Conidae

Conidae
	A group ofshellsof various species of cone snails
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Mollusca
Class:	Gastropoda
Subclass:	Caenogastropoda
Order:	Neogastropoda
Superfamily:	Conoidea
Family:	Conidae; Fleming,1822
Subfamilies and genera
	See text
Synonyms
	CaliforniconinaeTucker & Tenorio, 2009; ConilithidaeTucker & Tenorio, 2009; ProfundiconinaeLimpalaër & Monnier, 2018· accepted, alternate representation; PuncticulinaeTucker & Tenorio, 2009; TaranteconidaeTucker & Tenorio, 2009;

Conidae,with the currentcommon nameof "cone snails",is ataxonomicfamily (previously subfamily) of predatorysea snails,marine gastropod molluscsin the superfamilyConoidea.

The 2014 classification of the superfamily Conoidea groups only cone snails in the family Conidae. Some previous classifications grouped the cone snails in a subfamily, Coninae.

As of March 2015 Conidae contained over 800 recognized species, varying widely in size from lengths of 1.3 cm to 21.6 cm. Working in 18th-century Europe,Carl Linnaeusknew of only 30 species that are still considered valid.

The snails within this family are sophisticatedpredatoryanimals.^[2]They hunt and immobilize prey using a modifiedradulartooth along with a venom gland containingneurotoxins;the tooth is launched out of the snail's mouth in aharpoon-like action.

Because all cone snails are venomous and capable of "stinging" humans, live ones should be handled with great care or preferably not at all.

Current taxonomy

In theJournal of Molluscan Studies,in 2014, Puillandre, Duda, Meyer, Olivera & Bouchet presented a new classification for the old genusConus.Using 329 species, the authors carried out molecular phylogenetic analyses. The results suggested that the authors should place all living cone snails in a single family, Conidae, containing the following genera:

CaliforniconusJ. K. Tucker & Tenorio, 2009
ConasprellaThiele, 1929
†ConilithesSwainson, 1840
†ContraconusOlsson & Harbison, 1953
ConusLinnaeus,1758
†EoconusJ. K. Tucker & Tenorio, 2009
†HemiconusCossmann, 1889
†HerndliconusPetuch & Drolshagen, 2015
KenyoniaBrazier, 1896
LilliconusG. Raybaudi Massilia, 1994
MalagasyconusMonnier & Tenorio, 2015
†PapilliconusTracey & Craig, 2017
ProfundiconusKuroda, 1956
PseudolilliconusJ. K. Tucker & Tenorio, 2009
PygmaeconusPuillandre & Tenorio, 2017
†TequestaconusPetuch & Drolshagen, 2015†

The authors grouped 85% of all known cone snail species underConus.They recognized 57 subgenera withinConus,and 11 subgenera within the genusConasprella.^[3]

History of the taxonomy

Overview

Prior to 1993, the family Conidae contained onlyConusspecies. In 1993 significant taxonomic changes were proposed by Taylor, et al.,:^[4]the family Conidae was redefined as several subfamilies. The subfamilies included many subfamilies that had previously been classified in the familyTurridae,and theConusspecies were moved to the subfamilyConinae.

In further taxonomic changes that took place in 2009 and 2011, based uponmolecular phylogeny(see below), the subfamilies that were previously in the familyTurridaewere elevated to the status of families in their own right. This left the family Conidae once again containing only those species that were traditionally placed in that family: the cone snail species.

1993, Taylor et al., Bouchet & Rocroi

According to Taylor, et al. (1993),^[4]and thetaxonomy of the Gastropoda by Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005,^[5]this family consisted of seven subfamilies.

ConinaeFleming, 1822 — synonyms: Conulinae Rafinesque, 1815 (inv.); Textiliinae da Motta, 1995 (n.a.)
ClathurellinaeH. Adams &A. Adams,1858 — synonyms: Defranciinae Gray, 1853 (inv.); Borsoniinae A. Bellardi, 1875; Pseudotominae A. Bellardi, 1888; Diptychomitrinae L. Bellardi, 1888; Mitrolumnidae Sacco, 1904; Mitromorphinae Casey, 1904; Lorinae Thiele, 1925
Conorbiinaede Gregorio, 1880—synonym: Cryptoconinae Cossmann, 1896
MangeliinaeP. Fischer, 1883—synonym: Cytharinae Thiele, 1929
OenopotinaeBogdanov, 1987—synonym: Lorinae Thiele, 1925 sensu Thiele
RaphitominaeA. Bellardi, 1875—synonyms: Daphnellinae Casey, 1904; Taraninae Casey, 1904; Thatcheriidae Powell, 1942; Pleurotomellinae F. Nordsieck, 1968; Andoniinae Vera-Pelaez, 2002
†SiphopsinaeLe Renard, 1995

