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Continental drift

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the development of the continental drift theory before 1958. For the contemporary theory, seePlate tectonics.
Not to be confused withContinental Drift (novel),Continental Drift (film),orContinental drip.

Continental driftis thetheory,originating in the early 20th century, that Earth'scontinentsmove or drift relative to each other over geologic time.[1]The theory of continental drift has since been validated and incorporated into the science ofplate tectonics,which studies the movement of the continents as they ride on plates of the Earth'slithosphere.[2]

The speculation that continents might have "drifted" was first put forward byAbraham Orteliusin 1596. A pioneer of the modern view of mobilism was the Austrian geologistOtto Ampferer.[3][4]The concept was independently and more fully developed byAlfred Wegenerin his 1915 publication, "The Origin of Continents and Oceans".[5]However, at that time his hypothesis was rejected by many for lack of any motive mechanism. In 1931, the English geologistArthur Holmesproposedmantle convectionfor that mechanism.

History

[edit]
Further information:Timeline of the development of tectonophysics (before 1954)

Early history

[edit]
See also:Early modern Netherlandish cartography and geography
Abraham OrteliusbyPeter Paul Rubens,1633

Abraham Ortelius(Ortelius 1596),[6]Theodor Christoph Lilienthal (1756),[7]Alexander von Humboldt(1801 and 1845),[7]Antonio Snider-Pellegrini(Snider-Pellegrini 1858), and others had noted earlier that the shapes ofcontinentson opposite sides of theAtlantic Ocean(most notably, Africa and South America) seem to fit together.[8]W. J. Kious described Ortelius' thoughts in this way:[9]

Abraham Ortelius in his work Thesaurus Geographicus... suggested that the Americas were "torn away from Europe and Africa... by earthquakes and floods" and went on to say: "The vestiges of the rupture reveal themselves if someone brings forward a map of the world and considers carefully the coasts of the three [continents]."

In 1889,Alfred Russel Wallaceremarked, "It was formerly a very general belief, even amongst geologists, that the great features of the earth's surface, no less than the smaller ones, were subject to continual mutations, and that during the course of known geological time the continents and great oceans had, again and again, changed places with each other."[10]He quotesCharles Lyellas saying, "Continents, therefore, although permanent for whole geological epochs, shift their positions entirely in the course of ages."[11]and claims that the first to throw doubt on this wasJames Dwight Danain 1849.

Antonio Snider-Pellegrini's Illustration of the closed and openedAtlantic Ocean(1858)[12]

In hisManual of Geology(1863), Dana wrote, "The continents and oceans had their general outline or form defined in earliest time. This has been proved with regard to North America from the position and distribution of the first beds of theLower Silurian,– those of thePotsdam epoch.The facts indicate that the continent of North America had its surface near tide-level, part above and part below it (p.196); and this will probably be proved to be the condition in Primordial time of the other continents also. And, if the outlines of the continents were marked out, it follows that the outlines of the oceans were no less so ".[13]Dana was enormously influential in America—hisManual of Mineralogyis still in print in revised form—and the theory became known as thePermanence theory.[14]

This appeared to be confirmed by the exploration of the deep sea beds conducted by theChallengerexpedition,1872–1876, which showed that contrary to expectation, land debris brought down by rivers to the ocean is deposited comparatively close to the shore on what is now known as thecontinental shelf.This suggested that the oceans were a permanent feature of the Earth's surface, rather than them having "changed places" with the continents.[10]

Eduard Suesshad proposed a supercontinentGondwanain 1885[15]and theTethys Oceanin 1893,[16]assuming aland-bridgebetween the present continents submerged in the form of ageosyncline,andJohn Perryhad written an 1895 paper proposing that the Earth's interior was fluid, and disagreeing withLord Kelvinon the age of the Earth.[17]

Wegener and his predecessors

[edit]
Alfred Wegener

Apart from the earlier speculations mentioned above, the idea that the American continents had once formed a single landmass with Eurasia and Africa was postulated by several scientists beforeAlfred Wegener's 1912 paper.[5]Although Wegener's theory was formed independently and was more complete than those of his predecessors, Wegener later credited a number of past authors with similar ideas:[18][19]Franklin Coxworthy (between 1848 and 1890),[20]Roberto Mantovani(between 1889 and 1909),William Henry Pickering(1907)[21]andFrank Bursley Taylor(1908).[22]

The similarity of southern continent geological formations had ledRoberto Mantovanito conjecture in 1889 and 1909 that all the continents had once been joined into asupercontinent;Wegener noted the similarity of Mantovani's and his own maps of the former positions of the southern continents. In Mantovani's conjecture, this continent broke due tovolcanicactivity caused bythermal expansion,and the new continents drifted away from each other because of further expansion of the rip-zones, where the oceans now lie. This led Mantovani to propose a now-discreditedExpanding Earth theory.[23][24][25]

