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Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum

Coordinates:40°47′5″N73°57′29″W/ 40.78472°N 73.95806°W/40.78472; -73.95806
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Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum
Garden and entrance to Cooper Hewitt
Map
Interactive fullscreen map
Established1897
LocationAndrew Carnegie Mansion
Manhattan,New York, United States
Coordinates40°47′5″N73°57′29″W/ 40.78472°N 73.95806°W/40.78472; -73.95806
Public transit accessBus:M1,M2,M3,M4,M86,M96,M106
Subway:"4" train​"5" train​"6" train"6" express traintrains at86th Street,"6" train"6" express train​ trains at96th Street
Websitecooperhewitt.org

Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museumis adesign museumat theAndrew Carnegie MansioninManhattan,New York City, along theUpper East Side'sMuseum Mile.It is one of 19Smithsonian Institutionmuseums and one of three Smithsonian facilities located in New York City, along with theNational Museum of the American Indian'sGeorge Gustav Heye CenterinBowling Greenand theArchives of American ArtNew York Research Center in theFlatiron District.Unlike other Smithsonian museums, Cooper Hewitt charges an admissions fee.[1]It is the only museum in the United States devoted to historical and contemporary design. Its collections and exhibitions explore design aesthetic and creativity from throughout the United States' history.[2]

History[edit]

Early history[edit]

In 1895, several granddaughters of the politician and businessmanPeter Cooper—Sarah Cooper Hewitt, Eleanor Garnier Hewitt and Amy Hewitt Green—asked theCooper Unioncollege in New York City for space to create a Museum for the Arts of Decoration. The museum would take its inspiration from theMusée des Arts Décoratifs,Paris and would serve as a place for Cooper Union students and professional designers to studydecorative artscollections.[2]Cooper Union's trustees provided the fourth floor of the Foundation Building.[3]It opened in 1897 as the "Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration".[4][5]The museum was free and open to the public three days a week.[2][6]The Hewitt sisters donated some of the objects that they owned to the museum.[7]

Early in the museum's history, the Cooper Union Museum received three textile collections fromJ. P. Morganand drawings byGiovanni Baglione.[8]The three sisters served as directors of the Museum until Sarah Cooper Hewitt died in 1930. After her death, four directors were appointed to run the museum. Constance P. Hare served as chair. In 1938,Edwin S. Burdellbecame the director of the Cooper Union. The museum became his responsibility. The board of directors was abolished and an advisory council was established.[2]Through the mid-20th century, the museum's collection came to include furniture, wallpapers, leatherwork, millinery, ceramics, jewelry, textiles, and media such as drawings and prints.[7][9]The museum had begun to decline by the 1950s and 1960s, in part because it was in a hard-to-find location, and Cooper Union students preferred modern art over the museum's dated collections.[8]

Threats of closure[edit]

By the 1960s, the museum and college started to distance themselves from one another in regards to programming. Other departments of the Cooper Union were making financial demands.[2]The Cooper Union announced in June 1963 that it was considering shuttering the museum completely,[10]and the museum closed on July 3, 1963.[11][12]In explaining the closure, the college said that the museum was far from other visitor attractions, the museum space was too small, and it was seeing declining use.[9]Cooper Union officials also said their endowment could not fund the museum's continued operations. This prompted concerns that the museum's collection could be dispersed.[13]A Committee to Save the Cooper Union Museum, formed byHenry Francis Du Pont,threatened to sue to prevent the museum from closing.[14]The committee requested that the Cooper Union's trustees split the museum off from the college's main operations.[15]Another organization, the Greenwich Village Committee, was also formed in July 1963 to try to prevent the proposed relocation of the museum's collections.[16]

The museum reopened September 16, 1963, with its future still uncertain.[17]That November, the Cooper Union accepted theAmerican Association of Museums' offer to conduct a study on the future of the museum.[18]TheMetropolitan Museum of Art,which waslocated nearby,offered to take over all of the museum's holdings.[3]By 1965, theSmithsonian Institutionhad begun negotiating to take over the museum from the Cooper Union.[19]At the time, the institution was rapidly expanding the number of artworks and artifacts in its other museums.[20]

Smithsonian operation[edit]

1960s and 1970s[edit]