2009, Tucker & Tenorio

In 2009 John K. Tucker and Manuel J. Tenorio proposed a classification system for the cone shells and their allies (which resorb their inner walls during growth) was based upon acladisticalanalysis of anatomical characters including theradular tooth,themorphology(i.e., shell characters), as well as an analysis of priormolecular phylogenystudies, all of which were used to construct phylogenetic trees.^[6]In their phylogeny, Tucker and Tenorio noted the close relationship of the cone species within the various clades, corresponding to their proposed families and genera; this also corresponded to the results of prior molecular studies by Puillandreet al.and others.^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13]This 2009 proposed classification system also outlined the taxonomy for the other clades ofConoidean gastropods(that donotresorb their inner walls), also based upon morphological, anatomical, and molecular studies, and removes theturrid snails(which are a distinct large and diverse group) from the cone snails, and creates a number of new families.^[6]Tucker and Tenorio’s proposed classification system for the cone shells and their allies (and the other clades ofConoidean gastropods) is shown inTucker & Tenorio cone snail taxonomy 2009.

2011, Bouchet et al.

In 2011 Bouchet et al. proposed a new classification in which several subfamilies were raised to the rank of family:^[14]

Clathurellinae was split into three families:Borsoniidae(also including species fromTurridae),MitromorphidaeandClathurellidae(all previously lumped under theTurridae).^[14]
Conorbiinae was raised to the rank of familyConorbidae,consisting of three genera:Artemidiconusda Motta, 1991,BenthofascisIredale, 1936, andConorbisSwainson, 1840.^[14]
Mangeliinae and Oenopotinae were combined and raised to the rank of familyMangeliidae,which had previously been lumped in theTurridae).^[14]
Raphitominaewas raised to the rank of familyRaphitomidae(also previously lumped in theTurridae).^[14]

The classification by Bouchet et al. (2011)^[14]was based on mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA testing, and built on the prior work by J.K. Tucker & M.J. Tenorio (2009), but did not include fossil taxa.^[6]^[14]

Molecular phylogeny,particularly with the advent of nuclear DNA testing in addition to the mDNA testing (testing in the Conidae initially began by Christopher Meyer and Alan Kohn^[15]), is continuing on the Conidae.^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13]^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22]

2009, 2011, list of genera from Tucker & Tenorio, and Bouchet et al

This is a list of what were recognized extant genera within Conidae as per J.K. Tucker & M.J. Tenorio (2009), and Bouchet et al. (2011):^[6]^[14]However, all these genera have become synonyms of subgenera within the genusConusas per the revision of the taxonomy of the Conidae in 2015^[3]

AfonsoconusTucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym ofConus (Afonsoconus)Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
AfriconusPetuch, 1975: synonym ofConus (Lautoconus)Monterosato, 1923 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
ArubaconusPetuch, 2013: synonym ofConus (Ductoconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
AsprellaSchaufuss, 1869: synonym ofConus (Asprella)Schaufuss, 1869 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
AtlanticonusPetuch & Sargent, 2012: synonym ofConus (Atlanticonus)Petuch & Sargent, 2012 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
AttenuiconusPetuch, 2013: synonym ofConus (Attenuiconus)Petuch, 2013 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
AustroconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009 synonym ofConus (Austroconus)Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
BathyconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConasprella (Fusiconus)Thiele, 1929, represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
BermudaconusPetuch, 2013: synonym ofConus (Bermudaconus)Petuch, 2013 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
BoucheticonusTucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym ofConasprella (Boucheticonus)Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
BrasiliconusPetuch, 2013: synonym of Conus (Brasiliconus) Petuch, 2013 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
CalamiconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConus (Lividoconus)Wils, 1970 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Calibanusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Calibanus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
CariboconusPetuch, 2003: synonym ofConus (Dauciconus)Cotton, 1945 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
CaliforniconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009
ChelyconusMörch, 1852: synonym ofConus (Chelyconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
CleobulaIredale, 1930: synonym ofDendroconusSwainson, 1840
ColtroconusPetuch, 2013: synonym ofConasprella (Coltroconus)Petuch, 2013 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
ConasprellaThiele, 1929: accepted name
ConasprelloidesTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConus (Dauciconus)Cotton, 1945 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
†ConilithesSwainson, 1840
ContinuconusTucker & Tenorio, 2013
ConusLinnaeus, 1758: accepted name
CornutoconusSuzuki, 1972: synonym ofTaranteconusAzuma, 1972
CoronaxisSwainson, 1840: synonym ofConus (Conus)Linnaeus, 1758 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
CucullusRöding, 1798: synonym ofConus (Conus)Linnaeus, 1758 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
CylinderMontfort, 1810: synonym ofConus (Cylinder)Montfort, 1810 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
CylindrellaSwainson, 1840: synonym ofAsprellaSchaufuss, 1869synonym ofConus (Asprella)Schaufuss, 1869 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
CylindrusBatsch, 1789: synonym ofCylinderMontfort, 1810synonym ofConus (Cylinder)Montfort, 1810 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
DalliconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConasprella (Dalliconus)Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 synonym ofConasprellaThiele, 1929
DarioconusIredale, 1930: synonym ofConus (Darioconus)Iredale, 1930 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
DauciconusCotton, 1945: synonym ofConus (Dauciconus)Cotton, 1945 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
DendroconusSwainson, 1840: synonym ofConus (Dendroconus)Swainson, 1840 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Ductoconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Ductoconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
DuodenticonusTucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym ofConasprella (Conasprella)Thiele, 1929 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
DyraspisIredale, 1949: synonym ofConus (Virroconus)Iredale, 1930represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
ElisaconusTucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym ofConus (Elisaconus)Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
EmbrikenaIredale, 1937: synonym ofConus (Embrikena)Iredale, 1937 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
EndemoconusIredale, 1931: synonym ofConasprella (Endemoconus)Iredale, 1931 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
EremiconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConus (Eremiconus)Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Erythroconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Darioconus)Iredale, 1930 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Eugeniconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Eugeniconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
FloraconusIredale, 1930: synonym ofConus (Floraconus)Iredale, 1930 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
FraterconusTucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym ofConus (Fraterconus)Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Fulgiconusda Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus(Phasmoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Fumiconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConasprella (Fusiconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
Fusiconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConasprella (Fusiconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
GastridiumModeer, 1793: synonym ofConus (Gastridium)Modeer, 1793 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
GenuanoconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConus (Kalloconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
GladioconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConus (Monteiroconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
GlobiconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConasprella (Ximeniconus)Emerson & Old, 1962 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
Gradiconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Dauciconus)Cotton, 1945 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Graphiconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Phasmoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Harmoniconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Harmoniconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
HermesMontfort, 1810: synonym ofConus (Hermes)Montfort, 1810 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Heroconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Pionoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
IsoconusTucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym ofConus (Splinoconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
JaspidiconusPetuch, 2004: synonym ofConasprella (Ximeniconus)Emerson & Old, 1962 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
Kalloconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Kalloconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
KellyconusPetuch, 2013: synonym ofConus (Kellyconus)Petuch, 2013 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
KenyoniaBrazier, 1896: genusincertae sedis
KermasprellaPowell, 1958: synonym ofConasprella (Endemoconus)Iredale, 1931 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
Ketyconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Floraconus)Iredale, 1930 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Kioconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Splinoconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
KlemaeconusTucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym ofConus (Klemaeconus)Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
KohniconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConasprella (Kohniconus)Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
KurodaconusShikama & Habe, 1968: synonym ofConus (Turriconus)Shikama & Habe, 1968 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Lamniconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Lamniconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
LautoconusMonterosato, 1923: synonym ofConus (Lautoconus)Monterosato, 1923 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
LeporiconusIredale, 1930: synonym ofConus (Leporiconus)Iredale, 1930 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
LeptoconusSwainson, 1840: synonym ofConus (Leptoconus)Swainson, 1840 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
LilliconusRaybaudi Massilia, 1994: synonym ofConasprella (Lilliconus)G. Raybaudi Massilia, 1994 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
LindaconusPetuch, 2002: synonym ofConus (Lindaconus)Petuch, 2002 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
LithoconusMörch, 1852: synonym ofConus (Lithoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
