  86. ^"Doiran Memorial".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 7 December 2013.Retrieved26 September2013.
  87. ^"Plymouth Naval Memorial".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 17 September 2013.Retrieved26 September2013.
  88. ^"Runnymede Memorial".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 28 September 2013.Retrieved26 September2013.
  89. ^ab"Jerusalem Memorial".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 26 September 2013.Retrieved26 September2013.
  90. ^ab"Tyne Cot Memorial".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 17 September 2013.Retrieved26 September2013.
  91. ^abCarter & Jackson 2000,p. 188.
  92. ^Stamp 2007,p. 82.
  93. ^Geurst 2010,p. 147.
  94. ^ab"Our Cemetery design and features".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 30 September 2013.Retrieved16 August2013.
  95. ^Geurst 2010,p. 158.
  96. ^Carter & Jackson 2000,p. 187.
  97. ^Geurst 2010,p. 67.
  98. ^Geurst 2010,p. 46.
  99. ^"Features of Commonwealth War Cemeteries"(Word document).Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 18 February 2012.Retrieved23 May2009.
  100. ^Edwards 2008,p. 31.
  101. ^abcStamp & Harris 1977,p. 13.
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  103. ^ab"Stone of Remembrance".Australian Government Department of Veterans' Affairs. Archived fromthe originalon 18 June 2013.Retrieved1 March2010.
  104. ^Skelton, Tim (November–December 2009)."Remembering the Great War with Lutyens".British Archaeology(109). Council for British Archaeology.Archivedfrom the original on 19 July 2012.Retrieved30 December2013.
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  106. ^Geurst 2010,p. 34.
  107. ^abGeurst 2010,p. 98.
  108. ^Stamp 2007,p. 85.
  109. ^Geurst 2010,p. 96.
  110. ^"Lost, Unknown, Misidentified or Alone"- You Tube, @ 7:00 and 12:00
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  113. ^abSummers 2007,p. 28.
  114. ^"Features of Commonwealth War Cemeteries".Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Archived fromthe original(Word document)on 12 October 2007.Retrieved23 May2009.
  115. ^"Charles Usher Kilner".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 16 June 2011.Retrieved23 May2009.
  116. ^"The Gallipoli Campaign, 1915".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 31 December 2013.Retrieved28 December2013.
  117. ^Longworth 2003,p. 21.
  118. ^ab"Our Horticulture".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 31 January 2013.Retrieved30 January2013.
  119. ^Commonwealth War Graves Commission Information sheet: The Commission's Horticulture.Commonwealth War Graves Commission. p. 2.
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  121. ^ab"Our Commissioners".cwgc.org.Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Retrieved21 March2024.
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  124. ^abCommonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2021,p. 39-40.
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  127. ^abSummers 2007,p. 30.
  128. ^Shwartz, Daniel (27 September 2014)."4 WW I Canadian soldiers' remains identified".CBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 20 November 2014.Retrieved8 November2014.
  129. ^Of the eight bodies five have been identified. They are Lieutenant Clifford Neelands ofBarrie, Ontario,Private Lachlan McKinnon, an immigrant fromScotland,Private William Simms ofRussell, Manitoba,Sergeant John Oscar Lindell ofSwedenwho immigrated toWinnipeg,Manitoba,and Private Sidney Halliday ofMinto, Manitoba
  130. ^Allen, Peter; Arkell, Harriet (22 April 2013)."Douglas Elphick and Lieutenant John Harold Pritchard buried in France 96 years after killed in action in WWI".Capital Bay. Archived fromthe originalon 7 April 2014.Retrieved5 April2014.
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  133. ^abSignoli & de Verines 2011,p. 712.
  134. ^"CWGC Headstone for Second Lieutenant P. F. Cormack's Grave".Commonwealth War Graves Commission. 10 December 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 7 April 2014.Retrieved5 April2014.
  135. ^Tattersfield, David (30 July 2013)."The life of First World War British Sergeant Leonard Maidment".Western Front Association.Archivedfrom the original on 7 April 2014.Retrieved5 April2014.
  136. ^"Casualties In From The Cold".In From The Cold Project.Retrieved30 July2022.
  137. ^Davis, Eleanor (15 October 2016)."Brookwood memorial updated with 77 new names of fallen World War One soldiers".Trinity Mirror Southern.Archivedfrom the original on 8 January 2018.Retrieved7 January2018.
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  140. ^"Who Cares".CWGC.Archivedfrom the original on 19 January 2013.Retrieved21 April2014.
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  142. ^Gibney, John."Comrades in Death".Archivedfrom the original on 7 November 2014.Retrieved21 April2014.
  143. ^"French Plea as cemetery defaced".BBC News.1 April 2003.Archivedfrom the original on 12 January 2008.Retrieved30 October2007.
  144. ^"Gaza War Cemetery".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 31 January 2018.Retrieved15 September2006.
  145. ^Lynfield, Ben (11 May 2004)."Palestinians vandalise UK war graves".The Scotsman.Archivedfrom the original on 24 April 2005.Retrieved15 September2006.
  146. ^Stephen, Chris (3 April 2012)."British war graves in Libya desecrated by Islamist militants".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 13 March 2014.Retrieved3 April2013.
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  148. ^ab"Commonwealth war graves: PM 'deeply troubled' over racism".BBC News. 22 April 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 22 April 2021.Retrieved22 April2021.
  149. ^"Report of the Special Committee to Review Historical Inequalities in Commemoration".Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Archivedfrom the original on 22 April 2021.Retrieved22 April2021.

References

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