On October 9, 1967, Smithsonian SecretaryS. Dillon Ripleyand Daniel Maggin, the chair of theboard of trustees,signed an agreement turning over the collection and library of the museum to the Smithsonian.[2][13]As part of the agreement, the museum was to stay in New York City permanently and would remain in the Cooper Union's Foundation Building for three years.[13]Even before it had finalized its acquisition, the Smithsonian was negotiating to lease theAndrew Carnegie Mansionon Manhattan'sUpper East Sideas the collection's new home.[21]The mansion was five times as large as the museum's Cooper Union space.[22]TheNew York Supreme Courtapproved the agreement on May 14, 1968.[2]The museum was officially transferred to the Smithsonian on July 1, becoming theCooper-Hewitt Museum of Design,andRichard T. Wunderwas named as the director.[23]Wunder planned to obtain objects from around the world.[24]Despite being part of the Smithsonian Institution, the Cooper Hewitt still did not have enough cash to sustain its own operations.[25]

In 1969, it was renamed again to theCooper-Hewitt Museum of Decorative Arts and Design.[2]Ripley leased the Carnegie Mansion from theCarnegie Corporation of New Yorkin September 1969.[26][27]Lisa Taylorbecame the Cooper-Hewitt's director that October,[28]the first woman to serve in that position.[29]The museum, which was the first Smithsonian museum outside of Washington, D.C., moved to its home at the Carnegie Mansion in 1970.[2]The museum obtained the mansion outright in 1972.[30]During the early 1970s, the museum was temporarily closed while it relocated from the Foundation Building to the Carnegie Mansion. During this time, it hosted exhibits at venues such as theSeventh Regiment Armory.[31]By the middle of the decade, the collection had grown to 250 pieces of furniture, 500 glass objects, 1,500 ceramic objects, 6,000 wallpaper samples, 18,000 textile samples, and 30,000 drawings.[25]The museum had 35 paid staff and 72 volunteers by 1976, and it received $258,000 annually in federal funding.[32]In addition, the museum planned to raise money through events, donations, and membership fees.[25]

Asoft openingfor the museum took place in May 1976.[8]The museum opened to the public on October 7, 1976,[a][34][35]with the exhibition "MAN transFORMs".[33][36]Other museums around the city hosted exhibitions to celebrate the Cooper-Hewitt's opening.[37]Taylor and renovation architectHugh Hardyplanned to convert the mansion's basements into exhibit space,[38]and they also planned a new auditorium, galleries, classrooms, and screening rooms.[32][39]Aconservation laboratorywas opened in July 1978. TheSamuel H. Kress Foundationfunded the lab and it focuses on textile and paper conservation.[40]At the time of the Cooper-Hewitt's reopening, it was the only museum in the U.S. that was dedicated exclusively to design.[41][42]

1980s and 1990s[edit]

The Cooper-Hewitt launched amaster's degreeprogram in conjunction with theParsons School of Designin 1982.[42][43]Under Taylor's leadership, the museum also began offering additional educational programs both for adults and for children.[42]In the eight years after the Cooper-Hewitt reopened, it hosted over 100 temporary exhibitions.[29]Lisa Taylor announced her retirement in 1987,[44][45]and the Cooper-Hewitt celebrated the tenth anniversary of its occupancy of the Carnegie Mansion shortly thereafter.[46][47]At the time, in contrast to most Smithsonian museums, the Cooper-Hewitt relied on the Smithsonian for only one-third of its annual budget.[47]Dianne H. Pilgrimbecame the director in 1988,[48]and the museum was again renamed toCooper-Hewitt, National Design Museumthat year.[2]According to Pilgrim, the name change was intended to reflect the Cooper-Hewitt's purpose as a "design museum" that focused on the process of design, rather than a "museum of design" that focused on objects.[49]

The Smithsonian bought the McAlpin-Minot House at 11 East 90th Street in 1989 for $3.6 million,[50]and it connected that house to the Carnegie Mansion and 9 East 90th Street.[51]An archive of African American designs was created at the museum in 1991.[52]Pilgrim hiredJames Stewart Polshek Partnersto devise plans for a further renovation of the Cooper-Hewitt buildings.[50][49]The project was initially planned to cost $10 million,[53]but Smithsonian secretaryMichael Heymanplaced the plans on hold in late 1994 due to cost overruns.[50][49]The budget ultimately increased to $20 million;[54]this consisted of a $13 million allocation from the Smithsonian and $7 million from private sources.[55][56]The museum's logo was changed in late 1994 to emphasize the word "design".[57]