LividoconusWils, 1970: synonym ofConus (Lividoconus)Wils, 1970 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Lizaconusda Motta, 1991synonym ofProfundiconusKuroda, 1956
Magelliconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Dauciconus)Cotton, 1945 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
MalagasyconusMonnier & Tenorio, 2015
MamiconusCotton & Godfrey, 1932: synonym ofEndemoconusIredale, 1931synonym ofConasprella (Endemoconus)Iredale, 1931 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
MiliariconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConus (Virroconus)Iredale, 1930 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
MitraconusTucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym ofConus (Turriconus)Shikama & Habe, 1968 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Monteiroconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Monteiroconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
NataliconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConus (Leptoconus)Swainson, 1840 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
NimboconusTucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym ofConus (Phasmoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
NitidoconusTucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym ofConus (Splinoconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Ongoconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Splinoconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
PapyriconusTucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym ofConus (Papyriconus)Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
ParviconusCotton & Godfrey, 1932: synonym ofConasprella (Parviconus)Cotton & Godfrey, 1932 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
PerplexiconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConasprella (Ximeniconus)Emerson & Old, 1962 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
PhasmoconusMörch, 1852: synonym ofConus (Phasmoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
PionoconusMörch, 1852: synonym ofConus (Pionoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
PlicaustraconusMoolenbeek, 2008: synonym ofConus (Plicaustraconus)Moolenbeek, 2008 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
PoremskiconusPetuch, 2013: synonym ofConus (Dauciconus)Cotton, 1945 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
ProfundiconusKuroda, 1956: accepted name
Protoconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofTenorioconusPetuch & Drolshagen, 2011
ProtostrioconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConus (Gastridium)Modeer, 1793 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
PseudoconorbisTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConasprella (Pseudoconorbis)Tucker & Tenorio, 2009, represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
PseudohermesTucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym ofConus (Virgiconus)Cotton, 1945 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
PseudolilliconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConus (Pseudolilliconus)Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
PseudonoduloconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConus (Pseudonoduloconus)Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
PseudopterygiaTucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym ofConus (Pseudopterygia)Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
PuncticulisSwainson, 1840: synonym ofConus (Puncticulis)Swainson, 1840 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Purpuriconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Dauciconus)Cotton, 1945 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
PygmaeconusPuillandre & Tenorio, 2017
PyruconusOlsson, 1967: synonym ofConus (Pyruconus)Olsson, 1967 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
QuasiconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConus (Quasiconus)Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
RegiconusIredale, 1930: synonym ofConus (Darioconus)Iredale, 1930 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
RhizoconusMörch, 1852: synonym ofConus (Rhizoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
RhombiconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConus (Stephanoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
RhombusMontfort, 1810: synonym ofRhombiconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009, synonym ofConus (Stephanoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
RolaniconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConus (Strategoconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
RollusMontfort, 1810:synonym ofConus (Gastridium)Modeer, 1793 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
RubroconusTucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym ofConus (Rubroconus)Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
SandericonusPetuch, 2013: synonym ofConus (Sandericonus)Petuch, 2013 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Sciteconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Sciteconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
SeminoleconusPetuch, 2003: synonym ofConus (Stephanoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Socioconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Pionoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Splinoconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Splinoconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
SpuriconusPetuch, 2003: synonym ofConus (Lindaconus)Petuch, 2002 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
StellaconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConus (Splinoconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
StephanoconusMörch, 1852: synonym ofConus (Stephanoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Strategoconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Strategoconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
StrioconusThiele, 1929: synonym ofPionoconusMörch, 1852, synonym ofConus (Pionoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
SulciconusBielz, 1869: synonym ofAsprellaSchaufuss, 1869, synonym ofConus (Asprella)Schaufuss, 1869 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
TaranteconusAzuma, 1972: synonym ofConus (Stephanoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
TenorioconusPetuch & Drolshagen, 2011: synonym ofConus (Stephanoconus)Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Tesselliconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Tesselliconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
TextiliaSwainson, 1840: synonym ofConus (Textilia)Swainson, 1840 representedConusLinnaeus, 1758
ThalassiconusTucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym ofCalibanusda Motta, 1991, synonym ofConus (Calibanus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
TheliconusSwainson, 1840: synonym ofHermesMontfort, 1810, synonym ofConus (Hermes)Montfort, 1810 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Thoraconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofFulgiconusda Motta, 1991, synonym ofConus (Phasmoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
TrovaoconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009, synonym ofConus (Kalloconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
TuckericonusPetuch, 2013: synonym ofConus (Dauciconus)Cotton, 1945 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
TulipariaSwainson, 1840: synonym ofGastridiumModeer, 1793, synonym ofConus (Gastridium)Modeer, 1793 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
TurriconusShikama & Habe, 1968, synonym ofConus (Turriconus)Shikama & Habe, 1968 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
UtriculusSchumacher, 1817: synonym ofGastridiumModeer, 1793, synonym ofConus (Gastridium)Modeer, 1793 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Varioconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Lautoconus)Monterosato, 1923 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
ViminiconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConasprella (Fusiconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
VirgiconusCotton, 1945: synonym ofConus (Virgiconus)Cotton, 1945 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
VirroconusIredale, 1930: synonym ofConus (Virroconus)Iredale, 1930 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
Vituliconusda Motta, 1991: synonym ofConus (Strategoconus)da Motta, 1991 represented asConusLinnaeus, 1758
XimeniconusEmerson & Old, 1962: synonym ofConasprella (Ximeniconus)Emerson & Old, 1962 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929
YeddoconusTucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym ofConasprella (Endemoconus)Iredale, 1931 represented asConasprellaThiele, 1929

