Conscience
Aconscienceis acognitiveprocess that elicitsemotionand rational associations based on an individual'smoral philosophyor value system. Conscience stands in contrast to elicited emotion or thought due to associations based on immediate sensory perceptions and reflexive responses, as in sympatheticcentral nervous systemresponses. In common terms, conscience is often described as leading to feelings ofremorsewhen a person commits an act that conflicts with theirmoral values.The extent to which conscience informs moral judgment before an action and whether suchmoral judgmentsare or should be based onreasonhas occasioned debate through much of modern history between theories of basics in ethic of human life in juxtaposition to the theories ofromanticismand other reactionary movements after the end of theMiddle Ages.
Religious views of conscience usually see it as linked to a morality inherent in all humans, to a beneficent universe and/or todivinity.The diverse ritualistic, mythical, doctrinal, legal, institutional and material features of religion may not necessarily cohere with experiential, emotive,spiritualorcontemplativeconsiderations about the origin and operation of conscience.[1]Commonsecularorscientificviews regard the capacity for conscience as probablygenetically determined,with its subject probably learned orimprintedas part of aculture.[2]
Commonly used metaphors for conscience include the "voice within", the "inner light",[3]or even Socrates' reliance on what the Greeks called his "daimōnicsign ", an averting (ἀποτρεπτικόςapotreptikos) inner voice heard only when he was about to make a mistake. Conscience, as is detailed in sections below, is a concept in national and international law,[4]is increasingly conceived of as applying to the world as a whole,[5]has motivated numerous notable acts for the public good[6]and been the subject of many prominent examples of literature, music and film.[7]
Views
[edit]Although humanity has no generally accepted definition of conscience or universal agreement about its role inethicaldecision-making, three approaches have addressed it:[8]
Religious
[edit]
In the literary traditions of theUpanishads,Brahma Sutrasand theBhagavad Gita,conscience is the label given to attributes composing knowledge about good and evil, that asoulacquires from the completion of acts and consequent accretion ofkarmaover many lifetimes.[9]According toAdi Shankarain hisVivekachudamanimorally right action (characterised as humbly and compassionately performing the primary duty of good to others without expectation of material or spiritual reward), helps "purify the heart" and provide mental tranquility but it alone does not give us "direct perception of the Reality".[10]This knowledge requires discrimination between the eternal and non-eternal and eventually a realization incontemplationthat the true self merges in a universe of pure consciousness.[11]
In theZoroastrianfaith, after death a soul must face judgment at theBridge of the Separator;there,evilpeople are tormented by prior denial of their own higher nature, or conscience, and "to all time will they be guests for theHouse of the Lie."[12]TheChineseconcept ofRen,indicates that conscience, along with social etiquette and correct relationships, assist humans to followThe Way(Tao) a mode of life reflecting the implicit human capacity for goodness and harmony.[13]
Conscience also features prominently inBuddhism.[14]In thePaliscriptures, for example,Buddhalinks the positive aspect ofconscienceto a pure heart and a calm, well-directed mind. It is regarded as a spiritual power, and one of the "Guardians of the World". The Buddha also associated conscience with compassion for those who must endure cravings and suffering in the world until right conduct culminates in right mindfulness and rightcontemplation.[15]Santideva(685–763 CE) wrote in theBodhicaryavatara(which he composed and delivered in the great northern Indian Buddhist university ofNalanda) of the spiritual importance of perfecting virtues such asgenerosity,forbearanceand training the awareness to be like a "block of wood" when attracted by vices such asprideorlust;so one can continue advancing towards right understanding in meditative absorption.[16]Consciencethus manifests in Buddhism as unselfish love for all living beings which gradually intensifies and awakens to a purer awareness[17]where the mind withdraws from sensory interests and becomes aware of itself as a single whole.[18]
TheRoman EmperorMarcus Aureliuswrote in hisMeditationsthat conscience was the human capacity to live by rational principles that were congruent with the true, tranquil and harmonious nature of our mind and thereby that of the Universe: "To move from one unselfish action to another with God in mind. Only there, delight and stillness... the only rewards of our existence here are an unstained character and unselfish acts."[19]
TheIslamicconcept ofTaqwais closely related to conscience. In theQur’ānverses 2:197 & 22:37 Taqwa refers to "right conduct" or "piety","guarding of oneself "or" guarding against evil ".[20]Qur’ānverse 47:17 says that God is the ultimate source of the believer's taqwā which is not simply the product of individual will but requires inspiration from God.[21]InQur’ānverses 91:7–8, God the Almighty talks about how He has perfected the soul, the conscience and has taught it the wrong (fujūr) and right (taqwā). Hence, the awareness of vice and virtue is inherent in the soul, allowing it to be tested fairly in the life of this world and tried, held accountable on the day of judgment for responsibilities to God and all humans.[22]
Qur’ānverse 49:13 states: "O humankind! We have created you out of male and female and constituted you into different groups and societies, so that you may come to know each other-the noblest of you, in the sight of God, are the ones possessing taqwā." InIslam,according to eminent theologians such asAl-Ghazali,although events are ordained (and written by God in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, thePreserved Tablet), humans possess free will to choose between wrong and right, and are thus responsible for their actions; the conscience being a dynamic personal connection to God enhanced by knowledge and practise of theFive Pillars of Islam,deeds of piety, repentance, self-discipline and prayer; and disintegrated and metaphorically covered in blackness through sinful acts.[23]Marshall Hodgsonwrote the three-volume work:The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization.[24]
In the Protestant Christian tradition,Martin Lutherinsisted in theDiet of Wormsthat his conscience was captive to the Word of God, and it was neither safe nor right to go against conscience. To Luther, conscience falls within the ethical, rather than the religious, sphere.[25]John Calvinsaw conscience as a battleground: "the enemies who rise up in our conscience against his Kingdom and hinder his decrees prove that God's throne is not firmly established therein".[26]ManyChristiansregard following one's conscience as important as, or even more important than, obeying humanauthority.[27]According to the bible, written in Romans 2:15, conscience is the one bearing witness, accusing or excusing one another, so we would know when we break the law written in our hearts; the guilt we feel when we do something wrong tells us that we need to repent. "[28]This can sometimes (as with the conflict betweenWilliam TyndaleandThomas Moreover the translation of the Bible into English) lead to moral quandaries: "Do I unreservedly obey my Church/priest/military/political leader or do I follow my own inner feeling of right and wrong as instructed by prayer and a personal reading of scripture?"[29]Some contemporary Christian churches and religious groups hold the moral teachings of theTen Commandmentsor ofJesusas the highest authority in any situation, regardless of the extent to which it involves responsibilities in law.[30]In theGospel of John(7:53–8:11) (King James Version) Jesus challenges those accusing a woman of adultery stating: "'He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her.' And again he stooped down, and wrote on the ground. And they which heard it, being convicted by their own conscience, went out one by one" [However the word 'conscience' is not in the original New Testament Greek, and is not in the vast majority of Bible versions.] (seeJesus and the woman taken in adultery). In theGospel of Luke(10: 25–37) Jesus tells the story of how a despised and hereticalSamaritan(seeParable of the Good Samaritan) who (out of compassion/pity - the word 'conscience' is not used) helps an injured stranger beside a road, qualifies better for eternal life by loving his neighbor, than a priest who passes by on the other side.[31]
This dilemma of obedience in conscience to divine or state law, was demonstrated dramatically inAntigone's defiance ofKing Creon's order against burying her brother an alleged traitor, appealing to the "unwritten law"and to a" longer allegiance to the dead than to the living ".[32]
Catholictheologysees conscience as the last practical "judgment of reason which at the appropriate moment enjoins [a person] to do good and to avoid evil".[33]TheSecond Vatican Council(1962–65) describes: "Deep within his conscience man discovers a law which he has not laid upon himself but which he must obey. Its voice, ever calling him to love and to do what is good and to avoid evil, tells him inwardly at the right movement: do this, shun that. For man has in his heart a law inscribed by God. His dignity lies in observing this law, and by it he will be judged. His conscience is man’s most secret core, and his sanctuary. There he is alone with God whose voice echoes in his depths."[34]Thus, conscience is not like the will, nor a habit like prudence, but "the interior space in which we can listen to and hear the truth, the good, the voice of God. It is the inner place of our relationship with Him, who speaks to our heart and helps us to discern, to understand the path we ought to take, and once the decision is made, to move forward, to remain faithful"[35]In terms of logic, conscience can be viewed as the practical conclusion of a moral syllogism whose major premise is an objective norm and whose minor premise is a particular case or situation to which the norm is applied. Thus, Catholics are taught to carefully educate themselves as to revealed norms and norms derived therefrom, so as to form a correct conscience. Catholics are also to examine their conscience daily and with special care beforeconfession.Catholic teaching holds that, "Man has the right to act according to his conscience and in freedom so as personally to make moral decisions. He must not be forced to act contrary to his conscience. Nor must he be prevented from acting according to his conscience, especially in religious matters".[36]This right of conscience does not allow one to arbitrarily disagree with Church teaching and claim that one is acting in accordance with conscience. A sincere conscience presumes one is diligently seeking moral truth from authentic sources, that is, seeking to conform oneself to that moral truth by listening to the authority established by Christ to teach it. Nevertheless, despite one's best effort, "[i]t can happen that moral conscience remains in ignorance and makes erroneous judgments about acts to be performed or already committed... This ignorance can often be imputed to personal responsibility... In such cases, the person is culpable for thewronghe commits. "[37]Thus, if one realizes one may have made a mistaken judgment, one's conscience is said to be vincibly erroneous and it is not a valid norm for action. One must first remove the source of error and do one's best to achieve a correct judgment. If, however, one is not aware of one's error or if, despite an honest and diligent effort one cannot remove the error by study or seeking advice, then one's conscience may be said to be invincibly erroneous. It binds since one has subjective certainty that one is correct. The act resulting from acting on the invincibly erroneous conscience is not good in itself, yet this deformed act or material sin against God's right order and the objective norm is not imputed to the person. The formal obedience given to such a judgment of conscience is good. Some Catholics appeal to conscience in order to justify dissent, not on the level of conscience properly understood, but on the level of the principles and norms which are supposed to inform conscience. For example, some priests make on the use of the so-calledinternal forum solution(which is not sanctioned by theMagisterium) to justify actions or lifestyles incompatible with Church teaching, such as Christ's prohibition of remarriage after divorce or sexual activity outside marriage.[citation needed]TheCatholic Churchhas warned that "rejection of the Church's authority and her teaching... can be at the source of errors in judgment inmoralconduct ".[38]An example of someone following his conscience to the point of accepting the consequence of being condemned to death is SirThomas More(1478-1535).[39]A theologian who wrote on the distinction between the 'sense of duty' and the 'moral sense', as two aspects of conscience, and who saw the former as some feeling that can only be explained by a divine Lawgiver, wasJohn Henry Cardinal Newman.[40]A well known saying of him is that he would first toast on his conscience and only then on the pope, since his conscience brought him to acknowledge the authority of the pope.[41]
Judaismarguably does not require uncompromising obedience to religious authority; the case has been made that throughoutJewish history,rabbishave circumvented laws they found unconscionable, such as capital punishment.[42]Similarly, although an occupation with national destiny has been central to the Jewish faith (seeZionism) many scholars (includingMoses Mendelssohn) stated that conscience as a personal revelation of scriptural truth was an important adjunct to theTalmudictradition.[43][44]The concept ofinner lightin theReligious Society of FriendsorQuakersis associated with conscience.[3]Freemasonrydescribes itself as providing an adjunct to religion and key symbols found in aFreemasonLodge are thesquareandcompassesexplained as providing lessons that Masons should "square their actions by the square of conscience", learn to "circumscribe their desires and keep their passions within due bounds toward all mankind."[45]The historianManning Clarkviewedconscienceas one of the comforters that religion placed between man and death but also a crucial part of the quest for grace encouraged by theBook of Joband theBook of Ecclesiastes,leading us to be paradoxically closest to the truth when we suspect that what matters most in life ( "being there when everyone suddenly understands what it has all been for" ) can never happen.[46]Leo Tolstoy,after a decade studying the issue (1877–1887), held that the only power capable of resisting the evil associated with materialism and the drive for social power of religious institutions, was the capacity of humans to reach an individual spiritual truth through reason and conscience.[47]Many prominentreligiousworks about conscience also have a significant philosophical component: examples are the works ofAl-Ghazali,[48]Avicenna,[49]Aquinas,[50]Joseph Butler[51]andDietrich Bonhoeffer[52](all discussed in the philosophical views section).
Secular
[edit]
The secular approach to conscience includespsychological,physiological,sociological,humanitarian,andauthoritarianviews.[53]Lawrence Kohlbergconsideredcritical conscienceto be an important psychological stage in the proper moral development of humans, associated with the capacity to rationally weigh principles of responsibility, being best encouraged in the very young by linkage with humorous personifications (such asJiminy Cricket) and later in adolescents by debates about individually pertinent moral dilemmas.[54]Erik Eriksonplaced the development ofconsciencein the 'pre-schooler' phase of his eight stages of normal human personality development.[55]The psychologistMartha Stouttermsconscience"an intervening sense of obligation based in our emotional attachments."[56]Thus a good conscience is associated with feelings of integrity, psychological wholeness and peacefulness and is often described using adjectives such as "quiet", "clear" and "easy".[57]
Sigmund Freudregardedconscienceas originating psychologically from the growth ofcivilisation,which periodically frustrated the external expression ofaggression:this destructive impulse being forced to seek an alternative, healthy outlet, directed its energy as asuperegoagainst the person's own "ego" or selfishness (often taking its cue in this regard from parents during childhood).[58]According to Freud, the consequence of not obeying our conscience isguilt,which can be a factor in the development ofneurosis;Freud claimed that both the cultural and individual super-ego set up strict ideal demands with regard to the moral aspects of certain decisions, disobedience to which provokes a 'fear of conscience'.[59]
Antonio Damasioconsiders conscience an aspect ofextended consciousnessbeyond survival-related dispositions and incorporating the search for truth and desire to build norms and ideals for behavior. [60]
Conscience as a society-forming instinct
[edit]
Michel Glautierargues that conscience is one of theinstinctsand drives which enable people to form societies: groups of humans without these drives or in whom they are insufficient cannot form societies and do not reproduce their kind as successfully as those that do.[61]
Charles Darwinconsidered thatconscienceevolved in humans to resolve conflicts between competing natural impulses-some about self-preservation but others about safety of a family or community; the claim of conscience tomoral authorityemerged from the "greater duration of impression of social instincts" in the struggle for survival.[62]In such a view, behavior destructive to a person'ssociety(either to its structures or to the persons it comprises) is bad or "evil".[63]Thus, conscience can be viewed as an outcome of those biological drives that prompt humans to avoid provokingfearorcontemptin others; being experienced asguiltandshamein differing ways from society to society and person to person.[64]A requirement of conscience in this view is the capacity to see ourselves from the point of view of another person.[65]Persons unable to do this (psychopaths,sociopaths,narcissists) therefore often act in ways which are "evil".[66]
Fundamental in this view of conscience is that humans consider some "other" as beingin a social relationship.Thus,nationalismis invoked in conscience to quelltribalconflict and the notion of a Brotherhood of Man is invoked to quellnational conflicts.Yet such crowd drives may not only overwhelm but redefine individualconscience.Friedrich Nietzschestated: "communal solidarity is annihilated by the highest and strongest drives that, when they break out passionately, whip the individual far past the average low level of the 'herd-conscience.'"[67]Jeremy Benthamnoted that: "fanaticismnever sleeps... it is never stopped byconscience;for it has pressedconscienceinto its service. "[68]Hannah Arendtin her study of the trial ofAdolf Eichmannin Jerusalem, notes that the accused, as with almost all his fellow Germans, had lost track of hisconscienceto the point where they hardly remembered it; this wasn't caused by familiarity with atrocities or by psychologically redirecting any resultant natural pity to themselves for having to bear such an unpleasant duty, so much as by the fact that anyone whoseconsciencedid develop doubts could see no one who shared them: "Eichmann did not need to close his ears to the voice of conscience... not because he had none, but because his conscience spoke with a" respectable voice ", with the voice of the respectable society around him".[69]
Sir Arthur Keithin 1948 developed theAmity-enmity complex.We evolved as tribal groups surrounded by enemies; thus conscience evolved a dual role; the duty to save and protect members of thein-group,and the duty to show hatred and aggression towards anyout-group.
