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Dacia

Coordinates:45°42′N26°30′E/ 45.7°N 26.5°E/45.7; 26.5
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This article is about a historic region in Southeastern Europe. For the Romanian automobile maker, seeAutomobile Dacia.For other uses, seeDacia (disambiguation).
Dacian Kingdom
c. 82 BC–106 AD
Dacian draco
Dacia’s expansions and largest extent under Burebista c. 45 BC
Dacia’s expansions and largest extent under Burebistac. 45BC
CapitalSarmizegetusa
Common languagesDacian
Religion
Thracian polytheism,Zamolxism
Demonym(s)Dacian
GovernmentMonarchy
King
• 82–44 BC
Burebista(first)
• 87–106 AD
Decebal(last)
Historical eraClassical antiquity
• Established
c. 82 BC
84–88 AD
101–106 AD
• Disestablished
106 AD
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Dacians
Getae
Thracians
Roman Dacia
Free Dacians
This article is part ofa serieson
Dacia
Geography
Culture
History
Roman Dacia
Legacy

Dacia(/ˈdeɪʃə/,DAY-shə;Latin:[ˈd̪aː.ki.a]) was the land inhabited by theDacians,its core inTransylvania,stretching to theDanubein the south, theBlack Seain the east, and theTiszain the west. TheCarpathian Mountainswere located in the middle of Dacia. It thus roughly corresponds to present-dayRomania,as well as parts ofMoldova,Bulgaria,Serbia,Hungary,Slovakia,andUkraine.[1]

Sarmisgetusa Regia
The Image of all the Sarmisgetusa ruins

ADacian kingdomthat united the Dacians and the Getae was formed under the rule ofBurebistain 82 BC and lasted until the Roman conquest in AD 106. As a result of thewars with the Roman Empire,after the conquest of Dacia, the population was dispersed, and the capital city,Sarmizegetusa Regia,was destroyed by the Romans. However, the Romans built a settlement bearing the same name,Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetuza40 km away, to serve as the capital of the newRoman province of Dacia.A group of "Free Dacians",may have remained outside the Roman Empire in the territory of modern-day Northern Romania until the start of theMigration Period.[1]

Nomenclature

[edit]
Main article:Dacians § Name and etymology

The Dacians are first mentioned in the writings of theAncient Greeks,inHerodotus(HistoriesBook IV XCIII: "[Getae] the noblest as well as the most just of all the Thracian tribes" ) andThucydides(Peloponnesian Wars,Book II: "[Getae] border on the Scythians and are armed in the same manner, being all mounted archers" ).[2]Some historians argue thatDaxia(mentioned in3rd century BC) was the previous home ofIndo-Iraniannomads[3]who later came to form theGeto-Dacianpeople.[4][5]

Geographical history

[edit]
Main article:History of Dacia
Geto-Dacian empire
The Dacian homeland circa 40 BC, after the death of Burebista
The evolution of the Dacian kingdom from Burebista to Decebal according toStrabo
Dacia cf.Strabo(c. 20AD)[6]
The map of Dacia byBrue Adrien Hubert(1826)
View of the sanctuary fromDacians' capitalSarmizegetusa Regia
Dacia map cf. Ptolemy (2nd century AD)

The extent and location of Dacia varied in its three distinct historical periods (see below):

Dacia after 100 AD
For earlier events, seePrehistory of Transylvania,Prehistory of Romania,andCelts in Transylvania.

1st century BC

[edit]

The Dacia ofKing Burebista(82–44 BC) stretched from theBlack Seato the riverTisza.[7]During that period, the Getae and Dacians conquered a wider territory and Dacia extended from the Middle Danube to the Black Sea littoral (between Apollonia andPontic Olbia) and from theNorthern Carpathiansto the Balkan Mountains.[8]After the death of Burebista in 44 BCE, his Kingdom quickly unraveled, but the dacians remained a significant enough force to frequently make incursions into Roman territory.[1]

Dacia under Burebista 45 BC
The biggest extent of the Dacian Kingdom under Burebista according to Strabo

1st century AD

[edit]

Strabo, in his Geography written around AD 20, says:[9]