1993 to 2011 list of genera

Following Taylor et al., from 1993 to 2011, the family Conidae was defined as including not only the cone snails, but also a large number of other genera which are commonly known as"turrids".However, as a result ofmolecular phylogenystudies in 2011, many of those genera were moved back to theTurridae,or were placed in new "turrid" families within the superfamilyConoidea.The following list of genera that used to be included in Conidae is retained as a historical reference:

AbyssobelaKantor & Sysoev, 1986
AcamptodaphneShuto, 1971
AgathotomaCossman, 1899
AliceiaDautzenberg & Fischer, 1897
AntimitraIredale, 1917
AsperdaphneHedley, 1922
Asprella(considered a synonym ofConusby some authors)
AustrodaphnellaLaseron, 1954
BactrocytharaWoodring, 1928
BathybelaKobelt, 1905
BathytomaHarris & Burrows 1891
BelaGray, 1847
BelaturriculaPowell, 1951
BenthomangeliaThiele, 1925
BorsonellaDall, 1908
BrachycytharaWoodring, 1928
BuccinariaKittl, 1887
CenodagreutesE.H. Smith, 1967
Chelyconus(synonym ofConus)
ClathromangeliaMonterosato, 1884
ClathurellaCarpenter, 1857
Cleobula(synonym ofConus)
ClinuraBellardi, 1875
ClinuropsisVincent, 1913
ColumbariumMartens, 1881
Conasprella(considered a synonym ofConusby some authors)
ConopleuraHinds, 1844
ConorbisSwainson, 1840
ConospirusGregorio, 1890
ConusLinnaeus, 1758
CrockerellaHertlein & Strong 1951
CryoturrisWoodring, 1928
CryptodaphnePowell, 1942
CurtitomaBartsch, 1941
DaphnellaHinds 1844
DaphnellopsisSchepman, 1913
Darioconus(considered a synonym ofConusby some authors)
Dauciconus(considered a synonym ofConusby some authors)
Dendroconus(considered a synonym ofConusby some authors)
DiaugasmaMelvill, 1917
DrilliolaLocard, 1897
Endemoconus(considered a synonym ofConusby some authors)
EubelaDall, 1889
EucyclotomaBoettger, 1895
EuryentmemaWoodring, 1928
ExomilusHedley, 1918
Fehriavan Aartsen, 1988
FusidaphneLaseron, 1954
Gastridium(considered a synonym ofConusby some authors)
GlyphostomaGabb, 1872
GlyphostomopsBartsch, 1934
GlyphoturrisWoodring, 1928
GlyptaesopusPilsbry & Olsson 1941
GranoturrisFargo, 1953
GymnobelaVerrill, 1884
IsodaphneLaseron, 1954
IthycytharaWoodring, 1928
JaspidiconusClench, 1942
KermiaOliver, 1915
KuroshiodaphneShuto, 1965
KurtziaBartsch, 1944
KurtziellaDall, 1918
LeufroyiaMonterosato 1884
Lithoconus(considered a synonym ofConusby some authors)
MangeliaRisso,1826
MicrodaphneMcLean, 1971
MicrogeniaLaseron, 1954
MioawateriaVella, 1954
MitramorphaAdams, 1865
MitrolumnaBucquoy, Dautzenberg & Dollfus 1883
MitromorphaAdams, 1865
NannodiellaDall, 1918
NeopleurotomoidesShuto, 1971
NepotillaHedley, 1918
NipponapheraHabe, 1961
ObesotomaBartsch, 1941
OenopotaMörch, 1852
OphiodermellaBartsch, 1944
PagodidaphneShuto, 1983
PerplicariaDall, 1890
PhymorhynchusDall, 1908
PlatycytharaWoodring, 1928
Pleurotomellaverrill, 1873
PontiothaumaE.A. Smith, 1895
PropebelaIredale, 1918
PseudodaphnellaBoettger, 1895
PuncticulisSwainson, 1840
PyrgocytharaWoodring, 1928
RaphitomaBellardi, 1847
Rhizoconus(considered a synonym ofConusby some authors)
RimosodaphnellaCossmann, 1915
RocroithysSysoev & Bouchet, 2001
RubellatomaBartsch & Rehder 1939
RugobelaFinlay, 1924
ScalptiaJousseaume 1887
SpergoDall, 1895
Stephanoconus(considered a synonym ofConusby some authors)
StillaFinlay, 1926
SuavodrilliaDall, 1918
TaranidaphneMorassi & Bonfitto, 2001
TaranisJeffreys, 1870
TasmadaphneLaseron, 1954
TeleochilusHarris, 1897
TenaturrisWoodring, 1928
TeretiaNorman, 1888
TeretiopsisKantor & Sysoev, 1989
ThatcheriaAngas, 1877
ThatcheriasyrinxPowell, 1969
ThatcherinaVera-Pelaez, 1998
ThelecytharaWoodring, 1928
ThesbiaJeffreys, 1867
ThetaA.H. Clarke, 1959
TritonoturrisDall, 1924
TruncadaphneMcLean, 1971
TuskaroriaSysoev, 1988
TyphlodaphnePowell, 1951
TyphlomangeliaSars G.O., 1878
VepreculaMelvill, 1917
VepridaphneShuto, 1983
Virgiconus(considered a synonym ofConusby some authors)
Virroconus(considered a synonym ofConusby some authors)
XanthodaphnePowell, 1942
ZeneposFinlay, 1928
ZierlianaGray, 1847

Distribution and habitat

Species in the family Conidae are found in the tropical and subtropical seas of the world, in fourbiogeographic regions,including: theIndo-Pacific(with 60% of all species), theTropical Eastern Pacific,the WesternTropical Atlantic,and the Eastern Tropical Atlantic, plus 10 species in the warm temperateAgulhas bioregionon the southern coast of South Africa. Fewer than one percent of fossil species have been found in more than one of the above regions.^[23]