Pilgrim announced in May 1995 that the exhibition galleries in the Carnegie Mansion would close for renovation,[58][59]and the renovation commenced that August.[60]The Carnegie Mansion's first-floor exhibit space reopened in September 1996,[61][62]Work on the passageway and design resources center continued through 1997,[61]and the renovation was not completed until 1998.[54][63]

2000s[edit]

Pilgrim retired from the museum in 2000,[64]andPaul W. Thompsonwas named as the new director later that year.[65][66]At the time of Thompson's appointment, theNew York Timesdescribed the Carnegie Mansion as "an almost impossible venue for staging exhibitions on modern design" because the mansion was so much smaller than other museum buildings.[65]Upon becoming the museum's director, Thompson sought to display modern design pieces at the Cooper-Hewitt.[67]Thompson expanded the museum's board of trustees from 18 to 23 members, and the amount each trustee was expected to donate was increased from $10,000 to $25,000. He also planned to increase visitor numbers by one-third, to 200,000.[68]Following theSeptember 11 attacks,the Smithsonian ordered the Cooper-Hewitt to downsize, and Thompson eliminated four senior staff positions in June 2002, a move that prompted complaints from employees.[69]In addition, over a dozen senior staff members resigned during 2001 and 2002,[68]citing dissatisfaction with thework culture.[69]Museum staff toldThe New York Timesthat passersby often did not know of the museum's existence or assumed it was affiliated with theSpence Schoolon the same city block.[68]

Thompson originally did not want to expand the museum, but he changed his mind after the museum experienced staffing, budgetary, and exhibit shortages.[70]The museum announced plans in mid-2003 to rearrange galleries,[71]and several members of the museum's board indicated the same year that they would host a master plan competition, in advance of an expansion.[70][72]News media reported in February 2005 that the Cooper-Hewitt was considering a $75 million proposal byBeyer Blinder Belleto expand the museum buildings.[71][73]The basement levels would also have contained a restaurant, conservation rooms, and exhibit-preparation areas.[71]Beyer Blinder Belle proposed a revised plan in 2006, which was to cost $25 million.[74]That year, the museum launched acapital campaignto raise funds for the renovation and the museum'sendowment;[75]it had raised $21.5 million by April 2007.[76]

The Cooper-Hewitt hiredGluckman Mayner Architectsto design the renovation,[76][77]along with Beyer Blinder Belle as preservation consultants.[78]By October 2008, the cost of the project had increased to $64 million.[79]The Smithsonian began renovating the two townhouses on 90th Street in 2008,[80]with plans to relocate the museum's offices from the mansion to the townhouses.[81]In July 2009, Thompson left the museum to become the rector of theRoyal College of Art.[82]

2010s to present[edit]

Bill Moggridge,a co-founder ofIDEOand designer of the firstlaptopcomputer, served as Cooper-Hewitt's director in January 2011.[82][81]The Carnegie Mansion was closed to the public in July 2011, during which the museum held exhibitions at theheadquarters of the United Nations[83]and onGovernors Island.[84]The museum opened a new online retail shop in 2012.[85]That year, the Cooper-Hewitt created an additional space inHarlemas an education facility. DesignerTodd Oldhamdonated design services for the space.[86][87]After Moggridge's death in 2012,[88]Caroline Baumannwas named as the museum's director in June 2013.[89][90]

In June 2014, the museum's name was changed again toCooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum.[91][92]A new graphic identity,wordmark,and new website were launched on this day. The identity was designed by Eddie Opara of Pentagram.[93]The website was developed by Matcha Labs.[93]On December 12, 2014, the Cooper Hewitt reopened to the public.[94][95]Renovations included an "Immersion Room", an interactive space that provides visitors digital access to the museums collection of wallpaper. The main exhibition space was expanded and the museum had a customopen-sourcefont,which remains available for free download and modification, designed for its reopening. In 2015, the terrace and garden renovations were completed and opened to the public, with design led byWalter Hood.[96]In 2016 the museum introduced the use of digital pens for visitors.[97]