Continental drift without expansion was proposed byFrank Bursley Taylor,[26]who suggested in 1908 (published in 1910) that the continents were moved into their present positions by a process of "continental creep",[27][28]later proposing a mechanism of increased tidal forces during theCretaceousdragging the crust towards the equator. He was the first to realize that one of the effects of continental motion would be the formation of mountains, attributing the formation of the Himalayas to the collision between theIndian subcontinentwith Asia.[29]Wegener said that of all those theories, Taylor's had the most similarities to his own. For a time in the mid-20th century, the theory of continental drift was referred to as the "Taylor-Wegener hypothesis".[26][29][30][31]

Alfred Wegener first presented his hypothesis to the German Geological Society on 6 January 1912.[5]He proposed that the continents had once formed a single landmass, calledPangaea,before breaking apart and drifting to their present locations.[32]

Wegener was the first to use the phrase "continental drift" (1912, 1915)[5][18](German: "die Verschiebung der Kontinente") and to publish the hypothesis that the continents had somehow" drifted "apart. Although he presented much evidence for continental drift, he was unable to provide a convincing explanation for the physical processes which might have caused this drift. He suggested that the continents had been pulled apart by thecentrifugal pseudoforce(Polflucht) of the Earth's rotation or by a small component of astronomicalprecession,but calculations showed that the force was not sufficient.[33]ThePolfluchthypothesis was also studied byPaul Sophus Epsteinin 1920 and found to be implausible.

Rejection of Wegener's theory, 1910s–1950s

[edit]

Although now accepted, and even with a minority of scientific proponents over the decades, the theory of continental drift was largely rejected for many years, with evidence in its favor considered insufficient. One problem was that a plausible driving force was missing.[1]A second problem was that Wegener's estimate of the speed of continental motion, 250 cm/year, was implausibly high.[34](The currently accepted rate for the separation of the Americas from Europe and Africa is about 2.5 cm/year).[35]Furthermore, Wegener was treated less seriously because he was not a geologist. Even today, the details of the forces propelling the plates are poorly understood.[1]

The English geologistArthur Holmeschampioned the theory of continental drift at a time when it was deeply unfashionable. He proposed in 1931 that the Earth's mantle contained convection cells which dissipated heat produced by radioactive decay and moved the crust at the surface.[36]HisPrinciples of Physical Geology,ending with a chapter on continental drift, was published in 1944.[37]

Geological maps of the time showed hugeland bridgesspanning the Atlantic and Indian oceans to account for the similarities of fauna and flora and the divisions of the Asian continent in the Permian period, but failing to account for glaciation in India, Australia and South Africa.[38]

The fixists

[edit]

Hans StilleandLeopold Koberopposed the idea of continental drift and worked on a "fixist"[39]geosynclinemodel withEarth contractionplaying a key role in the formation oforogens.[40][41]Other geologists who opposed continental drift wereBailey Willis,Charles Schuchert,Rollin Chamberlin, Walther Bucher andWalther Penck.[42][43]In 1939 an international geological conference was held inFrankfurt.[44]This conference came to be dominated by the fixists, especially as those geologists specializing in tectonics were all fixists except Willem van der Gracht.[44]Criticism of continental drift and mobilism was abundant at the conference not only from tectonicists but also from sedimentological (Nölke), paleontological (Nölke), mechanical (Lehmann) and oceanographic (Troll,Wüst) perspectives.[44][45]Hans Cloos,the organizer of the conference, was also a fixist[44]who together with Troll held the view that excepting thePacific Oceancontinents were not radically different from oceans in their behaviour.[45]The mobilist theory ofÉmile Argandfor theAlpine orogenywas criticized by Kurt Leuchs.[44]The few drifters and mobilists at the conference appealed tobiogeography(Kirsch, Wittmann),paleoclimatology(Wegener, K),paleontology(Gerth) andgeodeticmeasurements (Wegener, K).[46]F. Bernauer correctly equatedReykjanesin south-westIcelandwith theMid-Atlantic Ridge,arguing with this that the floor of the Atlantic Ocean was undergoingextensionjust like Reykjanes. Bernauer thought this extension had drifted the continents only 100–200 km apart, the approximate width of thevolcanic zone in Iceland.[47]

David Attenborough,who attended university in the second half of the 1940s, recounted an incident illustrating its lack of acceptance then: "I once asked one of my lecturers why he was not talking to us about continental drift and I was told, sneeringly, that if I could prove there was a force that could move continents, then he might think about it. The idea was moonshine, I was informed."[48]