An interesting area of research in this context concerns the similarities between our relationships and those ofanimals,whether animals in human society (pets,working animals,even animals grown for food) or in the wild.[70]One idea is that as people or animals perceive a social relationship as important to preserve, theirconsciencebegins to respect that former "other", and urge actions that protect it.[71][72]Similarly, in complex territorial and cooperative breedingbirdcommunities (such as theAustralian magpie) that have a high degree of etiquettes, rules, hierarchies, play, songs and negotiations, rule-breaking seems tolerated on occasions not obviously related to survival of the individual or group; behaviour often appearing to exhibit a touching gentleness and tenderness.[73]
Evolutionary biology
[edit]Contemporary scientists inevolutionary biologyseek to explain conscience as a function of thebrainthat evolved to facilitatealtruismwithin societies.[74]In his bookThe God Delusion,Richard Dawkinsstates that he agrees withRobert Hinde'sWhy Good is Good,Michael Shermer'sThe Science of Good and Evil,Robert Buckman'sCan We Be Good Without God?andMarc Hauser'sMoral Minds,that our sense of right and wrong can be derived from ourDarwinianpast. He subsequently reinforced this idea through the lens of thegene-centered view of evolution,since the unit of natural selection is neither an individual organism nor a group, but ratherthe "selfish" gene,and these genes could ensure their own "selfish" survival by,inter alia,pushing individuals to act altruistically towards its kin.[75]
Neuroscience and artificial conscience
[edit]Numerous case studies ofbrain damagehave shown that damage to areas of thebrain(such as the anteriorprefrontal cortex) results in the reduction or elimination ofinhibitions,with a corresponding radical change in behaviour.[76]When the damage occurs to adults, they may still be able to perform moral reasoning; but when it occurs to children, they may never develop that ability.[77][78]
Attempts have been made by neuroscientists to locate thefree willnecessary for what is termed the 'veto' of conscience over unconscious mental processes (seeNeuroscience of free willandBenjamin Libet) in a scientifically measurable awareness of an intention to carry out an act occurring 350–400 microseconds after the electrical discharge known as the 'readiness potential.'[79][80][81]
Jacques Pitrat claims that some kind of artificial conscience is beneficial inartificial intelligencesystems to improve their long-term performance and direct theirintrospectiveprocessing.[82]
Philosophical
[edit]The word "conscience" derives etymologically from the Latinconscientia,meaning "privity of knowledge"[83] or "with-knowledge". TheEnglishword implies internal awareness of a moral standard in the mind concerning the quality of one's motives, as well as a consciousness of our own actions.[84]Thusconscienceconsidered philosophically may be first, and perhaps most commonly, a largely unexamined "gut feeling" or "vague sense of guilt" about what ought to be or should have been done.[85]Conscience in this sense is not necessarily the product of a process of rational consideration of the moral features of a situation (or the applicablenormativeprinciples, rules or laws) and can arise from parental, peer group, religious, state or corporateindoctrination,which may or may not be presently consciously acceptable to the person ( "traditional conscience" ).[86]Consciencemay be defined as thepractical reasonemployed when applying moral convictions to a situation ( "critical conscience" ).[87]In purportedly morally mature mystical people who have developed this capacity through dailycontemplationormeditationcombined with selfless service to others,critical consciencecan be aided by a "spark" of intuitive insight or revelation (calledmarifainIslamicSufiphilosophy andsynderesisin medieval Christianscholasticmoral philosophy).[88][89]Conscienceis accompanied in each case by an internal awareness of 'inner light' andapprobationor 'inner darkness' and condemnation as well as a resulting conviction of right or duty either followed or declined.[90]
Medieval
[edit]The medievalIslamicscholar and mysticAl-Ghazalidivided the concept ofNafs(soulorself (spirituality)) into three categories[48]based on theQur’an:
- Nafs Ammarah (12:53) which "exhorts one to freely indulge in gratifying passions and instigates to do evil"
- Nafs Lawammah (75:2) which is "the conscience that directs man towards right or wrong"
- Nafs Mutmainnah (89:27) which is "a self that reaches the ultimate peace"
The medieval Persian philosopher and physicianMuhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razibelieved in a close relationship betweenconscienceor spiritual integrity and physical health; rather than being self-indulgent, man should pursue knowledge, use his intellect and apply justice in his life.[91]The medieval Islamic philosopherAvicenna,whilst imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan nearHamadhan,wrote his famous isolated-but-awake "Floating Man"sensory deprivationthought experimentto explore the ideas of humanself-awarenessand the substantiality of thesoul;his hypothesis being that it is throughintelligence,particularly theactive intellect,that God communicatestruthto the humanmindor conscience.[49]According to the IslamicSufisconscience allowsAllahto guide people to themarifa,the peace or "light upon light" experienced where a Muslim's prayers lead to a melting away of the self in the inner knowledge of God; this foreshadowing the eternal Paradise depicted in theQur’ān.[92]
Some medieval Christianscholasticssuch asBonaventuremade a distinction between conscience as a rational faculty of the mind (practical reason) and inner awareness, an intuitive "spark" to do good, calledsynderesisarising from a remnant appreciation of absolute good and when consciously denied (for example to perform an evil act), becoming a source of inner torment.[89]Early modern theologians such asWilliam PerkinsandWilliam Amesdeveloped a syllogistic understanding of the conscience, where God's law made the first term, the act to be judged the second and the action of the conscience (as a rational faculty) produced the judgement. By debating test cases applying such understanding conscience was trained and refined (i.e.casuistry).[93]
In the 13th century,St. Thomas Aquinasregardedconscienceas the application of moral knowledge to a particular case (S.T. I, q. 79, a. 13). Thus, conscience was considered an act or judgment of practical reason that began withsynderesis,the structured development of our innate remnant awareness of absolute good (which he categorised as involving the five primary precepts proposed in his theory ofNatural Law) into an acquired habit of applying moral principles.[50]According to Singer, Aquinas held that conscience, orconscientiawas an imperfect process of judgment applied to activity because knowledge of thenatural law(and all acts of natural virtue implicit therein) was obscured in most people by education and custom that promoted selfishness rather than fellow-feeling (Summa Theologiae,I–II, I).[94]Aquinas also discussed conscience in relation to the virtue ofprudenceto explain why some people appear to be less "morally enlightened" than others, their weak will being incapable of adequately balancing their own needs with those of others.[95]
Aquinas reasoned that acting contrary to conscience is anevilaction but an errant conscience is only blameworthy if it is the result of culpable orvincible ignoranceof factors that one has a duty to have knowledge of.[94]Aquinas also argued that conscience should be educated to act towards real goods (fromGod) which encouragedhuman flourishing,rather than the apparent goods of sensory pleasures.[94]In hisCommentaryonAristotle'sNicomachean EthicsAquinas claimed it was weak will that allowed a non-virtuous man to choose a principle allowing pleasure ahead of one requiring moral constraint.[96]
Thomas A Kempisin the medievalcontemplativeclassicThe Imitation of Christ(ca 1418) stated that the glory of a good man is the witness of a good conscience. "Preserve a quiet conscience and you will always have joy. A quiet conscience can endure much, and remains joyful in all trouble, but an evil conscience is always fearful and uneasy."[97]The anonymous medieval author of the ChristianmysticalworkThe Cloud of Unknowingsimilarly expressed the view that in profound and prolongedcontemplationa soul dries up the "root and ground" of thesinthat is always there, even after one'sconfessionand however busy one is inholythings: "therefore, whoever would work at becoming acontemplativemust first cleanse his [or her] conscience. "[98]The medieval Flemish mysticJohn of Ruysbroecklikewise held that true conscience has four aspects that are necessary to render a man just in the active and contemplative life: "a free spirit, attracting itself through love"; "an intellect enlightened by grace", "a delight yielding propension or inclination" and "an outflowing losing of oneself in the abyss of... that eternal object which is the highest and chief blessedness... those lofty amongst men, are absorbed in it, and immersed in a certain boundless thing."[99]
Modern
[edit]
Benedict de Spinozain hisEthics,published after his death in 1677, argued that most people, even those that consider themselves to exercisefree will,make moral decisions on the basis of imperfect sensory information, inadequate understanding of their mind and will, as well as emotions which are both outcomes of their contingent physical existence and forms of thought defective from being chiefly impelled by self-preservation.[100]The solution, according to Spinoza, was to gradually increase the capacity of our reason to change the forms of thought produced by emotions and to fall in love with viewing problems requiring moral decision from the perspective of eternity.[101]Thus, living a life of peaceful conscience means to Spinoza that reason is used to generate adequate ideas where the mind increasingly sees the world and its conflicts, our desires and passionssub specie aeternitatis,that is without reference to time.[102]Hegel's obscure andmysticalPhilosophy of Mindheld that the absolute right offreedom of consciencefacilitates human understanding of an all-embracing unity, an absolute which was rational, real and true.[103]Nevertheless, Hegel thought that a functioning State would always be tempted not to recognize conscience in its form of subjective knowledge, just as similar non-objective opinions are generally rejected in science.[104]A similar idealist notion was expressed in the writings ofJoseph Butlerwho argued that conscience isGod-given, should always be obeyed, is intuitive, and should be considered the "constitutional monarch" and the "universal moral faculty": "conscience does not only offer itself to show us the way we should walk in, but it likewise carries its own authority with it."[105]Butler advanced ethical speculation by referring to a duality of regulative principles in human nature: first, "self-love" (seeking individual happiness) and second, "benevolence" (compassion and seeking good for another) inconscience(also linked to theagapeofsituational ethics).[51]Conscience tended to be more authoritative in questions of moral judgment, thought Butler, because it was more likely to be clear and certain (whereas calculations of self-interest tended to probable and changing conclusions).[106]John Seldenin hisTable Talkexpressed the view that an awake but excessively scrupulous or ill-trainedconsciencecould hinder resolve and practical action; it being "like a horse that is not well wayed, he starts at every bird that flies out of the hedge".[107]
As the sacred texts of ancientHinduandBuddhistphilosophy became available in German translations in the 18th and 19th centuries, they influenced philosophers such asSchopenhauerto hold that in a healthy mind only deeds oppress ourconscience,not wishes and thoughts; "for it is only our deeds that hold us up to the mirror of our will"; thegood conscience,thought Schopenhauer, we experience after every disinterested deed arises from direct recognition of our own inner being in the phenomenon of another, it affords us the verification "that our true self exists not only in our own person, this particular manifestation, but in everything that lives. By this the heart feels itself enlarged, as by egotism it is contracted."[108]
Immanuel Kant,a central figure of theAge of Enlightenment,likewise claimed that two things filled his mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe, the oftener and more steadily they were reflected on: "the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me... the latter begins from my invisible self, my personality, and exhibits me in a world which has true infinity but which I recognise myself as existing in a universal and necessary (and not only, as in the first case, contingent) connection."[109]The 'universal connection' referred to here is Kant'scategorical imperative:"act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."[110]Kant consideredcritical conscienceto be an internal court in which our thoughts accuse or excuse one another; he acknowledged that morally mature people do often describe contentment or peace in thesoulafter following conscience to perform a duty, but argued that for such acts to produce virtue their primary motivation should simply be duty, not expectation of any such bliss.[111]Rousseau expressed a similar view that conscience somehow connected man to a greatermetaphysicalunity.John Plamenatzin his critical examination ofRousseau's work considered thatconsciencewas there defined as the feeling that urges us, in spite of contrary passions, towards two harmonies: the one within our minds and between our passions, and the other within society and between its members; "the weakest can appeal to it in the strongest, and the appeal, though often unsuccessful, is always disturbing. However, corrupted by power or wealth we may be, either as possessors of them or as victims, there is something in us serving to remind us that this corruption is against nature."[112]
Other philosophers expressed a more sceptical and pragmatic view of the operation of "conscience" in society.[113] John Lockein hisEssays on the Law of Natureargued that the widespread fact of human conscience allowed a philosopher to infer the necessary existence of objective moral laws that occasionally might contradict those of the state.[114]Locke highlighted themetaethicsproblem of whether accepting a statement like "follow yourconscience"supportssubjectivistorobjectivistconceptions of conscience as a guide in concrete morality, or as a spontaneous revelation of eternal and immutable principles to the individual: "if conscience be a proof of innate principles, contraries may be innate principles; since some men with the same bent of conscience prosecute what others avoid."[115]Thomas Hobbeslikewise pragmatically noted that opinions formed on the basis ofconsciencewith full and honest conviction, nevertheless should always be accepted with humility as potentially erroneous and not necessarily indicating absolute knowledge or truth.[116]William Godwinexpressed the view thatconsciencewas a memorable consequence of the "perception by men of every creed when the descend into the scene of busy life" that they possessfree will.[117]Adam Smithconsidered that it was only by developing acritical consciencethat we can ever see what relates to ourselves in its proper shape and dimensions; or that we can ever make any proper comparison between our own interests and those of other people.[118]John Stuart Millbelieved that idealism about the role ofconsciencein government should be tempered with a practical realisation that few men in society are capable of directing their minds or purposes towards distant or unobvious interests, of disinterested regard for others, and especially for what comes after them, for the idea of posterity, of their country, or of humanity, whether grounded on sympathy or on a conscientious feeling.[119]Mill held that certain amount ofconscience,and of disinterested public spirit, may fairly be calculated on in the citizens of any community ripe forrepresentative government,but that "it would be ridiculous to expect such a degree of it, combined with such intellectual discernment, as would be proof against any plausible fallacy tending to make that which was for their class interest appear the dictate of justice and of the general good."[119]
Josiah Royce(1855–1916) built on thetranscendental idealismview of conscience, viewing it as the ideal of life which constitutes our moral personality, our plan of being ourself, of making common sense ethical decisions. But, he thought, this was only true insofar as ourconsciencealso required loyalty to "a mysterious higher or deeper self".[120] In the modern Christian tradition this approach achieved expression withDietrich Bonhoefferwho stated during his imprisonment by theNazisinWorld War IIthatconsciencefor him was more than practical reason, indeed it came from a "depth which lies beyond a man's own will and his own reason and it makes itself heard as the call of human existence to unity with itself."[121]For Bonhoeffer aguilty consciencearose as an indictment of the loss of this unity and as a warning against the loss of one's self; primarily, he thought, it is directed not towards a particular kind of doing but towards a particular mode of being. It protests against a doing which imperils the unity of this being with itself.[52]Consciencefor Bonhoeffer did not, like shame, embrace or pass judgment on the morality of the whole of its owner's life; it reacted only to certain definite actions: "it recalls what is long past and represents this disunion as something which is already accomplished and irreparable".[122]The man with aconscience,he believed, fights a lonely battle against the "overwhelming forces of inescapable situations" which demand moral decisions despite the likelihood of adverse consequences.[122]Simon Soloveychikhas similarly claimed that thetruthdistributed in the world, as the statement about humandignity,as the affirmation of the line betweengood and evil,lives in people as conscience.[123]
