Covenant Code
TheCovenant Code,orBook of the Covenant,is the name given by academics to a text appearing in theTorah,atExodus20:22–23:19;or, more strictly, the termCovenant Codemay be applied to Exodus 21:1–22:16.[1]Biblically, the text is the second of the law codes said to have been given toMosesbyGodatMount Sinai.This legal text provides a small but substantive proportion of themitzvot(religious duties) within the Torah, and hence is a source ofJewish Law.
Academic context
[edit]The date that the Covenant Code was composed, and the details of how it found its way into the Bible, continue to be debated. Most proponents of thedocumentary hypothesisassociate it with either theElohist( "E" ) materials, or, less commonly, theYahwist( "J" ) materials.[2](These are two of the four sources of the classic documentary hypothesis, the other two being the Deuteronomic ( "D" ) material and Priestly ( "P" ) material.) According to Joel Baden, "The Covenant Code is a part of E; the priestly laws [of Leviticus and Numbers] are part of P; and the deuteronomic laws [of Deuteronomy 12–26] stand at the center of D."[3]Regardless of precise positions on the process, scholars agree that the Covenant Code was produced by a long process in which it changed over time.[4]
A study of continuing importance is that ofAlbrecht Alt,who in 1934 published an analysis of the Covenant Code which hinges on the distinction between casuistic and apodictic law.[5]The Covenant Code consists largely of case or casuistic law (often in the form of an "if-then" statement, in which specific situations are addressed),[6]as for example Exodus 21:33–36. Apodictic laws (characterized by absolute or general commands or prohibitions, as in the Ten Commandments)[6]on the other hand, also appear in the Covenant Code, for example in Exodus 21:17 ( "Whoever curses father or mother shall be put to death" ).[7]Alt claimed, though some scholars disagree, that the apodictic laws were a feature only found in Israelite codes.[5]Scholars do, however, agree that the contrast between the apodictic and casuistic forms is a clue to how multiple sources of law were edited together into the Covenant Code,[5]although there remain disagreements over the precise details.[8]
The form and content of the code is similar to many other codes from the Near East of the secondmillenniumBC.[9]It also resembles theBabylonianCode of Hammurabi.According to many scholars includingMartin NothandAlbrecht Alt,the covenant code probably originated as a civil code with theCanaanites,and was altered to add Hebrew religious practices.Michael Coogansees a noticeable difference between the Covenant Code and the non-biblical codes like the Code of Hammurabi. The Covenant Code, like other biblical codes, differs from these by including among the laws dealing with criminal and civil matters various regulations concerning worship. Both, however, set the laws in an explicitly religious context.[7]
Relationship to the Ritual Decalogue
[edit]Some of the commandments in the Covenant Code overlap noticeably with the commandments in theRitual Decalogue.[10]Robert Pfeiffer suggested that the Covenant Code is an expansion of the Ritual Decalogue.[11]Carol Meyers holds that the direction of influence is in the opposite direction: that Exodus 34 borrows material from within the Covenant Code.[12]
Evident values
[edit]The Covenant Code portrays the values of the society in which it was produced, some of which are different from Western twentieth-century values.
With the ancient cultural view of women as property of men, the casuistic law regarding the seduced virgin inExodus 22:16–17portrays a woman who, as the property of her father, has had her value diminished by the loss of her virginity. However, this law still calls for restitution to be paid by the man who seduced her. A second example comes fromExodus 21:20–21,which describes the punishment required for a slave owner who strikes his slave with a rod. If the slave survives their injuries no punishment is required because they do not have the same rights as Israelite males.[7]
In some instances, the values represented in the Covenant Code are more similar to present-day, Western values. Two examples include the placing of mothers on the same level as fathers inExodus 21:15, 17,and providing for special care of members of lesser social classes, including converts, widows and orphans (Exodus 22:21–22).[7]
References
[edit]- ^Raymond Westbrook, "What is the Covenant Code?" inTheory and Method in Biblical and Cuneiform Law: Revision, Interpolation and Development,ed. B.M. Levinson (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994), 15–36
- ^John Van Seters (24 September 2015).The Pentateuch: A Social-Science Commentary.Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 68–69.ISBN978-0-567-65880-7.
- ^Joel S. Baden (24 April 2012).The Composition of the Pentateuch: Renewing the Documentary Hypothesis.Yale University Press. pp. 26–27.ISBN978-0-300-15263-0.
- ^Raymond Westbrook, "What is the Covenant Code?" inTheory and Method in Biblical and Cuneiform Law: Revision, Interpolation and Development,ed. B.M. Levinson (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994), 15.
- ^abcRaymond Westbrook, "What is the Covenant Code?" inTheory and Method in Biblical and Cuneiform Law: Revision, Interpolation and Development,ed. B.M. Levinson (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994), 16.
- ^abCoogan, Michael D.,A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament,Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 424
- ^abcdCoogan, pp. 109–110
- ^Raymond Westbrook, "What is the Covenant Code?" inTheory and Method in Biblical and Cuneiform Law: Revision, Interpolation and Development,ed. B.M. Levinson (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994), 17–18.
- ^Schniedewind, William M. (24 September 2019).The Finger of the Scribe: How Scribes Learned to Write the Bible.Oxford University Press. pp. 153–156.ISBN978-0-19-005248-5.
- ^Michael Coogan (28 April 2014).The Ten Commandments: A Short History of an Ancient Text.Yale University Press. pp. 44–45.ISBN978-0-300-20700-2.
- ^John Van Seters (2003).A Law Book for the Diaspora: Revision in the Study of the Covenant Code.Oxford University Press. p. 9.ISBN978-0-19-515315-6.
- ^Meyers, Carol(2005).Exodus.Cambridge University Press. p. 258.ISBN9780521002912.