″As for thesouthern part of Germanybeyond theAlbis,the portion which is just contiguous to that river is occupied by theSuevi;then immediately adjoining this is the land of theGetae,which, though narrow at first, stretching as it does along the Ister [Danube] on its southern side and on the opposite side along the mountain-side of theHercynian Forest(for the land of the Getae also embraces a part of the mountains), afterwards broadens out towards the north as far as theTyregetae;but I cannot tell the precise boundaries″

On this basis, Lengyel and Radan (1980), Hoddinott (1981) and Mountain (1998) consider that the Geto-Dacians inhabited both sides of theTiszariver prior to the rise of the CelticBoii.[10]The hold of the Dacians between the Danube and the Tisza was tenuous.[11]However, the archaeologist Parducz argued for a Dacian presence west of the Tisa dating from the time of Burebista.[12]According toTacitus(AD 56–117) Dacians bordered Germania in the south-east, while Sarmatians bordered it in the east.[13]

In the 1st century AD, theIazygessettled West of Dacia, on the plain between the Danube and the Tisa rivers, according to the scholars' interpretation ofPliny's text: "The higher parts between the Danube and the Hercynian Forest as far as the winter quarters of Pannonia at Carnutum and the plains and level country of the German frontiers there are occupied by the Sarmatian Iazyges, while the Dacians whom they have driven out hold the mountains and forests as far as the river Theiss".[14][15][16][17]

2nd century AD

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Main articles:Trajan's Dacian WarsandRoman Dacia

Starting with AD 85, Dacia was once again reunified underKing Decebalus.Following an incursion into RomanMoesia,which resulted in the death of its governor,Gaius Oppius Sabinus,a series of conflicts between the Romans and Dacians ensued. Although the Romans gained a major strategic victory atTapaein AD 88,Emperor Domitianoffered the Dacians favourable terms, in exchange for which Roman suzerainty was recognised. However,Emperor Trajanrestarted the conflicts in AD 101-102 and then again in AD 105–106, which ended with the annexation of most of Dacia and its reorganisation as aRoman Province,Dacia Felix.[1]

Written a few decades after EmperorTrajan's Roman conquest of parts of Dacia in AD 105–106,[18]Ptolemy'sGeographiaincluded the boundaries of Dacia. According to the scholars' interpretation of Ptolemy (Hrushevskyi 1997, Bunbury 1879, Mocsy 1974, Bărbulescu 2005) Dacia was the region between the riversTisza,Danube, upper Dniester, and Siret.[19][20][21][22]Mainstream historians accept this interpretation: Avery (1972) Berenger (1994) Fol (1996) Mountain (1998), Waldman Mason (2006).[23][24][25][26][27]

Ptolemy also provided a couple of Daciantoponymsin south Poland in the UpperVistula(Polish: Wisla) river basin:SusudavaandSetidava(with a manuscript variantGetidava).[28][29][30][31]This could have been an "echo" of Burebista's expansion.[29]It seems that this northern expansion of the Dacian language, as far as the Vistula river, lasted until AD 170–180 when the migration of the VandalHasdingipushed out this northern Dacian group.[32][33]This Dacian group, possibly theCostoboci/Lipița culture,is associated byGudmund Schüttewith towns having the specific Dacian language ending "dava"i.e.Setidava.[30]

After theMarcomannic Wars(AD 166–180), Dacian groups from outside Roman Dacia had been set in motion. So too were the 12,000 Dacians "from the neighbourhood of Roman Dacia sent away from their own country". Their native country could have been the Upper Tisa region, but other places cannot be excluded.[34]

The later Roman provinceDacia Aureliana,was organized inside formerMoesia Superiorafter the retreat of the Roman army from Dacia, during the reign of emperorAurelianduring AD 271–275. It was reorganized asDacia Ripensis(as a military province) andDacia Mediterranea(as a civil province).[35]

Cities

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Main articles:DavaeandList of Dacian towns

Ptolemy gives a list of 43 names of towns in Dacia, out of which arguably 33 were of Dacian origin. Most of the latter included the added suffix "dava" (meaning settlement, village). But, other Dacian names from his list lack the suffix (e.g. Zarmisegethusa regia = Zermizirga). In addition, nine other names of Dacian origin seem to have been Latinised.[36]

The cities of the Dacians were known as-dava,-deva,-δαυα ( "-dawa" or "-dava",Anc. Gk.), -δεβα ( "-deva",Byz. Gk.) or -δαβα ( "-dava",Byz. Gk.), etc..