AsHannah Arendtpointed out, however, (following the utilitarianJohn Stuart Millon this point): a bad conscience does not necessarily signify a bad character; in fact only those who affirm a commitment to applying moral standards will be troubled with remorse, guilt or shame by a badconscienceand their need to regain integrity and wholeness of the self.[124][125]Representing our soul or true self by analogy as our house, Arendt wrote that "conscience is the anticipation of the fellow who awaits you if and when you come home."[126]Arendt believed that people who are unfamiliar with the process of silent critical reflection about what they say and do will not mind contradicting themselves by an immoral act or crime, since they can "count on its being forgotten the next moment;" bad people are not full of regrets.[126]Arendt also wrote eloquently on the problem of languages distinguishing the wordconsciousnessfromconscience.One reason, she held, was thatconscience,as we understand it in moral or legal matters, is supposedly always present within us, just likeconsciousness:"and this conscience is also supposed to tell us what to do and what to repent; before it became thelumen naturaleorKant's practical reason, it was the voice of God. "[127]
Albert Einstein,as a self-professed adherent ofhumanismandrationalism,likewise viewed an enlightened religious person as one whoseconsciencereflects that he "has, to the best of his ability, liberated himself from the fetters of his selfish desires and is preoccupied with thoughts, feelings and aspirations to which he clings because of their super-personal value."[128] Einstein often referred to the "inner voice" as a source of both moral and physical knowledge: "Quantum mechanicsis very impressive. But an inner voice tells me that it is not the real thing. The theory produces a good deal but hardly brings one closer to the secrets of the Old One. I am at all events convinced that He does not play dice. "[129]
Simone Weilwho fought for the French resistance (theMaquis) argued in her final bookThe Need for Roots:Prelude to a Declaration of Duties Towards Mankindthat for society to become more just and protective of liberty, obligations should take precedence over rights in moral and political philosophy and a spiritual awakening should occur in theconscienceof most citizens, so that social obligations are viewed as fundamentally having a transcendent origin and a beneficent impact on human character when fulfilled.[130][131]Simone Weilalso in that work provided a psychological explanation for the mental peace associated with agood conscience:"the liberty of men of goodwill, though limited in the sphere of action, is complete in that of conscience. For, having incorporated the rules into their own being, the prohibited possibilities no longer present themselves to the mind, and have not to be rejected."[132]
Alternatives to suchmetaphysicalandidealistopinions about conscience arose fromrealistandmaterialistperspectives such as those ofCharles Darwin.Darwin suggested that "anyanimalwhatever, endowed with well-marked social instincts, the parental and filial affections being here included, would inevitably acquire a moral sense or conscience, as soon as its intellectual powers had become as well, or as nearly as well developed, as in man. "[133]Émile Durkheimheld that thesouland conscience were particular forms of an impersonal principle diffused in the relevant group and communicated bytotemicceremonies.[134]AJ Ayerwas a more recent realist who held that the existence ofconsciencewas an empirical question to be answered by sociological research into the moral habits of a given person or group of people, and what causes them to have precisely those habits and feelings. Such an inquiry, he believed, fell wholly within the scope of the existingsocial sciences.[135]George Edward Moorebridged the idealistic and sociological views of 'critical' and 'traditional' conscience in stating that the idea of abstract 'rightness' and the various degrees of the specific emotion excited by it are what constitute, for many persons, the specifically 'moral sentiment' orconscience.For others, however, an action seems to be properly termed 'internally right', merely because they have previously regarded it as right, the idea of 'rightness' being present in some way to his or her mind, but not necessarily among his or her deliberately constructed motives.[136]
The French philosopherSimone de BeauvoirinA Very Easy Death(Une mort très douce,1964) reflects within her ownconscienceabout her mother's attempts to develop such a moral sympathy and understanding of others.[137]
"The sight of her tears grieved me; but I soon realised that she was weeping over her failure, without caring about what was happening inside me... We might still have come to an understanding if, instead of asking everybody to pray for my soul, she had given me a little confidence and sympathy. I know now what prevented her from doing so: she had too much to pay back, too many wounds to salve, to put herself in another's place. In actual doing she made every sacrifice, but her feelings did not take her out of herself. Besides, how could she have tried to understand me since she avoided looking into her own heart? As for discovering an attitude that would not have set us apart, nothing in her life had ever prepared her for such a thing: the unexpected sent her into a panic, because she had been taught never to think, act or feel except in a ready-made framework."
— Simone de Beauvoir.A Very Easy Death.Penguin Books. London. 1982. p. 60.
Michael Walzerclaimed that the growth of religious toleration in Western nations arose amongst other things, from the general recognition that private conscience signified some inner divine presence regardless of the religious faith professed and from the general respectability, piety, self-limitation, and sectarian discipline which marked most of the men who claimed the rights of conscience.[138]Walzer also argued that attempts by courts to define conscience as a merely personal moral code or as sincere belief, risked encouraging an anarchy of moral egotisms, unless such a code and motive was necessarily tempered with shared moral knowledge: derived either from the connection of the individual to a universal spiritual order, or from the common principles and mutual engagements of unselfish people.[139]Ronald Dworkinmaintains that constitutional protection offreedom of conscienceis central to democracy but creates personal duties to live up to it: "Freedom of conscience presupposes a personal responsibility of reflection, and it loses much of its meaning when that responsibility is ignored. A good life need not be an especially reflective one; most of the best lives are just lived rather than studied. But there are moments that cry out for self-assertion, when a passive bowing to fate or a mechanical decision out of deference or convenience is treachery, because it forfeits dignity for ease."[140]Edward Conzestated it is important for individual and collective moral growth that we recognise the illusion of our conscience being wholly located in our body; indeed both our conscience and wisdom expand when we act in an unselfish way and conversely "repressed compassion results in an unconscious sense of guilt."[141]
The philosopherPeter Singerconsiders that usually when we describe an action as conscientious in the critical sense we do so in order to deny either that the relevant agent was motivated by selfish desires, like greed or ambition, or that he acted on whim or impulse.[142]
Moral anti-realists debate whether the moral facts necessary to activate consciencesuperveneon natural facts witha posteriorinecessity; or arisea prioribecause moral facts have a primary intension and naturally identical worlds may be presumed morally identical.[143]It has also been argued that there is a measure ofmoral luckin how circumstances create the obstacles whichconsciencemust overcome to apply moral principles or human rights and that with the benefit of enforceable property rights and therule of law,access touniversal health careplus the absence of high adult andinfant mortalityfrom conditions such asmalaria,tuberculosis,HIV/AIDSandfamine,people in relatively prosperous developed countries have been spared pangs ofconscienceassociated with the physical necessity to steal scraps of food, bribe tax inspectors or police officers, and commit murder inguerrillawars against corrupt government forces or rebel armies.[144]Roger Scrutonhas claimed that true understanding ofconscienceand its relationship withmoralityhas been hampered by an "impetuous" belief that philosophical questions are solved through the analysis of language in an area where clarity threatens vested interests.[145]Susan Sontagsimilarly argued that it was a symptom ofpsychologicalimmaturity not to recognise that many morally immature people willingly experience a form of delight, in some an erotic breaking oftaboo,when witnessing violence, suffering and pain being inflicted on others.[146]Jonathan Gloverwrote that most of us "do not spend our lives on endless landscape gardening of our self" and ourconscienceis likely shaped not so much by heroic struggles, as by choice of partner, friends and job, as well as where we choose to live.[147]Garrett Hardin,in a famous article called "The Tragedy of the Commons",argues that any instance in which society appeals to an individual exploiting a commons to restrain himself or herself for the general good—by means of his or herconscience—merely sets up a system which, by selectively diverting societal power and physical resources to those lacking inconscience,while fostering guilt (including anxiety about his or her individual contribution to over-population) in people acting upon it, actually works toward the elimination of conscience from the race.[148][149]
John Ralston Saulexpressed the view inThe Unconscious Civilizationthat in contemporary developed nations many people have acquiesced in turning over their sense of right and wrong, theircritical conscience,to technical experts; willingly restricting their moral freedom of choice to limited consumer actions ruled by the ideology of the free market, while citizen participation in public affairs is limited to the isolated act of voting and private-interest lobbying turns even elected representatives against the public interest.[150]
Some argue on religious or philosophical grounds that it is blameworthy to act againstconscience,even if the judgement ofconscienceis likely to be erroneous (say because it is inadequately informed about the facts, or prevailing moral (humanist or religious), professional ethical, legal and human rights norms).[151]Failure to acknowledge and accept that conscientious judgements can be seriously mistaken, may only promote situations where one's conscience is manipulated by others to provide unwarranted justifications for non-virtuous and selfish acts; indeed, insofar as it is appealed to as glorifying ideological content, and an associated extreme level of devotion, without adequate constraint of external, altruistic, normative justification,consciencemay be considered morally blind and dangerous both to the individual concerned and humanity as a whole.[152]Langston argues that philosophers ofvirtue ethicshave unnecessarily neglectedconsciencefor, once conscience is trained so that the principles and rules it applies are those one would want all others to live by, its practise cultivates and sustains the virtues; indeed, amongst people in what each society considers to be the highest state of moral development there is little disagreement about how to act.[8]Emmanuel Levinasviewed conscience as a revelatory encountering of resistance to our selfish powers, developing morality by calling into question our naive sense offreedom of willto use such powers arbitrarily, or withviolence,this process being more severe the more rigorously the goal of our self was to obtain control.[153] In other words, the welcoming of theOther,to Levinas, was the very essence ofconscienceproperly conceived; it encouraged our ego to accept the fallibility of assuming things about other people, that selfishfreedom of will"does not have the last word" and that realising this has a transcendent purpose: "I am not alone... in conscience I have an experience that is not commensurate with any a priori [seea priori and a posteriori] framework-a conceptless experience. "[153]
Conscientious acts and the law
[edit]
In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, English litigants began to petition theLord Chancellorof England for relief from unjust judgments.[154]AsKeeper of the King's Conscience,the Chancellor intervened to allow for "merciful exceptions" to the King's laws, "to ensure that the King's conscience was right before God".[154]The Chancellor's office evolved into theCourt of Chanceryand the Chancellor's decisions evolved into the body of law known asequity.[154]
English humanist lawyers in the 16th and 17th centuries interpreted conscience as a collection of universal principles given to man by god at creation to be applied by reason; this gradually reforming the medievalRoman law-based system with forms of action, written pleadings, use of juries and patterns of litigation such asDemurrerandAssumpsitthat displayed an increased concern for elements of right and wrong on the actual facts.[155]Aconscience votein aparliamentallows legislators to vote without restrictions from any political party to which they may belong.[156]In his trial in JerusalemNaziwar criminalAdolf Eichmannclaimed he was simply following legal orders under paragraph 48 of the German Military Code which provided: "punishability of an action or omission is not excused on the ground that the person considered his behaviour required by his conscience or the prescripts of his religion".[157]TheUnited NationsUniversal Declaration on Human Rights(UDHR) which is part ofinternational customary lawspecifically refers toconsciencein Articles 1 and 18.[4]Likewise, the United NationsInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights(ICCPR) mentionsconsciencein Article 18.1.[158]
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood
— United Nations,Universal Declaration on Human RightsArticle 1
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance
— United Nations,Universal Declaration on Human RightsArticle 18
Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice, and freedom, either individually or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching
— United Nations,International Covenant on Civil and Political RightsArticle 18.1
It has been argued that these articles provide international legal obligations protectingconscientious objectorsfrom service in the military.[159]
John Rawlsin hisA Theory of Justicedefines aconscientious objectoras an individual prepared to undertake, in public (and often despite widespread condemnation), an action ofcivil disobedienceto a legal rule justifying it (also in public) by reference to contrary foundational social virtues (such as justice as liberty or fairness) and the principles of morality and law derived from them.[160]Rawls considered civil disobedience should be viewed as an appeal, warning or admonishment (showing general respect and fidelity to therule of lawby the non-violence and transparency of methods adopted) that a law breaches a community's fundamental virtue of justice.[160]Objections to Rawls' theory include first, its inability to accommodate conscientious objections to the society's basic appreciation ofjusticeor to emerging moral or ethical principles (such as respect for the rights of thenatural environment) which are not yet part of it and second, the difficulty of predictably and consistently determining that a majority decision is just or unjust.[161]Conscientious objection(also called conscientious refusal or evasion) to obeying a law, should not arise from unreasoning, naive "traditional conscience", for to do so merely encourages infantile abdication of responsibility to calibrate the law against moral or human rights norms and disrespect for democratic institutions.[162]Instead it should be based on "critical conscience' – seriously thought out, conceptually mature, personal moral or religious beliefs held to be fundamentally incompatible (that is, not merely inconsistent on the basis of selfish desires, whim or impulse), for example, either with all laws requiringconscriptionfor military service, or legal compulsion to fight for or financially support the State in a particular war.[163]A famous example arose whenHenry David Thoreauthe author ofWaldenwas willingly jailed for refusing to pay a tax because he profoundly disagreed with a government policy and was frustrated by the corruption and injustice of the democratic machinery of thestate.[164]A more recent case concernedKimberly Rivera,a private in theUS Armyand mother of four children who, having served 3 months inIraq Wardecided the conflict was immoral and sought refugee status in Canada in 2012 (seeList of Iraq War resisters), but was deported and arrested in the US.[165]
"Unjust laws exist; shall we be content to obey them, or shall we endeavour to amend them, and obey them until we have succeeded, or shall we transgress them at once?... A man has not everything to do but something; and because he cannot doeverything,it is not necessary that he should dosomethingwrong... It is for no particular item in the tax bill that I refuse to pay it. I simply wish to refuse allegiance to the State, to withdraw and stand aloof from it effectually. I do not care to trace the course of my dollar if I could, till it buys a man, or a musket to shoot one with—the dollar is innocent—but I am concerned to trace the effects of my allegiance... Must the citizen ever for a moment, or in the least degree, resign his conscience to the legislator? Why has every man a conscience, then? "
— Henry David Thoreau. Civil Disobedience. 1848. reprinted Signet Classic, New York. 1960 pp. 228, 229, 236.