The Cooper Hewitt hired conservatorCass Fino-Radinin 2016 to review the museum's digital collection, a process which took two years.[98]Baumann resigned as director in February 2020, following an investigation by the Smithsonian's inspector general concerning her wedding[99][100]to John Stewart Malcolmson in 2018.[101]In response, several of the museum's board member threatened to resign, claiming Baumann had been improperly forced out.[102]In February 2022,Maria Nicanorwas appointed as the museum's director.[103][104]

Collection[edit]

A chair used byAbraham Lincolnwhen he visited theCooper Unionin 1860. This is before it was reupholstered in 1949.

The Cooper Hewitt collections consist of decorative and design objects. The museum's original collection focused on architecture, sculpture, painted architecture, decorative arts,woodwork,metalwork,pottery,costume,musical instrumentsand furniture.[6]The museum has more than 200,000 objects in its collection as of 2024,[105]although estimates range as high as 250,000.[106][107]These range frommatchbookstoshopping bags,porcelainfrom theSoviet Union,and the papers of graphic designerTibor Kalman.[65]The museum had a metalwork gallery, which showcased historic irongrillworkand a room devoted toironwork,both of which no longer are focus rooms.[108][109]

Visual art collection[edit]

The museum holds the world's largest collection of works on paper byHudson River SchoolpainterFrederic Edwin Church.[110]By 1976, the museum's collection included 200Tiepolopaintings, 2,000 F. E. Church sketches, and a large number ofWinslow Homerdrawings.[32]In 2002, a rare 16th-century drawing fromMichelangelo(for which the Cooper Union Museum had paid $60 in 1962) was discovered in the Cooper-Hewitt's collection.[111]

Furniture collection[edit]

The Cooper Hewitt also has a large furniture collection.[112]Some of the objects include a chair used byAbraham Lincolnduring a visit to the Cooper Union,[113]a cardboardeasy chairdesigned byFrank Gehry,[114]as well as "twig and root" furniture.[115]Museum namesakePeter Coopercreated the first steel chair in the United States, one of which resides in the museum collection.[116]

Other objects[edit]

Upon its opening,Abram S. Hewitt's wife, Sarah Amelia Hewitt donated alacecollection, George Hearn donated twofountainsworth $1,000, andLloyd Bryce's wife donated art and objects from thePalace of Fontainebleau.[6]When the museum acquired the Carnegie Mansion in 1972, it also received some interior decorations from theWidener family's townhouse at 5 East 70th Street (now the site of an annex to theHenry Clay Frick House).[117]By the time the modern museum opened in 1976, it was recorded as having lantern brackets, windowgrilles,a balcony, 4,000 metal artifacts, and 30,000 international symbols donated byHenry Dreyfussand his wife Doris.[8]It also had other objects such as 2,000 buttons, 4,280match cases,lock-and-key sets, pots, skyscraper drawings, and many pieces ofArt DecoandArt Nouveaudesign.[118]

The museum has held notable objects in its collection such asJohn Lennon's psychedelic Rolls-Royce.[119]The car was donated by Lennon andYoko Onoin 1978 and was auctioned off atSotheby'sin mid-1985 for $2.09 million.[119][120]A punch bowl replicated byEleanor Roosevelt,a scarlet ValentineOlivetti typewriter,and anAdrian Saxevase were also part of the collection.[115]

Exhibitions[edit]

The 1967 exhibitionTreasures from the Cooper Union

Exhibitions at the Cooper Hewitt explore the history and culture of design and decorative arts. Shows have historically focused on singular topics.[41]The first themed shows were organized by Cooper Union Museum directorCalvin S. Hathawayin 1933; beforehand, the objects in the museum's collections were primarily used for academic purposes.[118]

Before the 1970s[edit]

The museum hosted two special exhibitions at the1964 New York World's Fair.[121]A 1968 exhibition called "Please Be Seated", focused on contemporary chairs.[122]

1970s to 1990s[edit]

Blue poster with psychedelic paint job on Rolls-Royce Phantom V automobile.
Poster, Ornament in the 20th Century; Manufactured by Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum: Archives; 1980-32-1114