  1. In Dacia:Acidava,Argedava,Buridava,Dokidava,Carsidava,Clepidava,Cumidava,Marcodava,Netindava,Patridava,Pelendava,*Perburidava,Petrodaua,Piroboridaua,Rhamidaua,Rusidava,Sacidava,Sangidava,Setidava,Singidava,Tamasidava,Utidava,Zargidava,Ziridava,Sucidava– 26 names altogether.
  2. In Lower Moesia (the present NorthernBulgaria) and Scythia minor (Dobrudja):Aedeba,*Buteridava,*Giridava,Dausadava,Kapidaua,Murideba,Sacidava,Scaidava(Skedeba),Sagadava,Sukidaua(Sucidava) – 10 names in total.
  3. In Upper Moesia (the districts of Nish, Sofia, and partly Kjustendil):Aiadaba,Bregedaba,Danedebai,Desudaba,Itadeba,Kuimedaba,Zisnudeba– seven names in total.

Gil-doba,a village inThracia,of unknown location.

Thermi-daua,a town inDalmatia.Probably a Grecized form of*Germidava.

Pulpu-deva,(Phillipopolis) todayPlovdivinBulgaria.

Political entities

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Rubobostes

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Main article:Rubobostes

Geto-Dacians inhabited both sides of the Tisa river prior to the rise of the CelticBoiiand again after the latter were defeated by the Dacians under the king Burebista.[10]It seems likely that the Dacian state arose as a tribal confederacy, which was united only by charismatic leadership in both military-political and ideological-religious domains.[10]At the beginning of the 2nd century BC, under the rule ofRubobostes,a Dacian king in present-dayTransylvania,the Dacians' power in theCarpathian basinincreased after they defeated theCelts,who previously held power in the region.

Oroles

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Main article:Oroles

A kingdom of Dacia also existed as early as the first half of the 2nd century BC under KingOroles.Conflicts with theBastarnaeand the Romans (112–109 BC, 74 BC), against whom they had assisted theScordisciandDardani,greatly weakened the resources of the Dacians.

Burebista

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Main article:Burebista

Burebista(Boerebista), a contemporary ofJulius Caesar,ruled Geto-Dacian tribes between 82 BC and 44 BC. He thoroughly reorganised the army and attempted to raise the moral standard and obedience of the people by persuading them to cut their vines and give up drinking wine.[37]During his reign, the Dacian Kingdom expanded to its maximum extent. TheBastarnaeandBoiiwere conquered, and even the Greek towns ofOlbiaandApolloniaon theBlack Sea(Pontus Euxinus) recognizedBurebista's authority. In 53 BC, Caesar stated that the Dacian territory was on the eastern border of theHercynian Forest.[24]

Burebista suppressed the indigenous minting of coinages by four major tribal groups, adopting imported or copied Roman denarii as a monetary standard.[10]During his reign, Burebista transferred Geto-Dacians capital fromArgedavatoSarmizegetusa Regia.[38][39]For at least one and a half centuries, Sarmizegetusa was the Dacians' capital and reached its peak under KingDecebalus.The Dacians appeared so formidable that Caesar contemplated an expedition against them, which his death in 44 BC prevented. In the same year, Burebista was murdered, and the kingdom was divided into four (later five) parts under separate rulers.

Cotiso

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Main article:Cotiso

One of these entities wasCotiso's state, to whom Augustus betrothed his own five-year-old daughter Julia. He is well known from the line inHorace(Occidit Daci Cotisonis agmen,Odes, III. 8. 18).

The Dacians are often mentioned under Augustus, according to whom they were compelled to recognize Roman supremacy. However they were by no means subdued, and in later times to maintain their independence they seized every opportunity to cross the frozen Danube during the winter and ravaging the Roman cities in the province ofMoesia,which was under Roman occupation.