In theSecond World War,Great Britaingranted conscientious-objection status not just to completepacifists,but to those who objected to fighting in that particular war; this was done partly out of genuine respect, but also to avoid the disgraceful and futile persecutions ofconscientious objectorsthat occurred during theFirst World War.[166]
Amnesty Internationalorganises campaigns to protect those arrested and or incarcerated as aprisoner of consciencebecause of their conscientious beliefs, particularly concerning intellectual, political and artistic freedom of expression and association.[167]Aung San Suu Kyiof Burma, was the winner of the 2009Amnesty InternationalAmbassador of Conscience Award.In legislation, aconscience clauseis a provision in a statute that excuses a health professional from complying with the law (for example legalising surgical or pharmaceuticalabortion) if it is incompatible with religious or conscientious beliefs.[168] Expressed justifications for refusing to obey laws because of conscience vary. Many conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons—notably, members of thehistoric peace churchesare pacifist by doctrine. Other objections can stem from a deep sense of responsibility toward humanity as a whole, or from the conviction that even acceptance of work under military orders acknowledges the principle ofconscriptionthat should be everywhere condemned before the world can ever become safe for realdemocracy.[169]A conscientious objector, however, does not have a primary aim of changing the law.[160]John Deweyconsidered that conscientious objectors were often the victims of "moral innocency" and inexpertness in moral training: "the moving force of events is always too much for conscience".[170]The remedy was not to deplore the wickedness of those who manipulate world power, but to connectconsciencewith forces moving in another direction- to build institutions and social environments predicated on therule of law,for example, "then will conscience itself have compulsive power instead of being forever the martyred and the coerced."[170]As an example,Albert Einsteinwho had advocatedconscientious objectionduring theFirst World Warand had been a longterm supporter ofWar Resisters' Internationalreasoned that "radical pacifism" could not be justified in the face ofNazirearmament and advocated a world federalist organization with its own professional army.[171] Samuel Johnsonpointed out that an appeal to conscience should not allow the law to bring unjust suffering upon another.Conscience,according to Johnson, was nothing more than a conviction felt by ourselves of something to be done or something to be avoided; in questions of simple unperplexed morality,conscienceis very often a guide that may be trusted.[172]But beforeconsciencecan conclusively determine what morally should be done, he thought that the state of the question should be thoroughly known.[172]"No man's conscience", said Johnson "can tell him the right of another man... it is a conscience very ill informed that violates the rights of one man, for the convenience of another."[172]
Civil disobedienceasnon-violent protestorcivil resistanceare also acts of conscience, but are designed by those who undertake them chiefly to change, by appealing to the majority and democratic processes, laws or government policies perceived to be incoherent with fundamental social virtues and principles (such as justice, equality or respect for intrinsic human dignity).[173]Civil disobedience, in a properly functioningdemocracy,allows a minority who feel strongly that a law infringes their sense ofjustice(but have no capacity to obtain legislative amendments or a referendum on the issue) to make a potentially apathetic or uninformed majority take account of the intensity of opposing views.[174]A notable example of civil resistance orsatyagraha( "satya" insanskritmeans "truth and compassion", "agraha" means "firmness of will" ) involvedMahatma Gandhimaking salt inIndiawhen that act was prohibited by aBritishstatute, in order to create moral pressure for law reform.[175]Rosa Parkssimilarly acted on conscience in 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama refusing a legal order to give up her seat to make room for a white passenger; her action (and the similar earlier act of 15-year-oldClaudette Colvin) leading to theMontgomery bus boycott.[176]Rachel Corriewas a US citizen allegedly killed by a bulldozer operated by theIsrael Defense Forces(IDF) while involved indirect action(based on the non-violent principles ofMartin Luther King Jr.andMahatma Gandhi) to prevent demolition of the home of localPalestinianpharmacist Samir Nasrallah.[177]Al Gorehas argued "If you're a young person looking at the future of this planet and looking at what is being done right now, and not done, I believe we have reached the stage where it is time for civil disobedience to prevent the construction of new coal plants that do not have carbon capture and sequestration."[178]In 2011, NASA climate scientistJames E. Hansen,environmental leaderPhil Radfordand ProfessorBill McKibbenwere arrested for opposing a tar sands oil pipeline[179][180]and Canadian renewable energy professorMark Jaccardwas arrested for opposing mountain-top coal mining;[181]in his bookStorms of my GrandchildrenHansen calls for similarcivil resistanceon a global scale to help replace the 'business-as-usual'Kyoto Protocolcap and tradesystem, with a progressivecarbon taxat emission source on the oil, gas and coal industries – revenue being paid as dividends to lowcarbon footprintfamilies.[182][183][184]
Notable historical examples ofconscientious noncompliancein a different professional context included the manipulation of the visa process in 1939 by Japanese Consul-GeneralChiune Sugiharain Kaunas (the temporary capital ofLithuaniabetween Germany and the Soviet Union) and byRaoul Wallenbergin Hungary in 1944[185]to allow Jews to escape almost certain death.[186]Ho Feng-Shanthe Chinese Consul-General in Vienna in 1939, defied orders from the Chinese ambassador in Berlin to issue Jews with visas for Shanghai.[187]John Rabea German member of theNazi Partylikewise saved thousands of Chinese from massacre by the Japanese military atNanjing.[188]TheWhite RoseGerman student movement against the Nazis declared in their 4th leaflet: "We will not be silent. We are your bad conscience. The White Rose will not leave you in peace!"[189]Conscientious noncompliancemay be the only practical option for citizens wishing to affirm the existence of an international moral order or 'core' historical rights (such as theright to life,right to a fair trialandfreedom of opinion) in states wherenon-violent protestorcivil disobedienceare met with prolongedarbitrary detention,torture,forced disappearance,murderorpersecution.[190] The controversialMilgram experimentintoobediencebyStanley Milgramshowed that many people lack thepsychologicalresources to openly resistauthority,even when they are directed to act callously and inhumanely against aninnocentvictim.[191]
World conscience
[edit]World conscience is theuniversalistidea that with ready global communication, all people onearthwill no longer be morally estranged from one another, whether it be culturally, ethnically, or geographically; instead they will conceive ethics from theutopianpoint of view of theuniverse,eternityorinfinity,rather than have their duties and obligations defined by forces arising solely within the restrictive boundaries of "blood and territory".[5]
Often this derives from aspiritualornatural lawperspective, that forworld peaceto be achieved,conscience,properly understood, should be generally considered as not necessarily linked (often destructively) tofundamentalistreligious ideologies, but as an aspect ofuniversal consciousness,access to which is thecommon heritage of humanity.[192]Thinking predicated on the development ofworld conscienceis common to members of theGlobal Ecovillage Networksuch as theFindhorn Foundation,international conservation organisations likeFauna and Flora International,as well as performers ofworld musicsuch asAlan Stivell.[193]Non-government organizations,particularly through their work in agenda-setting, policy-making and implementation of human rights-related policy, have been referred to as the conscience of the world[194]
Edward O Wilsonhas developed the idea ofconsilienceto encourage coherence of global moral and scientific knowledge supporting the premise that "only unified learning, universally shared, makes accurate foresight and wise choice possible".[195]Thus,world conscienceis a concept that overlaps with theGaia hypothesisin advocating a balance of moral, legal, scientific and economic solutions to modern transnational problems such asglobal povertyandglobal warming,through strategies such asenvironmental ethics,climate ethics,natural conservation,ecology,cosmopolitanism,sustainabilityandsustainable development,biosequestrationand legal protection of thebiosphereandbiodiversity.[196][197][198][199][200]The NGO350.org,for example, seeks to attract world conscience to the problems associated with elevation in atmosphericgreenhouse gasconcentrations.[201][202]
Themicrocreditinitiatives ofNobel Peace PrizewinnerMuhammad Yunushave been described as inspiring a "war on poverty that blends social conscience and business savvy".[203]
TheGreen partypoliticianBob Brown(who was arrested by theTasmanianstate police for a conscientious act ofcivil disobedienceduring theFranklin Damprotest) expressesworld consciencein these terms: "the universe, through us, is evolving towards experiencing, understanding and making choices about its future'; one example of policy outcomes from such thinking being a global tax (seeTobin tax) to alleviate global poverty and protect the biosphere, amounting to 1/10 of 1% placed on the worldwide speculative currency market.[204]Such an approach seesworld consciencebest expressing itself through political reforms promoting democratically basedglobalisationorplanetary democracy(for exampleinternetvoting for global governance organisations (seeworld government) based on the model of "one person, one vote, one value" ) which gradually will replace contemporary market-based globalisation.[205]
The American cardiologistBernard Lownand the Russian cardiologistYevgeniy Chazovwere motivated inconsciencethrough studying the catastrophic public health consequences ofnuclear warin establishingInternational Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War(IPPNW) which was awarded theNobel Peace Prizein 1985 and continues to work to "heal an ailing planet".[206]
Worldwide expressions ofconsciencecontributed to the decision of the French government to halt atmosphericnuclear testsatMururoain the Pacific in 1974 after 41 such explosions (although below-ground nuclear tests continued there into the 1990s).[207]
A challenge toworld consciencewas provided by an influential 1968 article byGarrett Hardinthat critically analyzed the dilemma in which multiple individuals, acting independently after rationally consulting self-interest (and, he claimed, the apparently low 'survival-of-the-fittest' value ofconscience-led actions) ultimately destroy a shared limited resource, even though each acknowledges such an outcome is not in anyone's long-term interest.[148]Hardin's conclusion that commons areas are practicably achievable only in conditions of low population density (and so their continuance requires state restriction on the freedom to breed), created controversy additionally through his direct deprecation of the role ofconsciencein achieving individual decisions, policies and laws that facilitate global justice and peace, as well assustainabilityandsustainable developmentof world commons areas, for example including those officially designated such underUnited Nationstreaties (seecommon heritage of humanity).[208]Areas designatedcommon heritage of humanityunderinternational lawinclude theMoon,Outer Space,deepsea bed,Antarctica,the world cultural and natural heritage (seeWorld Heritage Convention) and thehuman genome.[209]It will be a significant challenge forworld consciencethat as world oil, coal, mineral, timber, agricultural and water reserves are depleted, there will be increasing pressure to commercially exploitcommon heritage of mankindareas.[210]
The philosopherPeter Singerhas argued that theUnited NationsMillennium Development Goalsrepresent the emergence of an ethics based not on national boundaries but on the idea of one world.[211]Ninian Smarthas similarly predicted that the increase in global travel and communication will gradually draw the world's religions towards a pluralistic and transcendental humanism characterized by an "open spirit" of empathy and compassion.[212]
Noam Chomskyhas argued that forces opposing the development of such a world conscience includefree marketideologies that valorisecorporate greedin nominal electoraldemocracieswhereadvertising,shopping mallsand indebtedness, shapecitizensintoapatheticconsumersin relation to information and access necessary for democratic participation.[213]John Passmorehas argued that mystical considerations about the global expansion of all human consciousness, should take into account that if as a species we do become something much superior to what we are now, it will be as a consequence ofconsciencenot only implanting a goal of moral perfectibility, but assisting us to remain periodically anxious, passionate and discontented, for these are necessary components of care and compassion.[214]TheCommittee on Conscienceof the US Holocaust Memorial Museum has targetedgenocidessuch as those inRwanda,Bosnia,Darfur,theCongoandChechnyaas challenges to the world's conscience.[215]Oscar Arias Sanchezhas criticised globalarms industryspending as a failure of conscience by nation states: "When a country decides to invest in arms, rather than in education, housing, the environment, and health services for its people, it is depriving a whole generation of its right to prosperity and happiness. We have produced one firearm for every ten inhabitants of this planet, and yet we have not bothered to end hunger when such a feat is well within our reach. This is not a necessary or inevitable state of affairs. It is a deliberate choice" (seeCampaign Against Arms Trade).[216]US House of Representatives SpeakerNancy Pelosi,after meeting with the14th Dalai Lamaduring the2008 violent protests in Tibetand aftermath said: "The situation in Tibet is a challenge to the conscience of the world."[217]Nelson Mandela,through his example and words, has been described as having shaped the conscience of the world.[218]
TheRight Livelihood Awardis awarded yearly in Sweden to those people, mostly strongly motivated byconscience,who have made exemplary practical contributions to resolving the great challenges facing our planet and its people.[219]In 2009, for example, along withCatherine Hamlin(obstetric fistulaand seefistula foundation)),David Suzuki(promoting awareness ofclimate change) and Alyn Ware (nuclear disarmament),René Ngongoshared theRight Livelihood Award"for his courage in confronting the forces that are destroying theCongo Basin's rainforests and building political support for their conservation and sustainable use ".[220][221]Avaazis one of the largest global on-line organizations launched in January 2007 to promote conscience-driven activism on issues such asclimate change,human rights,animal rights,corruption, poverty, and conflict, thus "closing the gap between the world we have and the world most people everywhere want".[222]
Notable examples of modern acts based on conscience
[edit]
In a notable contemporary act of conscience, Christian bushwalkerBrenda Heanprotested against the flooding ofLake Pedderdespite threats and that ultimately led to her death.[223]Another was the campaign byKen Saro-Wiwaagainst oil extraction by multinational corporations in Nigeria that led to his execution.[224]So too was the act by theTank Man,or theUnknown Rebelphotographed holding his shopping bag in the path of tanks during the protests at Beijing'sTiananmen Squareon 5 June 1989.[225]The actions ofUnited NationsSecretary GeneralDag Hammarskjöldto try to achieve peace in theCongodespite the (eventuating) threat to his life were strongly motivated by conscience as is reflected in his diary,Vägmärken(Markings).[226]Another example involved the actions of Warrant OfficerHugh Thompson, Jrto try to prevent theMy Lai Massacrein theVietnam War.[227]Evan Pederick voluntarily confessed and was convicted of theSydney Hilton bombingstating that his conscience could not tolerate the guilt and that "I guess I was quite unique in the prison system in that I had to keep proving my guilt, whereas everyone else said they were innocent."[228]Vasili Arkhipovwas a Russian naval officer on out-of-radio-contactSoviet submarine B-59being depth-charged by US warships during theCuban Missile Crisiswhose dissent when two other officers decided to launch a nuclear torpedo (unanimous agreement to launch was required) may have averted a nuclear war.[229]In 1963 Buddhist monkThich Quang Ducperformed a famous act ofself-immolationto protest against alleged persecution of his faith by the VietnameseNgo Dinh Diemregime.[230]