During the 1970s, the museum hosted exhibits on subjects such asresortand motel architecture;[123]objects from theBrighton Pavilion;[124]architectural drawings;[125]John Lennon's Rolls-Royce;[126]Alvar Aalto's architectural works,[127]and hundreds of objects on loan from various other Smithsonian museums.[128]The museum's exhibits in the early 1980s concerned such themes as the history and culture of theocean liner,[129]puppets,[130]hair styles,[131]copy machineart,[132]plants,[133]British art,[134]Scandinavian design,[135]and teapots.[136]In 1983, the Cooper-Hewitt was the first museum in the United States to exhibit theAmsterdam School.[137]Topics of the museum's exhibits in the second half of the 1980s included wine-related objects,[138]a showcase of art related to Berlin,[139]a tribute to art dealerSiegfried Bing,[140]and subway posters.[141]

When the Cooper-Hewitt showcased its own collections in 1992, it was the longest-running show in the museum's history at the time, lasting 17 months.[106]

Traveling exhibitions[edit]

The museum also tours exhibits through the Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service. The first exhibit they toured was 1978's "Close Observation: Selected Oil Sketches byFrederic E. Church".[142]In 1993, the Cooper-Hewitt created the exhibition "The Power of Maps", which was its first exhibition to be shown on theNational Mallat theS. Dillon Ripley Gallery.The exhibit featured upwards of 200 maps from around the world.[143]William IIIandMary II of Englandwere the focus of a 1988 exhibition.[144]An exhibition featuring 16th- and 17th-century decorative arts fromBurghley House.[145]

2000s to present[edit]

The jewelry ofVan Cleef & Arpelswas the focus of an exhibition in 2011.[146]That year, artistSonia Delaunayhad a solo show at the museum.[147]The Cooper-Hewitt worked with theWalker Art Center,in 2012, to develop "Graphic Design – Now In Production", which showcasesgraphic designthat has been created since 2000.[84]An additional exhibition was held in 2012, in light of the museum's closing due to renovations, at theUnited Nations Headquarterscalled "Design With the Other 90% Cities", about design and global issues.[148]

Other exhibitions at the museum have includedPuiforcatsilver, wallpaper, the works ofAlexander Girard,anduniversal design.[65][149][150]In 2015, the museum hostedThe Algorithm Auction,the world's first auction ofcomputer algorithms.[151]

In Cooper Hewitt's Face Values installation for the LONDON DESIGN BIENNALE 2018, a live facial data became the basis of dynamic graphic images and provocative conversations between humans and machines. The exhibition explored alternative uses of technologies that were typically used for security, surveillance, and behavioural profiling. Curated by Ellen Lupton, the installation was awarded with the LONDON DESIGN BIENNALE EMOTIONAL STATED MEDAL WINNER 2018.[152]

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Cooper Hewitt launched a digital exhibition platform.[153]Designed byLinked by Air,the platform allows users to explore objects one by one in thematic sequences, much they would wander around the physical galleries of an exhibition.[154]

Programs[edit]

Outreach[edit]

The museum's National Design Education Center is sponsored byTarget.Ongoing programs for preschoolers on up are offered, along with summer camps, professional development, educator resources, and even a master's program.[155][156]In 2012, the Cooper Hewitt started work on its Harlem location, designed byTodd Oldhamand sponsored by Target, which provided free workshops and programming.[86]

Initiatives[edit]

The Cooper Hewitt is home to theNational Design Awards.They also support a master's degree program offered in conjunction withParsons School of Design.[2]In 2006, the Cooper Hewitt and MayorMichael Bloombergdeclared October 15–21 National Design Week in New York City. The week focuses on outreach throughout the city, including schools, and organizations across the United States. The museum is free for the week.[156]The museum sponsored abike rackcompetition in 2008. The winners of the contest were a part of an exhibition at the museum.[157]

In the early 2000s, the Cooper-Hewitt's website displayed only 500 of the 250,000 items in the museum's collection. The website was overhauled in 2006, following a $2 million gift from some of the museum's board members; the updated website provided educational programs and photographs of other objects in the museum's collection.[158]In 2013, the Cooper Hewitt took over the code of Planetary, aniOS appthat createsgraphic visualizationsof songs, and released thesource codeto the public. Media sources reported at the time that it was the museum's first-ever acquisition of software for exhibition purposes.[159]After iOS App Store updates rendered the source code obsolete, an Australian developer released a patched version of the app in 2020.[98]