Paleontology

The oldest known fossil of Conidae is from the lowerEocene,about 55 million years ago. Analysis ofnucleotide sequencesindicate that all living species of Conidae belong to one of twocladesthat diverged about 33 million years ago. One clade includes most of the species in the eastern Pacific and western Atlantic regions, which were connected by theCentral American Seawayuntil the emergence of theIsthmus of Panamaless than three million years ago. The other clade includes most of the species in the eastern Atlantic and Indo-Pacific regions, which were connected by theNeo-Tethys Seauntil 21 to 24 million years ago.^[23]

Cone snail reproduction

Most cone snails appear to reproduce sexually, with separate sexes and internal fertilization. varying numbers of eggs in egg capsules laid in substrate by cone snails. hatchlings are of two types, the veligers (larvae that swim freely) and veliconcha (baby snail).^[24]

Cone snail venom characteristics and biotech

There are approximately 30 records of humans killed by cone snails. Human victims suffer little pain, because the venom contains an analgesic component. Some species reportedly can kill a human in under five minutes, thus the name "cigarette snail" as supposedly one only has time to smoke a cigarette before dying. Cone snails can sting through a wetsuit with their harpoon-like radular tooth, which resembles a transparent needle.^[25]

Normally, cone snails (and many species in the superfamilyConoidea) use their venom to immobilize prey before engulfing it. The venom consists of a mixture ofpeptides,calledconopeptides.The venom is typically made up of 10 to 30amino acids,but in some species as many as 60. The venom of each cone snail species may contain as many as 200 pharmacologically active components. It is estimated that more than 50,000 conopeptides can be found, because every species of cone snail is thought to produce its own specific venom.

Cone-snail venom has come to interest biotechnologists and pharmacists because of its potential medicinal properties. Production of synthetic conopeptides has started, usingsolid-phase peptide synthesis.

A component of the venom ofConus magus,ω-conotoxin, is now marketed as theanalgesic ziconotide,which is used as a last resort in chronic and severe pain. Conopeptides are also being looked at as anti-epileptic agents and to help stop nerve-cell death after a stroke or head injury. Conopeptides also have potential in helping against spasms due tospinal cordinjuries, and may be helpful in diagnosing and treating small cellcarcinomasin the lung.

Thebiotechnologysurrounding cone snails and their venom has promise for medical breakthroughs; with more than 50,000conopeptidesto study, the possibilities are numerous.^[26]