Conscience played a major role in the actions byanaesthetistStephen Bolsinto whistleblow (seelist of whistleblowers) on incompetentpaediatriccardiac surgeonsat theBristol Royal Infirmary.[231]Jeffrey Wigandwas motivated by conscience to expose theBig Tobaccoscandal, revealing that executives of the companies knew that cigarettes were addictive and approved the addition of carcinogenic ingredients to the cigarettes.[232]David Graham,aFood and Drug Administrationemployee, was motivated by conscience to whistleblow that thearthritispain-relieverVioxxincreased the risk ofcardiovasculardeaths although the manufacturer suppressed this information.[233]Rick Piltz,from the U.S.global warmingScience Program, blew the whistle on aWhite Houseofficial who ignored majority scientific opinion to edit aclimate changereport ( "Our Changing Planet" ) to reflect theBush administration's view that the problem was unlikely to exist.[234]Muntadhar al-Zaidi,anIraqijournalist, was imprisoned and allegedlytorturedfor his act of conscience in throwing his shoes atGeorge W. Bush.[235]Mordechai Vanunu,anIsraeliformer nuclear technician, acted on conscience to reveal details ofIsrael'snuclear weaponsprogram to theBritishpress in 1986; was kidnapped by Israeli agents, transported to Israel, convicted of treason and spent 18 years in prison, including more than 11 years in solitary confinement.[236]
At the awards ceremony for the200 metresat the1968 Summer OlympicsinMexico CityJohn Carlos,Tommie SmithandPeter Normanignored death threats and official warnings to take part in an anti-racismprotest[237]that destroyed their respective careers.[238]W. Mark Feltan agent of the United StatesFederal Bureau of Investigationwho retired in 1973 as the Bureau's Associate Director, acted on conscience to provide reportersBob WoodwardandCarl Bernsteinwith information that resulted in theWatergate scandal.[239]Conscience was a major factor in US Public Health Service officerPeter Buxtunrevealing theTuskegee syphilis experimentto the public.[240]The 2008 attack by theIsraeli militaryon civilian areas ofPalestinianGazawas described as a "stain on the world's conscience".[241]Conscience was a major factor in the refusal ofAung San Suu Kyito leaveBurmadespitehouse arrestandpersecutionby themilitary dictatorshipin that country.[242] Consciencewas a factor inPeter Galbraith's criticism of fraud in the 2009Afghanistanelection despite it costing him hisUnited Nationsjob.[243]Conscience motivatedBunnatine Greenhouseto expose irregularities in the contracting of theHalliburtoncompany for work inIraq.[244]Naji al-Alia popular cartoon artist in the Arab world, loved for his defense of the ordinary people, and for his criticism of repression and despotism by both theIsraeli militaryandYasser Arafat'sPLO,was murdered for refusing to compromise with his conscience.[245]The journalistAnna Politkovskayaprovided (prior to her murder) an example of conscience in her opposition to theSecond Chechen Warand then-RussianPresidentVladimir Putin.[246]Conscience motivated the Russianhuman rightsactivistNatalia Estemirova,who was abducted and murdered inGrozny,Chechnyain 2009.[247]TheDeath of Neda Agha-Soltanarose from conscience-driven protests against the2009 Iranian presidential election.[248]Muslim lawyerShirin Ebadi(winner of the 2003Nobel Peace Prize) has been described as the 'conscience of the Islamic Republic' for her work in protecting the human rights of women and children inIran.[249]The human rights lawyerGao Zhisheng,often referred to as the 'conscience of China' and who had previously been arrested and allegedly tortured after calling for respect for human rights and for constitutional reform, was abducted by Chinese security agents in February 2009.[250]2010Nobel Peace PrizewinnerLiu Xiaoboin his final statement before being sentenced by a closed Chinese court to over a decade in jail as a politicalprisoner of consciencestated: "For hatred is corrosive of a person’s wisdom and conscience; the mentality of enmity can poison a nation’s spirit."[251]Sergei Magnitsky,a lawyer in Russia, was arrested, held without trial for almost a year and died in custody, as a result of exposing corruption.[252]On 6 October 2001 Laura Whittle was a naval gunner onHMAS Adelaide (FFG 01)under orders to implement a new border protection policy when they encountered the SIEV-4 (Suspected Illegal Entry Vessel-4) refugee boat in choppy seas. After being ordered to fire warning shots from her 50 calibre machinegun to make the boat turn back she saw it beginning to break up and sink with a father on board holding out his young daughter that she might be saved (seeChildren Overboard Affair). Whittle jumped without a life vest 12 metres into the sea to help save the refugees from drowning thinking "this isn't right; this isn't how things should be."[253]In February 2012 journalistMarie Colvinwas deliberately targeted and killed by theSyrian ArmyinHomsduring the2011–2012 Syrian uprisingandSiege of Homs,after she decided to stay at the "epicentre of the storm" in order to "expose what is happening".[citation needed]In October 2012 theTalibanorganised the attempted murder ofMalala Yousafzaia teenage girl who had been campaigning, despite their threats, for female education in Pakistan.[254]In December 2012 the2012 Delhi gang rape casewas said to have stirred the collective conscience of India to civil disobedience and public protest at the lack of legal action against rapists in that country (seeRape in India)[255][256]In June 2013Edward Snowdenrevealed details of a USNational Security Agencyinternet and electronic communicationPRISM (surveillance program)because of a conscience-felt obligation to the freedom of humanity greater than obedience to the laws that bound his employment.[257][258]
In literature, art, film, and music
[edit]
The ancient epic of the Indian subcontinent, theMahabharataofVyasa,contains two pivotal moments ofconscience.The first occurs when the warriorArjunabeing overcome with compassion against killing his opposing relatives in war, receives counsel (seeBhagavad-Gita) fromKrishnaabout his spiritual duty ( "work as though you are performing a sacrifice for the general good" ).[259]The second, at the end of the saga, is when kingYudhishthirahaving alone survived the moral tests of life, is offered eternal bliss, only to refuse it because a faithful dog is prevented from coming with him by purported divine rules and laws.[260]The French authorMontaigne(1533–1592) in one of the most celebrated ofhis essays( "On experience" ) expressed the benefits of living with a clear conscience: "Our duty is to compose our character, not to compose books, to win not battles and provinces, but order and tranquillity in our conduct. Our great and glorious masterpiece is to live properly".[261]In his famous Japanese travel journalOku no Hosomichi(Narrow Road to the Deep North) composed of mixedhaikupoetry and prose,Matsuo Bashō(1644–94) in attempting to describe the eternal in this perishable world is often moved inconscience;for example by a thicket of summer grass being all that remains of the dreams and ambitions of ancient warriors.[262]Chaucer's "Franklin's Tale"inThe Canterbury Talesrecounts how a young suitor releases a wife from a rash promise because of the respect in hisconsciencefor the freedom to be truthful, gentle and generous.[263]
The criticA. C. Bradleydiscusses the central problem ofShakespeare's tragic characterHamletas one where conscience in the form of moral scruples deters the young Prince with his "great anxiety to do right" from obeying his father's hell-bound ghost and murdering the usurping King ( "is't not perfect conscience to quit him with this arm?" (v.ii.67)).[264]
Bradley develops a theory about Hamlet's moral agony relating to a conflict between "traditional" and "critical" conscience: "The conventional moral ideas of his time, which he shared with the Ghost, told him plainly that he ought to avenge his father; but a deeper conscience in him, which was in advance of his time, contended with these explicit conventional ideas. It is because this deeper conscience remains below the surface that he fails to recognise it, and fancies he is hindered bycowardiceorslothorpassionor what not; but it emerges into light in that speech to Horatio. And it is just because he has this nobler moral nature in him that we admire and love him ".[265]The opening words of Shakespeare'sSonnet 94( "They that have pow'r to hurt, and will do none" ) have been admired as a description ofconscience.[266]So hasJohn Donne's commencement of his poems:Goodfriday, 1613. Riding Westward:"Let man's soul be a sphere, and then, in this, Th' intelligence that moves, devotion is;"[267]
Anton Chekhovin his playsThe Seagull,Uncle VanyaandThree Sistersdescribes the tortured emotional states of doctors who at some point in their careers have turned their back on conscience.[268]In his short stories,Chekhovalso explored how people misunderstood the voice of a tortured conscience. A promiscuous student, for example, inThe Fitdescribes it as a "dull pain, indefinite, vague; it was like anguish and the most acute fear and despair... in his breast, under the heart" and the young doctor examining the misunderstood agony of compassion experienced by the factory owner's daughter inFrom a Case Bookcalls it an "unknown, mysterious power... in fact close at hand and watching him."[269]Characteristically, Chekhov's own conscience drove him on the long journey toSakhalinto record and alleviate the harsh conditions of the prisoners at that remote outpost. As Irina Ratushinskaya writes in the introduction to that work: "Abandoning everything, he travelled to the distant island ofSakhalin,the most feared place of exile and forced labour in Russia at that time. One cannot help but wonder why? Simply, because the lot of the people there was a bitter one, because nobody really knew about the lives and deaths of the exiles, because he felt that they stood in greater need of help that anyone else. A strange reason, maybe, but not for a writer who was the epitome of all the best traditions of a Russian man of letters. Russian literature has always focused on questions ofconscienceand was, therefore, a powerful force in the moulding of public opinion. "[270]
E. H. Carrwrites ofDostoevsky's character the young student Raskolnikov in the novelCrime and Punishmentwho decides to murder a 'vile and loathsome' old woman money lender on the principle of transcending conventional morals: "the sequel reveals to us not the pangs of a strickenconscience(which a less subtle writer would have given us) but the tragic and fruitless struggle of a powerful intellect to maintain a conviction which is incompatible with the essential nature of man. "[271]
Hermann Hessewrote hisSiddharthato describe how a young man in the time of theBuddhafollows hisconscienceon a journey to discover a transcendent inner space where all things could be unified and simply understood, ending up discovering that personal truth through selfless service as a ferryman.[272]J. R. R. Tolkienin his epicThe Lord of the Ringsdescribes how only thehobbitFrodois pure enough inconscienceto carry the ring of power through war-tornMiddle-earthto destruction in theCracks of Doom,Frodo determining at the end to journey without weapons, and being saved from failure by his earlier decision to spare the life of the creatureGollum.[273]Conor Cruise O'Brienwrote thatAlbert Camuswas the writer most representative of the Western consciousness and conscience in its relation to the non-Western world.[274]Harper Lee'sTo Kill a MockingbirdportraysAtticus Finch(played byGregory Peckin the classic film from the book (seeTo Kill a Mockingbird)) as a lawyer true to his conscience who sets an example to his children and community.[275]
TheRobert BoltplayA Man For All Seasonsfocuses on the conscience of Catholic lawyerThomas Morein his struggle with KingHenry VIII( "the loyal subject is more bounden to be loyal to his conscience than to any other thing" ).[276]George Orwellwrote his novelNineteen Eighty-Fouron the isolated island ofJura, Scotlandto describe how a man (Winston Smith) attempts to developcritical consciencein a totalitarian state which watches every action of the people and manipulates their thinking with a mixture ofpropaganda,endless war and thought control through language control (double thinkandnewspeak) to the point where prisoners look up to and even love their torturers.[277]In the Ministry of Love, Winston's torturer (O'Brien) states: "You are imagining that there is something called human nature which will be outraged by what we do and will turn against us. But we create human nature. Men are infinitely malleable".[278]
A tapestry copy ofPicasso'sGuernicadepicting a massacre of innocent women and children during theSpanish Civil Waris displayed on the wall of theUnited Nationsbuilding inNew York City,at the entrance to theSecurity Councilroom, demonstrably as a spur to the conscience of representatives from thenation states.[279]Albert TuckerpaintedMan's Headto capture the moral disintegration, and lack of conscience, of a man convicted of kicking a dog to death.[280]
TheimpressionistpainterVincent van Goghwrote in a letter to his brother Theo in 1878 that "one must never let the fire in one's soul die, for the time will inevitably come when it will be needed. And he who chooses poverty for himself and loves it possesses a great treasure and will hear the voice of hisconscienceaddress him every more clearly. He who hears that voice, which is God's greatest gift, in his innermost being and follows it, finds in it a friend at last, and he is never alone!... That is what all great men have acknowledged in their works, all those who have thought a little more deeply and searched and worked and loved a little more than the rest, who have plumbed the depths of the sea of life. "[281]
The 1957Ingmar BergmanfilmThe Seventh Sealportrays the journey of amedievalknight(Max von Sydow) returning disillusioned from thecrusades( "what is going to happen to those of us who want to believe, but aren't able to?" ) across aplague-ridden landscape, undertaking a game ofchesswith thepersonification of Deathuntil he can perform one meaningful altruistic act of conscience (overturning the chess board to distract Death long enough for a family of jugglers to escape in their wagon).[282]
The 1942Casablancacenters on the development of conscience in the cynical American Rick Blaine (Humphrey Bogart) in the face of oppression by theNazisand the example of the resistance leaderVictor Laszlo.[283]
TheDavid LeanandRobert Boltscreenplay forDoctor Zhivago(an adaptation ofBoris Pasternak's novel) focuses strongly on the conscience of a doctor-poet in the midst of theRussian Revolution(in the end "the walls of his heart were like paper" ).[284]
The 1982Ridley ScottfilmBlade Runnerfocuses on the struggles of conscience between and within a bounty hunter (Rick Deckard (Harrison Ford)) and a renegadereplicantandroid(Roy Batty (Rutger Hauer)) in a future society which refuses to accept that forms of artificial intelligence can have aspects of being such as conscience.[285]
Johann Sebastian Bachwrote his last great choral composition theMass in B minor(BWV 232) to express the alternating emotions of loneliness, despair, joy and rapture that arise asconsciencereflects on a departed human life.[286]Here JS Bach's use ofcounterpointandcontrapuntalsettings, his dynamic discourse of melodically and rhythmically distinct voices seeking forgiveness of sins ( "Qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis") evokes a spiraling moral conversation of all humanity expressing his belief that" with devotional music, God is always present in his grace ".[287]
Ludwig van Beethoven's meditations on illness, conscience and mortality in theLate String Quartetsled to his dedicating the third movement of String Quartet in A Minor (1825) Op. 132 (seeString Quartet No. 15) as a "Hymn of Thanksgiving to God of a convalescent".[288][289]John Lennon's work "Imagine"owes much of its popular appeal to its evocation of conscience against the atrocities created bywar,religious fundamentalismandpolitics.[290]The BeatlesGeorge Harrison-written track "The Inner Light"sets to Indianragamusic a verse from theTao Te Chingthat "without going out of your door you can know the ways of heaven'.[291]In the 1986 movieThe Missionthe guilty conscience and penance of the slave trader Mendoza is made more poignant by the haunting oboe music ofEnnio Morricone( "On Earth as it is in Heaven" )[292]The songSweet LullabybyDeep Forestis based on a traditionalBaegulullabyfrom theSolomon Islandscalled "Rorogwela" in which a young orphan is comforted as an act of conscience by his older brother.[293]TheDream Academysong 'Forest Fire' provided an early warning of the moral dangers of our 'black cloud' 'bringing down a different kind of weather... letting the sunshine in, that's how the end begins. "[294]
TheAmerican Society of Journalists and Authors(ASJA) presents theConscience-in-Media Awardtojournalistswhom the society deems worthy of recognition for demonstrating "singular commitment to the highest principles of journalism at notable personal cost or sacrifice".[295]
TheAmbassador of Conscience Award,Amnesty International's most prestigioushuman rightsaward, takes its inspiration from a poem written by IrishNobel prize-winning poetSeamus Heaneycalled "The Republic of Conscience".[6]
See also
[edit]- Amity-enmity complex
- An Essay Concerning Human Understanding,chapter XXVII: "Of Identity and Diversity"
- Altruism
- Confidant
- Conscientious objector
- Conscientiousness
- Consciousness
- Ethics
- Evolutionary ethics
- Evolution of morality
- Free will
- Guilt
- Inner light
- Jiminy Cricket,symbol of conscience inPinocchio(1940 film)
- List of nonviolence scholars and leaders
- Mind–body problem
- Moral emotions
- Moral value
- Morality
- Outline of self
- Philosophy of mind
- Rationality and power
- Rationality
- Reason
- Sraosha,Deity of Conscience
- Social conscience
- Subtle body
- Synderesis
Further reading
[edit]- Slater S.J., Thomas (1925)..A manual of moral theology for English-speaking countries.Burns Oates & Washbourne Ltd.