Building[edit]

Main article:Andrew Carnegie Mansion
The Carnegie Mansion in 1976

The Cooper Hewitt is located in theAndrew Carnegie Mansionand two adjacent townhouses at 9 and11 East 90th Street.[160]The 64-roomGeorgianmansion was completed in 1902 as the home forAndrew Carnegie,his wifeLouise,and their daughterMargaret Carnegie Miller.[2]The property has a large private garden.[161]The museum acquired the mansion and the house at 9 East 90th Street in 1972,[30]followed by 11 East 90th Street in 1989.[160]When the museum first obtained the house, the first and second floors were used as exhibit space, while the third floor contained the museum's library.[162]

The museum closed for a $20 million renovation in 1995,[149]reopening the next year.[163]Another renovation was completed in 2014;[94][95]that renovation cost $91 million[95]and was the largest in the museum's history, partially financed by the museumendowment.[82]To celebrate the reopening of the museum in 2015, the Cooper Hewitt released a downloadable 3D scan of the building.[164]

Library and study rooms[edit]

The museum's library was originally known as the Doris and Henry Dreyfuss Study Center.[162][165]The library was described in the 1980s as comprising 45,000 volumes (including 4,000 rare copies), over 1.5 million pictures, and various design journals and magazines. Its holdings covered such disparate subjects as interior, industrial, and graphic design; furniture; and theater.[165]The Cooper Hewitt also includes the Drue Heinz Study Center for Drawings and Prints and the Henry Luce Study Room for American Art,[166][167]which were added to the museum in the 1990s.[168]

Attendance[edit]

The Cooper Hewitt is the only Smithsonian museum to charge an admission fee to visitors. The museum receives approximately $500,000 a year in revenue from admissions.[169]

The museum recorded about 12,000 monthly visitors, or 144,000 annual visitors, by 2002.[69]As of 2023,the museum sees approximately 150,000 visitors a year.[170]

Reception and commentary[edit]

When the Cooper-Hewitt moved into the Carnegie Mansion, aNewsdaycritic called the first exhibition "an unprecedented opportunity to see a museum as a mind-expanding playground".[34]The Washington Postwrote that it was "the foremost American museum of antique and contemporary design".[32]Both thePostandThe Boston Globewrote that the Cooper-Hewitt was similar in scale only to theMusée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris,and theVictoria and Albert Museum,London.[32][118]

A critic forCondé Nast Travelerwrote that the "Cooper Hewitt is worth a visit both for the collection and also for the building itself".[105]

Publications[edit]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^The Cooper-Hewitt website gives date of opening as October 6, 1976.[33]Torch,October 1976, gives date as October 7, 1976, which is corroborated by other media sources from that time.[34][35]

References[edit]

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  167. ^Compton, J. (2014).Arts America: Enjoying the Best Art Museums, Theater, Classical Music, Opera, Jazz, Dance, Film, and Summer Festivals in America.Huntington Press. p. 36.ISBN978-1-935396-04-8.RetrievedFebruary 16,2024.
  168. ^"Timeline: Interlocking Histories".Cooper Hewitt Smithsonian Design Museum.April 25, 2017.Archivedfrom the original on January 27, 2024.RetrievedJanuary 27,2024.
  169. ^"Going Free? Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum and General Admission Fees"(PDF).Smithsonian Institution, Office of Policy and Analysis, 2007.Smithsonian Institution.Archived(PDF)from the original on October 18, 2013.RetrievedMay 27,2014.
  170. ^"Visitor Stats".Smithsonian Institution.March 14, 2020.Archivedfrom the original on June 23, 2018.RetrievedJanuary 28,2024.

Further reading[edit]

  • Dolkart, Andrew.Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum: The Andrew and Louise Carnegie Mansion: Art Spaces.New York: Scala Publishers (2002).ISBN1857592689
  • Ewing, Heather. (2014).Life of a Mansion: The Story of Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum.Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum, New York.ISBN978-0-910503-71-6

External links[edit]

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