References

^Fleming J.(June 1822).The philosophy of zoology, a general view of the structure, functions and classification of animals2.Constable & Co., Edinburgh, 618 pp., Conidae is on the page 490.
^Piper R.(2007).Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals,Greenwood Press.
^^a ^bPuillandre, N.; Duda, T.F.; Meyer, C.; Olivera, B.M.; Bouchet, P. (2015)."One, four or 100 genera? A new classification of the cone snails".Journal of Molluscan Studies.81(1): 1–23.doi:10.1093/mollus/eyu055.PMC4541476.PMID 26300576.
^^a ^bTaylor J. D., Kantor Y. I. & Sysoev A. V. (1993). "Foregut anatomy, feeding mechanisms, relationships and classification of Conoidea (Toxoglossa) (Gastropoda)." Bull. Br. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Zool. 59: 125–169.
^Bouchet, Philippe;Rocroi, Jean-Pierre;Frýda, Jiri; Hausdorf, Bernard;Ponder, Winston;Valdés, Ángel & Warén, Anders (2005). "Classification and nomenclator of gastropod families".Malacologia.47(1–2). Hackenheim, Germany: ConchBooks: 1–397.ISBN 3-925919-72-4.ISSN 0076-2997.
^^a ^b ^c ^dTucker J.K. & Tenorio M.J. (2009) Systematic classification of Recent and fossil conoidean gastropods. Hackenheim: Conchbooks. 296 pp., at p. 133
^^a ^bP.K. Bandyopadhyay, B.J. Stevenson, J.P. Ownby, M.T. Cady, M. Watkins, & B. Olivera (2008),The mitochondrial genome of Conus textile, coxI-conII intergenic sequences and conoidean evolution.Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 46: 215-223.
^^a ^bS.T. Williams & T.F. Duda, Jr. (2008),Did tectonic activity stimulate Oligo-Miocene speciation in the Indo-West Pacific?Evolution 62:1618-1634.
^^a ^bR.L. Cunha, R. Castilho, L. Ruber, & R. Zardoya (2005),Patterns of cladogenesis in the venomous marine gastropod genus Conus from the Cape Verde IslandsSystematic Biology 54(4):634-650.
^^a ^bT.F. Duda, Jr. & A.J. Kohn (2005),Species-level phylogeography and evolutionary history of the hyperdiverse marine gastropod genus Conus,Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 34:257-272.
^^a ^bT.F. Duda, Jr. & E. Rolan (2005),Explosive radiation of Cape Verde Conus, a marine species flock,Molecular Ecology 14:267-272.
^^a ^bB. Vallejo, Jr. (2005),Inferring the mode of speciation in the Indo-West Pacific Conus (Gastropoda: Conidae),Journal of Biogeography 32:1429-1439.
^^a ^bN. Puillandre, S. Samadi, M. Boesselier, A. Sysoev, Y. Kantor, C. Cruaud, A. Couloux, & P. Bouchett (2008),Starting to unravel the toxoglossan knot: molecular phylogeny of the "turrid" (Neogastropoda: Conoidea),Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 47:1122-1134.
^^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^hBouchet, P.; Kantor, Yu.I.; Sysoev, A.; Puillandre, N. (2011)."A new operational classification of the Conoidea".Journal of Molluscan Studies.77(3): 273–308.doi:10.1093/mollus/eyr017.
^Interview of Professor Alan Kohn, Professor Emeritus, Zoology"SEASHELL COLLECTOR | Interview of Pr Alan Kohn, Professor Emeritus, Zoology".Archived fromthe originalon 2012-02-27.Retrieved2011-12-04.
^Tucker, J. K. & Stahlschmidt, P. (2010)A second species of Pseudoconorbis (Gastropoda: Conoidea) from India. Miscellanea Malacologica4(3):31-34.
^Watkins, M., Corneli, P.S., Hillyard, D., & Olivera, B.M. (2010)Molecular phylogeny of Conus chiangi (Azuma, 1972) (Gastropods:Conidae).The Nautilus 124(3):129-136.
^Tucker, J. K., Tenorio, M. J. & Stahlschmidt, P. (2011)The genus Benthofascis (Gastropoda: Conoidea): a revision with descriptions of new species.Zootaxa 2796:1-14.
^Tucker, J. K. & Tenorio, M. J. (2011)New species of Gradiconus and Kohniconus from the western Atlantic (Gastropoda: Conoidea: Conidae, Conilithidae).Miscellanea Malacologica5(1):1-16.
^Petuch, E. J. & Sargent, D. M. (2011)New species of Conidae and Conilithidae (Gastropoda) from the tropical Americas and Philippines. With notes on some poorly-known Floridian species.Visaya 3(3):116-137.
^Petuch & Drolshage (2011)Compendium of Florida Fossil Shells, Volume 1MDM Publications, Wellington, Florida, 432 pp.
^C.M.L. Afonso & M.J. Tenorio (August 2011),A new, distinct endemic Africonus species (Gastropoda, Conidae) from Sao Vicente Island, Cape Verde Archipelago, West Africa,Gloria Maris 50(5): 124-135
^^a ^bDuda, Thomas F. Jr.; Kohn, Alan J. (February 2005)."Species-level pylogeography and evolutionary history of the hyperdiverse marine gastropod genusConus".Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.34(2). Abstract, Introduction.Bibcode:2005MolPE..34..257D.doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2004.09.012– via Science Direct.
^"Cone Snails (General Description)".
^Nelson, L (2004). "Venomous snails: One slip, and you're dead...".Nature.429(6994): 798–799.Bibcode:2004Natur.429..798N.doi:10.1038/429798a.PMID 15215832.S2CID 1698214.
^Becker, S.; Terlau, H. (2008)."Toxins from Cone Snails: Properties, Applications and Biotechnological Production".Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.79(1): 1–9.doi:10.1007/s00253-008-1385-6.PMC2755758.PMID 18340446.
^Kaas, Quentin; Yu Rilei; Jin Ai-Hua; Dutertre Sébastien; Craik David J (Jan 2012)."ConoServer: updated content, knowledge, and discovery tools in the conopeptide database".Nucleic Acids Res.40(Database issue). England: D325-30.doi:10.1093/nar/gkr886.PMC3245185.PMID 22058133.

External links

Nature article on the venom

[1] Fleming J.(June 1822).The philosophy of zoology, a general view of the structure, functions and classification of animals2.Constable & Co., Edinburgh, 618 pp., Conidae is on the page 490.

[2] Piper R.(2007).Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals,Greenwood Press.

[Puillandre-3] Puillandre, N.; Duda, T.F.; Meyer, C.; Olivera, B.M.; Bouchet, P. (2015)."One, four or 100 genera? A new classification of the cone snails".Journal of Molluscan Studies.81(1): 1–23.doi:10.1093/mollus/eyu055.PMC4541476.PMID 26300576.

[Taylor-4] Taylor J. D., Kantor Y. I. & Sysoev A. V. (1993). "Foregut anatomy, feeding mechanisms, relationships and classification of Conoidea (Toxoglossa) (Gastropoda)." Bull. Br. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Zool. 59: 125–169.

[5] Bouchet, Philippe;Rocroi, Jean-Pierre;Frýda, Jiri; Hausdorf, Bernard;Ponder, Winston;Valdés, Ángel & Warén, Anders (2005). "Classification and nomenclator of gastropod families".Malacologia.47(1–2). Hackenheim, Germany: ConchBooks: 1–397.ISBN 3-925919-72-4.ISSN 0076-2997.

[Systematic-6] Tucker J.K. & Tenorio M.J. (2009) Systematic classification of Recent and fossil conoidean gastropods. Hackenheim: Conchbooks. 296 pp., at p. 133

[Bandy-7] P.K. Bandyopadhyay, B.J. Stevenson, J.P. Ownby, M.T. Cady, M. Watkins, & B. Olivera (2008),The mitochondrial genome of Conus textile, coxI-conII intergenic sequences and conoidean evolution.Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 46: 215-223.