References
[edit]- ^Ninian Smart.The World's Religions: Old Traditions and Modern Transformations.Cambridge University Press. 1989. pp. 10–21.
- ^Peter Winch.Moral Integrity.Basil Blackwell. Oxford. 1968
- ^abRosemary Moore.The Light in Their Consciences: The Early Quakers in Britain 1646–1666.Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA. 2000.ISBN978-0-271-01988-8,
- ^ab"Universal Declaration of Human Rights".United Nations.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^abBooth K, Dunne T and Cox M (eds).How Might We Live? Global Ethics in the New Century.Cambridge University Press. Cambridge 2001 p. 1.
- ^abAmnesty International. Ambassador of Conscience Award.Retrieved 31 December 2013.
- ^Wayne C Booth.The Company We Keep: An Ethics of Fiction.University of California Press. Berkeley. 1988. p. 11 and Ch. 2.
- ^abLangston, Douglas C.Conscience and Other Virtues. From Bonaventure to MacIntyre.The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, Pennsylvania, 2001.ISBN0-271-02070-9p. 176
- ^Ninian Smart.The World's Religions: Old Traditions and Modern Transformations.Cambridge University Press. 1989. p. 382
- ^Shankara.Crest-Jewel of Discrimination(Veka-Chudamani) (trans Prabhavananda S and Isherwood C). Vedanta Press, Hollywood. 1978. pp. 34–36, 136–37.
- ^Shankara.Crest-Jewel of Discrimination(Veka-Chudamani) (trans Prabhavananda S and Isherwood C). Vedanta Press, Hollywood. 1978. p. 119.
- ^John B Noss.Man's Religions.Macmillan. New York. 1968. p. 477.
- ^AS Cua.Moral Vision and Tradition: Essays in Chinese Ethics.Catholic University of America Press. Washington. 1998.
- ^Jayne Hoose (ed)Conscience in World Religions.University of Notre Dame Press. 1990.
- ^Ninian Smart.The Religious Experience of Mankind.Fontana. 1971 p. 118.
- ^Santideva.The Bodhicaryavatara.trans Crosby K and Skilton A. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 1995. pp. 38, 98
- ^Lama Anagarika Govinda in Jeffery Paine (ed)Adventures with the Buddha: A Buddhism Reader.WW Norton. London. pp. 92–93.
- ^"Steps Along the Path".accesstoinsight.org.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^Marcus Aurelius.Meditations.Gregory Hays (trans). Weidenfeld and & Nicolson. London. 2003 pp. 70, 75.
- ^Sachiko Murata and William C. Chittick.The Vision of Islam.I. B. Tauris. 2000.ISBN1-86064-022-2pp. 282–85
- ^Ames Ambros and Stephan Procházka.A Concise Dictionary of Koranic Arabic.Reichert Verlag 2004.ISBN3-89500-400-6p. 294.
- ^Azim Nanji. 'Islamic Ethics' in Singer P (ed).A Companion to Ethics.Blackwell, Oxford 1995. p. 108.
- ^John B Noss.Man's Religions.The Macmillan Company, New York. 1968 Ch. 16 pp. 758–59
- ^Marshall G. S. Hodgson.The Venture of Islam, Volume 1: The Classical Age of Islam.University of Chicago Press. 1975ISBN978-0-226-34686-1.Winner ofRalph Waldo EmersonPrize.
- ^Tillich, Paul (1963).Morality and Beyond.New York: Harper & Row, Publishers. p.69.
- ^Calvin,Institutes of the Christian religion,Book 2, chapter 8, quoted in:Wogaman, J. Pilip(1993).Christian ethics: a historical introduction.Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster/John Knox Press. pp.119, 340.ISBN978-0-664-25163-5.
the enemies who rise up in our conscience against his Kingdom and hinder his decrees prove that God's throne is not firmly established therein.
- ^Ninian Smart.The World's Religions: Old Traditions and Modern Transformations.Cambridge University Press. 1989. p. 376
- ^Ninian Smart.The World's Religions: Old Traditions and Modern Transformations.Cambridge University Press. 1989. p. 364
- ^Brian Moynahan.William Tyndale: If God Spare My Life.Abacus. London. 2003 pp. 249–50
- ^Ninian Smart.The World's Religions: Old Traditions and Modern Transformations.Cambridge University Press. 1989. p. 353
- ^Guthrie D, Motyer JA, Stibbs AM, Wiseman DLJ (eds).New Bible Commentary3rd ed. Inter-Varsity Press, Leicester. 1989. p. 905.
- ^Robert Graves.The Greek Myths: 2(London: Penguin, 1960). p. 380
- ^Catechism of the Catholic Church– English translation (U.S., 2nd edition) (English translation of the Catechism of the Catholic Church: Modifications from the Editio Typica, copyright 1997, United States Catholic Conference, Inc. – Libreria Editrice Vaticana) (Glossary and Index Analyticus, copyright 2000, U.S. Catholic Conference, Inc.).ISBN1-57455-110-8paragraph 1778
- ^Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents. Collegeville: The Liturgical Press 1992.Gaudium and Spes16. Cfr. Joseph Ratzinger,On Conscience,San Francisco: Ignatius Press 2007
- ^"Whispers in the Loggia:" Jesus Always Invites Us. He Does Not Impose. "".Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^Catechism of the Catholic Church,paragraph 1782
- ^Catechism of the Catholic Church,paragraph 1790–91
- ^Catechism of the Catholic Church,paragraph 1792
- ^Samuel Willard Crompton, "Thomas More: And His Struggles of Conscience" (Chelsea House Publications, 2006); Marc D. Guerra, 'Thomas More's Correspondence on Conscience', in:Religion & Liberty10(2010)6 <https://acton.org/thomas-mores-correspondence-conscience>; Prof. Gerald Wegemer, "Integrity and Conscience in the Life and Thought of Thomas More" [21 aug. 2006]<http://thomasmoreinstitute.org.uk/papers/integrity-and-conscience-in-the-life-and-thought-of-thomas-more/>;http://sacredheartmercy.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/A-Reflection-on-Conscience.pdfArchived11 September 2017 at theWayback Machine
- ^Newman, John Henry (1887).An essay in aid of a grammar of assent.Saint Mary's College of California. London: Longmans, Green.
- ^"Newman Reader - Letter to the Duke of Norfolk - Section 5".newmanreader.org.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^Harold H Schulweis.Conscience: The Duty to Obey and the Duty to Disobey.Jewish Lights Publishing. 2008.
- ^Ninian Smart.The Religious Experience of Mankind.Collins. NY. 1969 pp. 395–400.
- ^Levi Meier (Ed.)Conscience and Autonomy within Judaism: A Special Issue of the Journal of Psychology and Judaism.Springer-Verlag. New YorkISBN978-0-89885-364-3.
- ^Gilkes, Peter (July 2004)."Masonic ritual: Spoilt for choice".Masonic Quarterly Magazine(10).Retrieved7 May2007.
- ^Manning Clark.The Quest for Grace.Penguin Books, Ringwood. 1991 p. 220.
- ^Aylmer Maude.Introduction to Leo Tolstoy. On Life and Essays on Religion(A Maude trans) Oxford University Press. London. 1950 (repr) pxv.
- ^abNajm, Sami M. (1966). "The Place and Function of Doubt in the Philosophies of Descartes and Al-Ghazali".Philosophy East and West.16(3–4): 133–41.doi:10.2307/1397536.JSTOR1397536.
- ^abNader El-Bizri. "Avicenna's De Anima between Aristotle and Husserl" in Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (ed)The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming.Kluwer Academic Publishers. Dordrecht 2003 pp. 67–89.
- ^abHenry Sidgwick.Outlines of the History of Ethics.Macmillan. London. 1960 pp. 145, 150.
- ^abRurak, James (1980). "Butler's Analogy: A Still Interesting Synthesis of Reason and Revelation",Anglican Theological Review62 (October) pp. 365–81
- ^abDietrich Bonhoeffer.Ethics.Eberhard Bethge (ed.) Neville Horton Smith (trans.) Collins. London 1963 p. 24
- ^May, L. (1983). "On Conscience".American Philosophical Quarterly.20:57–67.
- ^Lawrence Kohlberg. "Conscience as principled responsibility: on the philosophy of stage six" in Zecha G and Weingartner P (Eds).Conscience: An Interdisciplinary View.D. Reidel, Dordrecht. 1987ISBN90-277-2452-0pp. 3–15.
- ^Wurgaft, LD. (1976). "Erik Erikson: from Luther to Gandhi".Psychoanalytic Review.63(2): 209–33.PMID788015.
- ^Martha Stout.The Sociopath Next Door: The Ruthless Versus The Rest of Us.Broadway Books.ISBN0-7679-1581-X.ISBN978-0-7679-1581-6.2005.
- ^Childress JF.Appeals to Conscience.Ethics 1979; 89: 315–35.
- ^Erich Fromm.Greatness and Limitations of Freud's Thought.Jonathan Cape, London. 1980. pp. 126–27.
- ^Sigmund Freud. "The Cultural Super-Ego" in P Singer (ed).Ethics.Oxford University Press. NY 1994
- ^Damasio, Antonio (1999).The Feeling of What Happens.Harcourt.ISBN978-0-15-100369-3.
- ^Michel Glautier.The Social Conscience.Shepheard-Walwyn, London. 2007.ISBN978-0-85683-248-2
- ^Compare Rachels, James(1990).Created from animals: the moral implications of Darwinism.Oxford paperbacks. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 160–62, 245.ISBN978-0-19-217775-9.
- ^Milton Wessel.Science and Conscience.Columbia University Press, New York 1980
- ^D'Arcy, Eric.Conscience and Its Right to Freedom.Sheed and Ward, New York 1961.
- ^Eva Fogelman.Conscience & courage: rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust.New York: Anchor Books, c1994
- ^George Kateb.Hannah Arendt: politics, conscience, evil.Martin Robertson, Oxford. 1984.
- ^Friedrich Nietzsche "The Origins of Herd Morality" in P Singer (ed).Ethics.Oxford University Press. NY 1994
- ^Jeremy Bentham.Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation.(Burns JH and Hart HLA eds), Athlone Press. London. 1970 Ch 12 p. 156n.
- ^Hannah Arendt.Eichmann in Jerusalem.Penguin Books, New York. 1994ISBN0-14-018765-0.pp. 95, 103, 106, 116, 126.
- ^Anonymous."Wild Justice and Fair Play: Animal Origins of Social Morality"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 28 June 2007.Retrieved16 January2007.
- ^Linden, Eugene(2000).The Parrot's Lament: And Other True Tales of Animal Intrigue, Intelligence, and Ingenuity.New York: Plume.ISBN978-0-452-28068-7.
- ^Von Kreisler, Kristin (1999).The Compassion of Animals: True Stories of Animal Courage and Kindness.Prima.ISBN978-0-7615-1808-2.
- ^Gisela Kaplan.Australian Magpie: Biology and Behaviour of an Unusual Songbird.CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood. 2004. pp. 83, 124.
- ^Susan Greenfield.The Quest For Identity in the 21st Century.Sceptre. London. 2008 p. 223.
- ^Richard Dawkins.The God Delusion.Bantam Press. London 2006 p. 215-216.
- ^Tranel, D. 'Acquired sociopathy': the development of sociopathic behavior following focal brain damage. Prog. Exp. Pers. Psychopathol. Res. 1994; 285–311.
- ^Greene, J. D., Nystrom, L. E., Engell, A. D., Darley, J. M. & Cohen, J. D. The neural bases of cognitive conflict and control in moral judgment. Neuron 2004; 44, 389–400.
- ^Jorge Moll, Roland Zahn, Ricardo de Oliveira-Souza, Frank Krueger & Jordan Grafman.The Neural Basis of Human Moral CognitionArchived22 August 2006 at theWayback Machine.Vision Circle 10 October 2005 accessed 18 October 2009.
- ^Libet B, Freeman A and Sutherland K (eds).The Volitional Brain: Towards a Neuroscience of Free Will.Imprint Academic. Thorverton. 2000.
- ^AC Grayling. "Do We Have a Veto?"Times Literary Supplement.2000; 5076 (14 July): 4.
- ^Batthyany, Alexander: Mental Causation and Free Will after Libet and Soon: Reclaiming Conscious Agency. In Batthyany und Avshalom Elitzur. Irreducibly Conscious. Selected Papers on Consciousness, Universitätsverlag Winter Heidelberg 2009, pp.135ff
- ^Pitrat, Jacques (2009).Artificial Beings: The Conscience of a Conscious Machine).Wiley.ISBN978-1-84821-101-8.
- ^Oxford English Dictionary,second edition, 1989.
- ^Little, W, Fowler HW, Coulson J, Onions CT.The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles.3rd ed. Vol 1 Clarendon Pres. Oxford. 1992. pp. 402–03.
- ^Strawson, Galen (January 2019)."A hundred years of consciousness:" a long training in absurdity "".Estudios de Filosofía(59): 9–43.doi:10.17533/udea.ef.n59a02.
- ^Peter Singer.Practical Ethics.2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1993 pp. 292–95.
- ^Peter Singer.Democracy and Disobedience.Clarendon Press. Oxford. 1973. p. 94
- ^Ninian Smart.The Religious Experience of Mankind.Collins. New York 1969 pp. 511–12.