Strabo testified: "although the Getae and Daci once attained to very great power, so that they actually could send forth an expedition of two hundred thousand men, they now find themselves reduced to as few as forty thousand, and they have come close to the point of yielding obedience to the Romans, though as yet they are not absolutely submissive, because of the hopes which they base on the Germans, who are enemies to the Romans."[9]

In fact, this occurred becauseBurebista's empire split after his death into four and later five smaller states, as Strabo explains, "only recently, whenAugustus Caesarsent an expedition against them, the number of parts into which the empire had been divided was five, though at the time of the insurrection it had been four. Such divisions, to be sure, are only temporary and vary with the times ".

Decebalus

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Main article:Decebalus

Decebalus ruled the Dacians between AD 87 and 106. The frontiers of Decebal's Dacia were marked by the Tisa River to the west, by the trans-Carpathians to the north and by the Dniester River to the east.[40]His name translates into "strong as ten men".

Roman conquest

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Main articles:Domitian's Dacian War,Trajan's Dacian Wars,andRoman Dacia
Fiery battle scene between the Roman and Dacian armies,Trajan's Column,Rome

WhenTrajanturned his attention to Dacia, it had been on the Roman agenda since before the days ofJulius Caesar[41][42]when a Roman army had been beaten at theBattle of Histria.[43]

From AD 85 to 89, the Dacians underDecebaluswere engaged in two wars with the Romans.

In AD 85, the Dacians had swarmed over the Danube and pillaged Moesia.[44][45]In AD 87, the Roman troops sent by the Emperor Domitian against them underCornelius Fuscus,were defeated and Cornelius Fuscus was killed by the Dacians by authority of their ruler, Diurpaneus.[46]After this victory, Diurpaneus took the name ofDecebalus,but the Romans were victorious in theBattle of Tapaein AD 88 and a truce was drawn up.[47]The next year, AD 88, new Roman troops underTettius Julianus,gained a significant advantage, but were obligated to make peace following the defeat ofDomitianby theMarcomanni,leaving the Dacians effectively independent. Decebalus was given the status of "king client to Rome", receiving military instructors, craftsmen and money from Rome. To Rome, Domitian brought Italian peasants in Dacian clothing because he couldn't take slaves in the war.[48]

To increase the glory of his reign, restore the finances of Rome, and end a treaty perceived as humiliating, Trajan resolved on the conquest of Dacia, the capture of the famous Treasure of Decebalus, and control over the Dacian gold mines ofTransylvania.The result of his first campaign (101–102) was the siege of the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa and the occupation of part of the country. Emperor Trajan recommenced hostilities against Dacia and, following an uncertain number of battles,[49]and with Trajan's troops pressing towards the Dacian capitalSarmizegethusa,Decebalus once more sought terms.[50]

Roman DaciaandMoesia Inferior

Decebalus rebuilt his power over the following years and attacked Roman garrisons again in AD 105. In response Trajan again marched into Dacia,[51]attacking the Dacian capital in theSiege of Sarmizegethusa,and razing it to the ground;[52]the defeated Dacian kingDecebaluscommitted suicide to avoid capture.[53]With part of Dacia quelled as theRoman provinceDacia Traiana.[54]Trajan subsequentlyinvaded the Parthian empireto the east. His conquests brought the Roman Empire to its greatest extent. Rome's borders in the east were governed indirectly in this period, through a system ofclient states,which led to less direct campaigning than in the west.[55]

Some of the history of the war is given byCassius Dio.[56]Trajan erected theColumn of TrajaninRometo commemorate his victory.[57]

Provincial history

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Although the Romans conquered and destroyed the ancient Kingdom of Dacia, a large remainder of the land remained outside of Roman Imperial authority. Additionally, the conquest changed the balance of power in the region and was the catalyst for a renewed alliance of Germanic and Celtic tribes and kingdoms against the Roman Empire. However, the material advantages of the Roman Imperial system was attractive to the surviving aristocracy. Afterwards, many of the Dacians became Romanised (see alsoOrigin of Romanians). In AD 183, war broke out in Dacia: few details are available, but it appears two future contenders for the throne of emperorCommodus,Clodius AlbinusandPescennius Niger,both distinguished themselves in the campaign.