As late as 1953—just five years beforeCarey[49]introduced the theory ofplate tectonics—the theory of continental drift was rejected by the physicist Scheidegger on the following grounds.[50]

  • First, it had been shown that floating masses on a rotatinggeoidwould collect at the equator, and stay there. This would explain one, but only one, mountain building episode between any pair of continents; it failed to account for earlierorogenicepisodes.
  • Second, masses floating freely in a fluid substratum, like icebergs in the ocean, should be inisostaticequilibrium (in which the forces of gravity and buoyancy are in balance). But gravitational measurements showed that many areas are not in isostatic equilibrium.
  • Third, there was the problem of why some parts of the Earth's surface (crust) should have solidified while other parts were still fluid. Various attempts to explain this foundered on other difficulties.

Road to acceptance

[edit]
Main article:Plate tectonics

From the 1930s to the late 1950s, works byVening-Meinesz,Holmes,Umbgrove,and numerous others outlined concepts that were close or nearly identical to modern plate tectonics theory. In particular, the English geologist Arthur Holmes proposed in 1920 that plate junctions might lie beneath thesea,and in 1928 that convection currents within the mantle might be the driving force.[51]Holmes' views were particularly influential: in his bestselling textbook,Principles of Physical Geology,he included a chapter on continental drift, proposing that Earth'smantlecontainedconvection cellswhich dissipatedradioactiveheat and moved the crust at the surface.[52][53]Holmes' proposal resolved the phase disequilibrium objection (the underlying fluid was kept from solidifying by radioactive heating from the core). However, scientific communication in the 1930s and 1940s was inhibited byWorld War II,and the theory still required work to avoid foundering on theorogenyandisostasyobjections. Worse, the most viable forms of the theory predicted the existence of convection cell boundaries reaching deep into the Earth, that had yet to be observed.[citation needed]

Fossil patterns across continents (Gondwanaland)

In 1947, a team of scientists led byMaurice Ewingconfirmed the existence of a rise in the central Atlantic Ocean, and found that the floor of the seabed beneath the sediments was chemically and physically different from continental crust.[54][55]As oceanographers continued tobathymeterthe ocean basins, a system of mid-oceanic ridges was detected. An important conclusion was that along this system, new ocean floor was being created, which led to the concept of the "Great Global Rift".[56]

Meanwhile, scientists began recognizing odd magnetic variations across the ocean floor using devices developed during World War II to detect submarines.[57]Over the next decade, it became increasingly clear that the magnetization patterns were not anomalies, as had been originally supposed. In a series of papers published between 1959 and 1963, Heezen, Dietz, Hess, Mason, Vine, Matthews, andMorleycollectively realized that the magnetization of the ocean floor formed extensive, zebra-like patterns: one stripe would exhibit normal polarity and the adjoining stripes reversed polarity.[58][59][60]The best explanation was the "conveyor belt" orVine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis.Newmagmafrom deep within the Earth rises easily through these weak zones and eventually erupts along the crest of the ridges to create new oceanic crust. The new crust is magnetized by the Earth's magnetic field, which undergoesoccasional reversals.Formation of new crust then displaces the magnetized crust apart, akin to a conveyor belt – hence the name.[61]

Without workable alternatives to explain the stripes, geophysicists were forced to conclude that Holmes had been right: ocean rifts were sites of perpetual orogeny at the boundaries of convection cells.[62][63]By 1967, barely two decades after discovery of the mid-oceanic rifts, and a decade after discovery of the striping, plate tectonics had become axiomatic to modern geophysics.

In addition,Marie Tharp,in collaboration withBruce Heezen,who was initially sceptical of Tharp's observations that her maps confirmed continental drift theory, provided essential corroboration, using her skills in cartography and seismographic data, to confirm the theory.[64][65][66][67][68]

Modern evidence

[edit]

GeophysicistJack Oliveris credited with providing seismologic evidence supporting plate tectonics which encompassed and superseded continental drift with the article "Seismology and the New Global Tectonics", published in 1968, using data collected from seismologic stations, including those he set up in the South Pacific.[69][70]The modern theory ofplate tectonics,refining Wegener, explains that there are two kinds of crust of different composition:continental crustandoceanic crust,both floating above a much deeper "plastic"mantle. Continental crust is inherently lighter. Oceanic crust is created atspreading centers,and this, along withsubduction,drives the system of plates in a chaotic manner, resulting in continuousorogenyand areas of isostatic imbalance.