- ^abLangston, Douglas C.Conscience and Other Virtues: From Bonaventure to MacIntyre.The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, Pennsylvania, 2001.ISBN0-271-02070-9p. 34
- ^Campbell Garnett A. "Conscience and Conscientiousness" in Feinberg J (ed)Moral Concepts.Oxford University Press, Oxford. 1969 pp. 80–92
- ^A.J. Arberry (transl.).The spiritual Physik of Rhazes(London, John Murray 1950).
- ^Ninian Smart.The Religious Experience of Mankind.Collins. New York. 1969. pp. 511–12
- ^Ceri Sullivan.The Rhetoric of the Conscience in Donne, Herbert, and Vaughan.Oxford University Press, Oxford. 2008ISBN978-0-19-954784-5
- ^abcThomas Aquinas. "Of the Natural Law" in P Singer (ed).Ethics.Oxford University Press. NY 1994 pp. 247–49.
- ^Saarinen, R.Weakness of the Will in Medieval Thought From Augustine to Buridan.Brill, Leiden. 1994
- ^Brain Davies.The Thought of Thomas Aquinas.Clarendon Press. Oxford. 1992
- ^Thomas à Kempis. "The Imitation of Christ".Leo Sherley-Price(trans) Penguin Books. London. 1965 Bk II, ch. 6On The Joys of a Good Conscience.p. 74.
- ^Anonymous.The Cloud of Unknowing.Clifton Wolters (trans.) Penguin Books. London 1965 ch. 28 p. 88
- ^John of Ruysbroeck.The Kingdom of the Lovers of God.Kegan Paul. London. 1919. ch. III pp. 14–15 and ch XLIII p. 214
- ^Spinoza.Ethics.Everyman's Library JM Dent, London. 1948. Part 2 proposition 35. Part 3 proposition 11.
- ^Spinoza.Ethics.Everyman's Library JM Dent, London. 1948. Part 4 proposition 59, Part 5 proposition 30
- ^Roger Scruton. "Spinoza" in Raphael F and Monk R (eds).The Great Philosophers.Weidenfeld & Nicolson. London. 2000. p. 141.
- ^Richard L Gregory.The Oxford Companion to the Mind.Oxford University Press. Oxford. 1987 p. 308.
- ^Georg Hegel.Philosophy of Right.Knox TM trans, Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1942. para 137.
- ^Joseph Butler "Sermons" inThe Works of Joseph Butler.(Gladstone WE ed), Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1896, Vol II p. 71.
- ^Henry Sidgwick.Outlines of the History of Ethics.Macmillan, London. 1960 pp. 196–97.
- ^John Selden.Table Talk.Garnett R, Valee L and Brandl A (eds) The Book of Literature: A Comprehensive Anthology. The Grolier Society. Toronto. 1923. Vol 14. p. 67.
- ^Arthur Schopenhauer.The World as Will and Idea.Vol 1. Routledge and Kegan Paul. London. 1948. pp. 387, 482. "I believe that the influence of the Sanskrit literature will penetrate not less deeply than did the revival of Greek literature in the 15th century." p xiii.
- ^Kant I. "The Noble Descent of Duty" in P Singer (ed).Ethics.Oxford University Press. NY 1994 p. 41.
- ^Kant I. "The Categorical Imperative" in P Singer (ed).Ethics.Oxford University Press. NY 1994 p. 274.
- ^Kant I. "The Doctrine of Virtue" inMetaphyics and Morals.Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 1991. pp. 183 and 233–34.
- ^John Plamenatz.Man and Society.Vol 1. Longmans. London. 1963 p. 383.
- ^Hill T Jr "Four Conceptions of Conscience" in Shapiro I and Adams R.Integrity and Conscience.New York University Press, New York 1998 p. 31.
- ^Roger Woolhouse.Locke: A Biography.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 2007. p. 53.
- ^John Locke.An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.Dover Publications. New York. 1959.ISBN0-486-20530-4.Vol 1. ch II. pp. 71-72fn1.
- ^Thomas Hobbes.Leviathan(Molesworth W ed) J Bohn. London, 1837 Pt 2. Ch 29 p. 311.
- ^William Godwin.Enquiry Concerning Political Justice.Codell Carter K (ed), Clarendon Press. Oxford. 1971 Appendix III 'Thoughts on Man' Essay XI 'Of Self Love and Benevolence' p. 338.
- ^Adam Smith.The Theory of Moral Sentiments.Part III, section ii, Ch III in Rogers K (ed) Self Interest: An Anthology of Philosophical Perspectives. Routledge. London. 1997 p. 151.
- ^abJohn Stuart Mill. "Considerations on Representative Government". Ch VI. In Rogers K (ed)Self Interest: An Anthology of Philosophical Perspectives.Routledge. London. 1997 pp. 193–94
- ^John K Roth (ed).The Philosophy of Josiah Royce.Thomas Y Crowell Co. New York. 1971 pp. 302–15.
- ^Dietrich Bonhoeffer.Ethics.(Eberhard Bethge (ed) Neville Horton Smith (trans) Collins. London 1963 p. 242
- ^abDietrich Bonhoeffer.Ethics.(Eberhard Bethge (ed) Neville Horton Smith (trans) Collins. London 1963 p. 66
- ^Simon Soloveychik.Parenting For Everyone.Ch 12"A Chapter on Conscience"Archived16 May 2007 at theWayback Machine.1986. Retrieved 23 October 2009.
- ^Hannah Arendt.Crises of the Republic.Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. New York. 1972 p. 62.
- ^John Stuart Mill. "Utilitarianism" and "On Liberty" inCollected Works.University of Toronto Press. Toronto. 1969 Vols 10 and 18. Ch 3. pp. 228–29 and 263.
- ^abHannah Arendt.The Life of the Mind.Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York. 1978. p. 191.
- ^Hannah Arendt.The Life of the Mind.Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York. 1978. p. 190.
- ^Einstein, A. (1940)."Science and religion".Nature.146(3706): 605–07.Bibcode:1940Natur.146..605E.doi:10.1038/146605a0.S2CID9421843.
- ^Quoted in Gino Segre.Faust in Copenhagen: A Struggle for the Soul of Physics and the Birth of the Nuclear Age.Pimlico. London 2007. p. 144.
- ^Simone Weil.The Need For Roots: Prelude to a Declaration of Duties Towards Mankind.Routledge & Kegan Paul. London. 1952 (repr 2003).ISBN0-415-27101-0pp. 13 et seq.
- ^Hellman, John.Simone Weil: An Introduction to Her Thought.Wilfrid Laurier, University Press, Waterloo, Ontario. 1982.
- ^Simone Weil.The Need For Roots: Prelude to a Declaration of Duties Towards Mankind.Routledge & Kegan Paul. London. 1952 (repr 2003).ISBN0-415-27101-0p. 13.
- ^Charles Darwin. "The Origin of the Moral Sense" in P Singer (ed).Ethics.Oxford University Press. NY 1994 p. 44.
- ^Émile Durkheim.The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life.The Free Press. New York. 1965 p. 299.
- ^AJ Ayer. "Ethics for Logical Positivists" in P Singer (ed).Ethics.Oxford University Press. NY 1994 p. 151.
- ^GE Moore.Principia Ethica.Cambridge University Press. London. 1968 pp. 178–79.
- ^Simone de Beauvoir.A Very Easy Death.Penguin Books. London. 1982.ISBN0-14-002967-2.p. 60
- ^Michael Walzer.Obligations: Essays on Disobedience, War and Citizenship.Clarion-Simon and Schuster. New York. 1970. p. 124.
- ^Michael Walzer.Obligations: Essays on Disobedience, War and Citizenship.Clarion-Simon and Schuster. New York. 1970. p. 131
- ^Ronald Dworkin.Life's Dominion.Harper Collins, London 1995. pp. 239–40
- ^Edward Conze.Buddhism: Its Essence and development.Harper Torchbooks. New York. 1959. pp. 20 and 46
- ^Peter Singer.Democracy and Disobedience.Clarendon Press. Oxford. 1973. p. 94.
- ^David Chalmers.The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory.Oxford University Press. Oxford. 1996 pp. 83–84
- ^Nicholas Fearn.Philosophy: The Latest Answers to the Oldest Questions.Atlantic Books. London. 2005. pp. 176–177.
- ^Roger Scruton.Modern Philosophy: An Introduction and Survey.Mandarin. London. 1994. p. 271
- ^Susan Sontag.Regarding the Pain of Others.Hamish Hamilton, London. 2003.ISBN0-241-14207-5pp. 87 and 102.
- ^Jonathan Glover.I: The Philosophy and Psychology of Personal Identity.Penguin Books, London. 1988. p. 132.
- ^abGarrett Hardin,"The Tragedy of the Commons",Science,Vol. 162, No. 3859 (13 December 1968), pp. 1243–48. Also available here[1]andhere.
- ^Scott James Shackelford. 2008."The Tragedy of the Common Heritage of Mankind".Retrieved 30 October 2009.
- ^John Ralston Saul.The Unconscious Civilisation.Massey Lectures Series. Anansi Pres, Toronto. 1995.ISBN0-88784-586-Xpp. 17, 81 and 172.
- ^Alan Donagan.The Theory of Morality.University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1977. pp. 131–38.
- ^Beauchamp TL and Childress JF.Principles of Biomedical Ethics.4th ed. Oxford University Press, New York. 1994 pp. 478–79.
- ^abEmmanuel Levinas.Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority.Lingis A (trans) Duquesne University Press, Pittsburgh, PA 1998. pp. 84, 100–01
- ^abcWatt, Gary (2020).Trusts and Equity(9th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 5.ISBN9780198854142.
- ^Knafla LA. Conscience in the English Common Law Tradition. University of Toronto Law Journal 1976; 26:1–16
- ^Jeremy Lee.Conscience Voting.Veritas Pub. Co. Morley, W.A. 1981.
- ^Hannah Arendt.Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil.Penguin Books, New York. 1963.ISBN0-14-018765-0.p. 293.
- ^International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2200A [XX1]. 16 December 1966 U.N.T.S. No. 14668, vol 999 (1976), p. 171.
- ^Emily Miles.A Conscientious Objector's Guide to the UN Human Rights SystemArchived15 May 2008 at theWayback Machine.Quaker United Nations Office,Geneva & CONCODOC, London. 2000. Retrieved 22 October 2009.
- ^abcJohn Rawls. A Theory of Justice. Oxford University Press. London 1971. pp. 368–70
- ^Peter Singer.Democracy and Disobedience.Clarendon Press. Oxford. 1973. pp. 86–91
- ^Peter Singer.Democracy and Disobedience.Clarendon Press. Oxford. 1973 pp. 94–99.
- ^Spitz, D. (1954). "Democracy and the problem of 'civil disobedience'".American Political Science Review.48(2): 386–403.doi:10.2307/1951202.JSTOR1951202.S2CID145099462.
- ^Henry David Thoreau.Civil Disobedience.1848. reprinted Signet Classic, New York. 1960 pp. 228, 229, 236.
- ^"Army Deserter Arrested at Border; Opposed Iraq War".ABC News.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^Hayes D.Challenge of Conscience: The Story of the Conscientious Objectors.Allen & Unwin. London 1949.
- ^For example see Jan Brabec, Václav Havel, Ivan Lamper, David Nemec, Petr Placak, Joska Skalnik et al."Prisoners of Conscience".New York Review of Books.1989; 36 (1) 2 February. Retrieved 18 October 2009.
- ^Katherine White. "Crisis of Conscience: Reconciling Religious Health Care Providers' Beliefs and Patients' Rights",Stanford Law Review1999; 51: 1703–24.
- ^Howard Moore.Plowing My Own Furrow.Syracuse University Press. 1993ISBN0-8156-0276-6p. 208.
- ^abDykhuizen, George.The Life and Mind of John Dewey.Southern Illinois University Press. London. 1978. p. 165
- ^Walter Isaacson.Einstein: His Life and Universe.Simon and Schuster. New York. 2008. p. 414.
- ^abcJames Boswell.Life of Johnson.Oxford University Press. London. 1927 Vol. I 1709–1776. p. 505.
- ^John Rawls.A Theory of Justice.Oxford University Press. London 1971. pp. 364–65.
- ^Peter Singer.Democracy and Disobedience.Clarendon Press. Oxford. 1973 p. 85.
- ^Bondurant, Joan V.Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict.Princeton UP, 1988ISBN0-691-02281-X
- ^Brinkley, Douglas (2000).Rosa Parks.Penguin Lives. New York: Viking.ISBN978-0-670-89160-3.
- ^Greg Myre."Israeli Army Bulldozer Kills American Protesting in Gaza".The New York Times,17 March 2003. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
- ^Michelle Nichols."Gore urges civil disobedience to stop coal plants".Reuters. Wed, 24 September 2008. Retrieved 27 January 2010.
- ^"NASA Scientist Hansen Arrested at Tar Sands Protest - A Grim Sign of the Times | Jeff Goodell | Rolling Stone".Rolling Stone.11 November 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 11 November 2011.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^Bill McKibben. "The keystone pipeline revolt: why mass arrests are just the beginning".Rolling Stone.28 September 2011.https:// rollingstone /politics/news/the-keystone-pipeline-revolt-why-mass-arrests-are-just-the-beginning-20110928(accessed 29 December 2012)
- ^Anti-coal protestors arrested in Little Rock. CBC news Mat y 6 2012https:// cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/anti-coal-protesters-arrested-in-white-rock-1.1210172(accessed 29 December 2012)
- ^"Nasa climate expert makes personal appeal to Obama".the Guardian.2 January 2009.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^James Hansen. Tell Barack Obama the Truth – The Whole Truth."Archived copy"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 6 January 2009.Retrieved10 December2009.
{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)accessed 10 December 2009. - ^"Nature Climate Change".Nature.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^"The Wallenberg Effect".The Journal of Leadership Studies. Archived fromthe originalon 13 September 2001.Retrieved15 February2007.
- ^Lee, Dom; Mochizuki, Ken.Passage to Freedom: The Sugihara Story.New York: Lee & Low Books. 2003.ISBN1-58430-157-0
- ^University of Minnesota.Center from Holocaust and Genocide Studies.Retrieved 18 October 2009.
- ^Erwin Wickert (editor).The Good German of Nanjing: The Diaries of John Rabe.Knopf. 1998.ISBN0-375-40211-X
- ^""The White Rose Leaflets" Revolt & Resistance HolocaustResearchProject.org ".holocaustresearchproject.org.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^Sohn, LB (1982). "The new international law: Protection of the rights of individuals rather than states".American University Law Review.32:1.
- ^S Milgram.Obedience to Authority.New York. 1974.
- ^Bede Griffiths.A New Vision of Reality: Western Science, Eastern Mysticism and Christian Faith.Fount. London. 1992. p. 276.
- ^William Thompson.Passages About the Earth: An Exploration of the New Planetary Culture.Rider and Co. London. 1974. Ch 7. 'To Findhorn and Lindisfarne' pp. 150–83.