[Williams-8] S.T. Williams & T.F. Duda, Jr. (2008),Did tectonic activity stimulate Oligo-Miocene speciation in the Indo-West Pacific?Evolution 62:1618-1634.

[Cunha-9] R.L. Cunha, R. Castilho, L. Ruber, & R. Zardoya (2005),Patterns of cladogenesis in the venomous marine gastropod genus Conus from the Cape Verde IslandsSystematic Biology 54(4):634-650.

[Duda_&_Kohn-10] T.F. Duda, Jr. & A.J. Kohn (2005),Species-level phylogeography and evolutionary history of the hyperdiverse marine gastropod genus Conus,Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 34:257-272.

[Duda_&_Rolan-11] T.F. Duda, Jr. & E. Rolan (2005),Explosive radiation of Cape Verde Conus, a marine species flock,Molecular Ecology 14:267-272.

[Vallejo-12] B. Vallejo, Jr. (2005),Inferring the mode of speciation in the Indo-West Pacific Conus (Gastropoda: Conidae),Journal of Biogeography 32:1429-1439.

[Puillandre_et_al.-13] N. Puillandre, S. Samadi, M. Boesselier, A. Sysoev, Y. Kantor, C. Cruaud, A. Couloux, & P. Bouchett (2008),Starting to unravel the toxoglossan knot: molecular phylogeny of the "turrid" (Neogastropoda: Conoidea),Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 47:1122-1134.

[Bouchet_2011-14] ^^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^hBouchet, P.; Kantor, Yu.I.; Sysoev, A.; Puillandre, N. (2011)."A new operational classification of the Conoidea".Journal of Molluscan Studies.77(3): 273–308.doi:10.1093/mollus/eyr017.

[15] Interview of Professor Alan Kohn, Professor Emeritus, Zoology"SEASHELL COLLECTOR | Interview of Pr Alan Kohn, Professor Emeritus, Zoology".Archived fromthe originalon 2012-02-27.Retrieved2011-12-04.

[T&S_2010-16] Tucker, J. K. & Stahlschmidt, P. (2010)A second species of Pseudoconorbis (Gastropoda: Conoidea) from India. Miscellanea Malacologica4(3):31-34.

[17] Watkins, M., Corneli, P.S., Hillyard, D., & Olivera, B.M. (2010)Molecular phylogeny of Conus chiangi (Azuma, 1972) (Gastropods:Conidae).The Nautilus 124(3):129-136.

[TTS_2011-18] Tucker, J. K., Tenorio, M. J. & Stahlschmidt, P. (2011)The genus Benthofascis (Gastropoda: Conoidea): a revision with descriptions of new species.Zootaxa 2796:1-14.

[T&T_2011-19] Tucker, J. K. & Tenorio, M. J. (2011)New species of Gradiconus and Kohniconus from the western Atlantic (Gastropoda: Conoidea: Conidae, Conilithidae).Miscellanea Malacologica5(1):1-16.

[P&S_2011-20] Petuch, E. J. & Sargent, D. M. (2011)New species of Conidae and Conilithidae (Gastropoda) from the tropical Americas and Philippines. With notes on some poorly-known Floridian species.Visaya 3(3):116-137.

[P&D_2011-21] Petuch & Drolshage (2011)Compendium of Florida Fossil Shells, Volume 1MDM Publications, Wellington, Florida, 432 pp.

[C.M.L._Afonso_2011-22] C.M.L. Afonso & M.J. Tenorio (August 2011),A new, distinct endemic Africonus species (Gastropoda, Conidae) from Sao Vicente Island, Cape Verde Archipelago, West Africa,Gloria Maris 50(5): 124-135

[Duda-23] Duda, Thomas F. Jr.; Kohn, Alan J. (February 2005)."Species-level pylogeography and evolutionary history of the hyperdiverse marine gastropod genusConus".Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.34(2). Abstract, Introduction.Bibcode:2005MolPE..34..257D.doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2004.09.012– via Science Direct.

[24] "Cone Snails (General Description)".

[25] Nelson, L (2004). "Venomous snails: One slip, and you're dead...".Nature.429(6994): 798–799.Bibcode:2004Natur.429..798N.doi:10.1038/429798a.PMID 15215832.S2CID 1698214.

[26] Becker, S.; Terlau, H. (2008)."Toxins from Cone Snails: Properties, Applications and Biotechnological Production".Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.79(1): 1–9.doi:10.1007/s00253-008-1385-6.PMC2755758.PMID 18340446.

[pmid22058133-27] Kaas, Quentin; Yu Rilei; Jin Ai-Hua; Dutertre Sébastien; Craik David J (Jan 2012)."ConoServer: updated content, knowledge, and discovery tools in the conopeptide database".Nucleic Acids Res.40(Database issue). England: D325-30.doi:10.1093/nar/gkr886.PMC3245185.PMID 22058133.

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