Evidence for the movement of continents on tectonic plates is now extensive. Similar plant and animalfossilsare found around the shores of different continents, suggesting that they were once joined. The fossils ofMesosaurus,a freshwater reptile rather like a small crocodile, found both inBrazilandSouth Africa,are one example; another is the discovery of fossils of the landreptileLystrosaurusinrocksof the same age at locations inAfrica,India,andAntarctica.[71]There is also living evidence, with the same animals being found on two continents. Someearthwormfamilies (such as Ocnerodrilidae, Acanthodrilidae, Octochaetidae) are found in South America and Africa.

Mesosaurusskeleton, MacGregor, 1908

The complementary arrangement of the facing sides of South America and Africa is an obvious and temporary coincidence. In millions of years,slab pull,ridge-push,and other forces oftectonophysicswill further separate and rotate those two continents. It was that temporary feature that inspired Wegener to study what he defined as continental drift although he did not live to see his hypothesis generally accepted.

The widespread distribution ofPermo-Carboniferousglacial sediments in South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia was one of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift. The continuity of glaciers, inferred from orientedglacial striationsand deposits calledtillites,suggested the existence of the supercontinent ofGondwana,which became a central element of the concept of continental drift. Striations indicated glacial flow away from the equator and toward the poles, based on continents' current positions and orientations, and supported the idea that the southern continents had previously been in dramatically different locations that were contiguous with one another.[18]

See also

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Citations

[edit]
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  2. ^Oreskes 2002,p. 324.
  3. ^Kalliope Verbund:Ampferer, Otto (1875–1947) 
  4. ^Helmut W. Flügel:Die virtuelle Welt des Otto Ampferer und die Realität seiner Zeit.In: Geo. Alp., Vol. 1, 2004.
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  6. ^Romm, James (3 February 1994), "A New Forerunner for Continental Drift",Nature,367(6462): 407–408,Bibcode:1994Natur.367..407R,doi:10.1038/367407a0,S2CID4281585.
  7. ^abSchmeling, Harro (2004)."Geodynamik"(PDF)(in German). University of Frankfurt.
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  10. ^abWallace, Alfred Russel (1889),"12",Darwinism…,Macmillan, p. 341
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  12. ^Antonio Snider-Pellegrini,La Création et ses mystères dévoilés(Creation and its mysteries revealed) (Paris, France: Frank et Dentu, 1858),plates 9 and 10Archived5 February 2017 at theWayback Machine(between pages 314 and 315).
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  14. ^Oreskes 2002
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  64. ^Barton, Cathy (2002). "Marie Tharp, oceanographic cartographer, and her contributions to the revolution in the Earth sciences".Geological Society, London, Special Publications.192(1): 215–228.Bibcode:2002GSLSP.192..215B.doi:10.1144/gsl.sp.2002.192.01.11.S2CID131340403.
  65. ^Blakemore, Erin (30 August 2016). "Seeing Is Believing: How Marie Tharp Changed Geology Forever". Smithsonian.
  66. ^Evans, R. (November 2002). "Plumbing Depths to Reach New Heights". Retrieved 2 June 2008.
  67. ^Doel, R.E.; Levin, T.J.; Marker, M.K. (2006). "Extending modern cartography to the ocean depths: military patronage, Cold War priorities, and the Heezen-Tharp mapping project, 1952–1959".Journal of Historical Geography.32(3): 605–626.doi:10.1016/j.jhg.2005.10.011.
  68. ^Wills, Matthew (8 October 2016). "The Mother of Ocean Floor Cartography". JSTOR. Retrieved 14 October 2016. While working with the North Atlantic data, she noted what must have been a rift between high undersea mountains. This suggested earthquake activity, which then [was] only associated with [the] fringe theory of continental drift. Heezen infamously dismissed his assistant's idea as "girl talk." But she was right, and her thinking helped to vindicate Alfred Wegener's 1912 theory of moving continents. Yet Tharp's name isn't on any of the key papers that Heezen and others published about plate tectonics between 1959 and 1963, which brought this once-controversial idea to the mainstream of earth sciences.
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  70. ^Isacks, Bryan; Oliver, Jack; Sykes, Lynn R. (15 September 1968). "Seismology and the New Global Tectonics".Journal of Geophysical Research.73(18): 5855–5899.Bibcode:1968JGR....73.5855I.doi:10.1029/JB073i018p05855.
  71. ^"Rejoined continents [This Dynamic Earth, USGS]".USGS.Archivedfrom the original on 25 August 2010.Retrieved22 July2010.

General and cited sources

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Library resourcesabout
Continental drift
The WikibookHistorical Geologyhas a page on the topic of:Continental drift
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Continental_drift&oldid=1246724871"