- ^P willets 'Introduction' in P. Willetts (ed) The Conscience of the World. The Influence of Non-Governmental Organizations in the UN System. Hurst & Co, London (1996) p. 11.
- ^Edward O Wilson.Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge.Abacus. London. 2003ISBN0-349-11112-Xp. 332.
- ^EF Schumacher.Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics As If People Mattered.Abacus London. 1974. p. 112.
- ^Edward Goldsmith.The Way.Shambhala, Boston. 1993. p. 64.
- ^James Lovelock.Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth.Oxford University Press, Oxford. 1979 p. 123.
- ^Geoff Davies.Economia: New Economic Systems to Empower People and Support the Living World.ABC Books. Sydney. 2004. pp. 202–03.
- ^Cabrera, Luis.Political Theory of Global Justice: A Cosmopolitan Case for the World State.London, Routledge. 2006.
- ^McKibben, Bill (15 May 2009)."Can 350.org save the world?".Los Angeles Times.Retrieved18 September2009.
- ^McKibben, Bill (25 September 2009)."Why 350 is the most important number on the planet | Opinion".the Guardian.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^Editorial."Microcredit Movement Tackling Poverty one Tiny Loan at a Time".San Francisco Chronicle.3 October 2007. Retrieved 4 December 2009.
- ^Bob Brown.Memo For a Saner World.Penguin Books. Melbourne. 2004. pp. 12–13.
- ^James Norman.Bob Brown: Gentle Revolutionary.Allen & Unwin. Sydney. 2004. p. 180.
- ^Nick Lewer.Physicians and the Peace Movement.Frank Cass, London. 1992. pp. 78–80 and 107.
- ^Danielsson, Bengt.Moruroa, Mon Amour.Penguin Books Australia, Ringwood, Vic. 1977.ISBN0-14-004461-2
- ^Axelrod, Robert. (1984).The Evolution of Cooperation.New York: Basic Books,ISBN0-465-02121-2
- ^Kemal Baslar.The Concept of the Common Heritage of Mankind in International Law.Martinus Nijhoff. 1998.ISBN978-90-411-0505-9
- ^Joyner, Christopher C. (1986). "Legal Implications of the Concept of the Common Heritage of Mankind".International and Comparative Law Quarterly.35:190.doi:10.1093/iclqaj/35.1.190.
- ^Peter Singer.One World: The Ethics of Globalisation.Text Publishing. Melbourne. 2002 p. 213.
- ^Ninian Smart.Beyond Ideology: Religion and the Future of Western Civilisation.Collins, London. 1981. p. 313.
- ^RW McChesney. "Introduction to Noam Chomsky".Profit Over People: Neoliberalism and Global Order.Seven Stories Press. New York. 1999. pp. 9–11.
- ^John Passmore.The Perfectibility of Man.Duckworth, London. 1972. pp. 324–27.
- ^US Holocaust Memorial Museum.Retrieved 18 October 2009.
- ^Anonymous."The Global Arms Trade: Strengthening International Regulations. Interview with Oscar Arias Sanchez".Harvard International Review.1 July 2008. Retrieved 10 February 2010
- ^Jonathan Allen."Tibet challenges world conscience, U.S. Speaker says".Reuters. Fri, 21 March 2008. Retrieved 18 October 2009.
- ^"How Mandela shaped the conscience of the world".Archived fromthe originalon 9 December 2013.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^Right Livelihood Award.Retrieved 18 October 2009.
- ^Greenpeace. Press ReleaseArchived16 October 2009 at theWayback Machine.13 October 2009. Retrieved 13 October 2009.
- ^Mu Xuequan."Alternative Nobel awards go to Congo, New Zealand, Australia"Archived17 October 2009 at theWayback Machine.chinaview.cn 2009-10-13 22:35:19. Retrieved 18 October 2009
- ^Pilkington, Ed (2 March 2012)."Avaaz faces questions over role at centre of Syrian protest movement".The Guardian.Retrieved27 November2012.
- ^Dick Jones. "The Pedder Tragedy" inRoger Green: Battle for The Franklin.Fontana. ACF. Sydney 1981 p. 53
- ^Chinua Achebe, G.F. Michelsen, Ben Okri, Harold Pinter, Norman Rush, Susan Sontag et al."The Case of Ken Saro-Wiwa".New York Review of Books.Volume 42, Number 7 · 20 April 1995 accessed 17 October 2009.
- ^Pico Iyer."The Unknown Rebel: with a single act of defiance, a lone Chinese hero revived the world's image of courage".Time.13 April 1998. Retrieved 23 October 2009.
- ^Henry P Van Dusen.Dag Hammarskjöld: A Biographical Interpretation of Markings.Faber and Faber London. 1967
- ^Trent Angers.The Forgotten Hero of My Lai: The Hugh Thompson Story.Acadian House Publishing, 1999
- ^Ben Hills. The Hilton Fiasco. SMH 12 February 1998, p. 11"Articles".Archived fromthe originalon 4 November 2012.Retrieved9 July2012.(Retrieved 6 September 2010)
- ^"SOVIETS CLOSE TO USING A-BOMB IN 1962 CRISIS, FORUM IS TOLD".latinamericanstudies.org.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^Sanburn, Josh (20 January 2011)."A Brief History of Self-Immolation".Time.Archived fromthe originalon 21 January 2011.
- ^Smith, Richard (1998)."All changed, changed utterly".British Medical Journal.316(7149): 1917–18.doi:10.1136/bmj.316.7149.1917.PMC1113398.PMID9641922.
- ^Marie Brenner. "The Man Who Knew Too Much".Vanity Fair.May 1996.
- ^"Whistler-Blower Guardians Say FDA Officials Tried to Undermine Critic".San Francisco Chronicle.24 November 2004
- ^Andrew Revkin."Bush Aide Softened Greenhouse Gas Links to Global Warming".The New York Times.8 June 2005. Retrieved 18 October 2009.
- ^"Iraqi shoe-throwing reporter becomes the talk of Iraq".Reuters.15 December 2008.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^Gilling, Tom and John McKnight.Trial and Error – Mordechai Vanunu and Israel's Nuclear Bomb.1991 Monarch Publications.ISBN1-85424-129-X
- ^Hurst, Mike (7 October 2006)."Peter Norman's Olympic statement".The Courier-Mail.Archived fromthe originalon 19 November 2009.Retrieved28 October2012.
- ^"50 stunning Olympic moments No13: Tommie Smith and John Carlos salute | Simon Burnton".the Guardian.8 February 2012.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^Felt, W. Mark.The FBI Pyramid: From the Inside.New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1979. (ISBN0-399-11904-3)
- ^Jones JH. "The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment" in Emanuel EJ et al.The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics.Oxford University Press. Oxford. 2008. pp. 86–96 at 94.
- ^Martin Khor."Gaza, under attack again, a stain on world's conscience"Archived3 July 2009 at theWayback Machine.Third World Network. Tuesday, 4 March 2008. Retrieved 18 October 2009.
- ^Stewart, Whitney (1997).Aung San Suu Kyi: fearless voice of Burma.Twenty-First Century Books.ISBN978-0-8225-4931-4.
- ^James Bone. "Sacked envoy Peter Galbraith accuses UN of 'cover-up' on Afghan vote fraud".The Times.1 October 2009.
- ^Neely Tucker."A Web of Truth. Whistle-Blower or Troublemaker, Bunny Greenhouse Isn't Backing Down".The Washington Post.Wednesday, 19 October 2005
- ^"On This Day 1950–2005, 22 July, 1987: Cartoonist shot in London street".BBC. 22 July 1987.
- ^Politkovskaya, Anna (2003)A Small Corner of Hell: Dispatches from Chechnya,translated by Alexander Burry and Tatiana Tulchinsky, The University of Chicago Press, 2003,ISBN0-226-67432-0
- ^Natalya Estemirova: "I'm sure that human rights defenders are murdered on authorities' blessing", Vyacheslav Feraposhkin, Caucasian Knot, Memorial, 15 July 2009
- ^Tait, Robert and Weaver, Matthew (22 June 2009)."How Neda Soltani became the face of Iran's struggle".The Guardian.Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^Scott MacLeod."Shirin Ebadi: For Islam and Humanity".Time.26 April 2004. Retrieved 28 November 2009
- ^Schiller, Bill (10 April 2010)."'Conscience of China' comes home ".The Star.Retrieved25 August2020.
- ^McKey, Robert (8 October 2010)Jailed Chinese Dissident's 'Final Statement',The New York Timesaccessed 8 November 2010
- ^Margarette Driscoll (14 November 2010). "Dying in agony: his reward for solving a $230 million fraud".The Sunday Times.http:// justiceforsergei /download.php?id=16(accessed 29 December 2012)
- ^David Leser. Children Overboard. Two Women, Two Stories.WW2007; August: pp. 76–82"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 21 May 2012.Retrieved26 July2011.
{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)(Retrieved 26 July 2011). - ^Synovitz, Ron (12 October 2012)."Malala Yousafzai, the Girl Shot by the Taliban, Becomes a Global Icon".The Atlantic.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^IANS (24 December 2012)."Government waging 'war' against people: Arvind Kejriwal".CNN-IBN.Archived fromthe originalon 31 December 2012.Retrieved24 December2012.
- ^"India's collective conscience is finally stirred".Arab News.1 January 2013.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^"Edward Snowden: the whistleblower behind the NSA surveillance revelations".the Guardian.11 June 2013.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^"Edward Snowden: I Acted To Protect 'Basic Liberties'".HuffPost.10 June 2013.Retrieved13 December2022.
- ^Vyasa (Kamala Subramaniam abr.).Mahabharata.Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay. 1989. pp. 430–32
- ^Vyasa (Kamala Subramaniam abr.).Mahabharata.Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay. 1989. p. 742.
- ^Michel de Montaigne.Essays.Cohen JM (trans.) Penguin Books. Ringwood. 1984. p. 397.
- ^Matsuo Bashō. (Yuasa N (trans.)Narrow Road to the Deep North.Penguin Books, Harmondsworth. 1966. p. 118.
- ^Geoffrey Chaucer.The Franklin's Prologue and Tale(Spearing AC intro.) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1997. p. 42.
- ^AC Bradley.Shakespearean Tragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth.Macmillan and Co. London. 1937. pp. 97–101
- ^AC Bradley.Shakespearean Tragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth.Macmillan and Co. London. 1937 p. 99.
- ^Manning Clark.A Discovery of Australia: 1976 Boyer Lectures.Australian Broadcasting Commission, Sydney. 1976. p. 37.
- ^Joan Bennett.Five Metaphysical Poets.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1971. p. 33.
- ^Stephen Grecco. "A physician healing himself: Chekhov's treatment of doctors in the major plays" in ER Peschel (ed).Medicine and Literature(1980) pp. 3–10.
- ^Anton Chekhov.Selected Stories(J Coulson, trans.) Oxford University Press. London. 1963 p. 249.
- ^Anton Chekhov.The Island: A Journey to Sakhalin(L and M Terpak trans) Century. London 1987 p. ix.
- ^EH Carr.Dostoevsky. 1821–1881.Unwin Books. London. 1962 pp. 147–52.
- ^Ralph Freedman.Hermann Hesse: Pilgrim of Crisis.Jonathan Cape, London 1978. pp. 233–37.
- ^Paul Kocher.Master of Middle Earth: The Achievement of JRR Tolkien.Thames and Hudson, London. 1973. p. 120.
- ^Conor Cruise O'Brien. Camus. Fontana/Collins. London 1970 p. 84.
- ^At Your Library 'To Kill a Mockingbirdhttp://atyourlibrary.org/culture/kill-mockingbird-world-needs-him-now-atticus-finch-continues-inspireaccessed 3 November 2012
- ^Robert Bolt.A Man For All Seasons: A Play of Sir Thomas More.Heinemann. London 1961 p. 92.
- ^Michael Shelden.Orwell: The Authorised Biography.Heinemann, London. 1991.ISBN0-434-69517-3pp. 469–73.
- ^George Orwell.Nineteen Eighty-Four.Penguin Books, Ringwood. 1974. pp. 214–15, 216
- ^Arnheim, Rudolf.The Genesis of a Painting: Picasso's Guernica.London: University of California Press. 1973.ISBN978-0-520-25007-9
- ^Albert Tucker.Man's Head.National Gallery of Australia. Accn No: NGA 82.384. Retrieved 23 July 2009.
- ^The Letters of Vincent van Gogh.Ronald de Leeuw selected and ed,Arnold Pomeranstrans. Penguin Books, London. 1997.ISBN0-14-044674-5.p. 54.
- ^Ingmar Bergman.The Seventh Seal.Touchstone. New York. 1960 p. 146
- ^Aljean Harmetz.Round Up the Usual Suspects: The Making of Casablanca.Weidenfeld and Nicolson. London. 1992.
- ^Robert Bolt.Doctor Zhivago(screenplay). Collins and Harvill Press. London. 1965 p. 217
- ^Joseph Francavilla "The Android asDoppelganger"in Judith B. Kerman (ed).Retrofitting Blade Runner: Issues in Ridley Scott's Blade Runner and Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?Bowling Green State University Popular Press. Bowling Green, Ohio. 1991 p. 4 at 6.
- ^J.S. Bach. Messe H-Moll/Mass in B minor BWV 232. Balthasar-Neumann-Choir. Freiburger Barockorchester.Thomas Hengelbrock.BMG Music. 1997.
- ^Christoph Wolff.Johann Sebastian Bach: The Learned Musician.Oxford University Press. Oxford. 2000. pp. 8, 339, 438–42.
- ^JWN Sullivan.Beethoven: His Spiritual Development.George Allen & Unwin, London. 1964 p. 120.
- ^Ludwig van Beethoven. The Late Quartets Vol II. String Quartet in A minor, Op. 132. Quartetto Italiano. Phillips Classics Productions 1996.
- ^Ben Urish and Kenneth G. Bielen.The Words and Music of John Lennon.Greenwood Publishing Group. 2007 pp. 99–100.
- ^George Harrison.I, Me, Mine.Chronicle Books. 2007.ISBN0-8118-3793-9p. 118.
- ^James Schofield Saeger.The Mission and Historical Missions: Film and the Writing of History.The Americas. 1995; 51(3):393–415.
- ^Al Weisel, "Deep Forest's Lush Lullaby",Rolling Stone,21 April 1994, 26
- ^Dream Academy. 'Forest Fire'. Lyrics"The Dream Academy - Forest Fire Lyrics".Archived fromthe originalon 27 March 2008.Retrieved6 December2012.(accessed 7 December 2012)
- ^Valk, Elizabeth P. (24 February 1992)."From the Publisher".Time.Retrieved 20 October 2009.
External links
[edit]
The dictionary definition ofconscienceat Wiktionary
Quotations related toConscienceat Wikiquote
| Normative | |
|---|---|
| Applied | |
| Meta | |
| Schools | |
| Concepts |
|
| Ethicists |
|
| Works |
|
| Related | |