According toLactantius,[58]the Roman emperorDecius(AD 249–251) had to restore Roman Dacia from theCarpo-DaciansofZosimus"having undertaken an expedition against the Carpi, who had then possessed themselves of Dacia and Moesia".

Tarabostes on theArch of Constantine

Even so, the Germanic and Celtic kingdoms, particularly theGothic tribes,slowly moved toward the Dacian borders, and within a generation were making assaults on the province. Ultimately, theGothssucceeded in dislodging the Romans and restoring the "independence" of Dacia following EmperorAurelian's withdrawal, in 275.

In AD 268–269, atNaissus,Claudius II(Gothicus Maximus) obtained a decisive victory over the Goths. Since at that time Romans were still occupyingRoman Daciait is assumed that the Goths didn't cross the Danube from the Roman province. The Goths who survived their defeat didn't even attempt to escape through Dacia, but throughThrace.[59]At the boundaries ofRoman Dacia,Carpi(Free Dacians) were still strong enough to sustain five battles in eight years against the Romans from AD 301–308. Roman Dacia was left in AD 275 by the Romans, to the Carpi again, and not to the Goths. There were still Dacians in AD 336, against whomConstantine the Greatfought.

The province was abandoned by Roman troops, and, according to theBreviarium historiae RomanaebyEutropius,Roman citizens "from the towns and lands of Dacia" were resettled to the interior of Moesia.[60]UnderDiocletian,c. AD 296, in order to defend the Roman border, fortifications were erected by the Romans on both banks of theDanube.[35]

Constantinian reconquest

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Gothic, Sarmatian and Dacian conquests ofConstantine the Great

In 328 the emperorConstantine the Greatinaugurated theConstantine's Bridge (Danube)at Sucidava, (today Celei in Romania)[61]in hopes of reconqueringDacia,a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with theSarmatiansagainst theGoths.The weather and lack of food cost the Goths dearly: reportedly, nearly one hundred thousand died before they submitted to Rome. In celebration of this victory Constantine took the titleGothicus Maximusand claimed the subjugated territory as the new province of Gothia.[62]In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate.[63]Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts, and conscripted the rest into the army. The new frontier in Dacia was along theBrazda lui Novacline supported byCastra of Hinova,RusidavaandCastra of Pietroasele.[61]Thelimespassed to the north ofCastra of Tirighina-Bărboșiand ended atSasyk Lagoonnear theDniester River.[64]Constantine took the titleDacicus maximusin 336.[65]Some Roman territories north of the Danube resisted untilJustinian.

Dacia after the Romans

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Main article:Romania in the Early Middle Ages

TheVictohali,Taifals,andThervingiansare tribes mentioned for inhabiting Dacia in 350, after the Romans left. Archeological evidence suggests thatGepidswere disputingTransylvaniawith Taifals and Tervingians. Taifals, once independent from Gothia, became federati of the Romans, from whom they obtained the right to settle inOltenia.

In 376, the region was conquered byHuns,who kept it until the death ofAttilain 453. The Gepid tribe, ruled byArdaric,used it as their base, until in 566, when it was destroyed by theLombards.Lombards abandoned the country and theAvars(second half of the 6th century) dominated the region for 230 years, until their kingdom was destroyed byCharlemagnein 791. At the same time,Slavic peoplearrived.

The name's usage in modern culture

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Main article:Automobile Dacia

S.C. Automobile Dacia S.A. or more known as simply Dacia, is a Romanian car manufacterer that takes its name from this historical kingdom. It is Romania's largest company, and it specializes in building low-cost family cars which led to its popularity in European and North African regions.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^abcd"Dacia | Europe, Map, Culture, & History | Britannica".britannica.8 August 2024.Retrieved6 September2024.
  2. ^Mallory & Adams 1997,pp. 145–146.
  3. ^Mainly theDahaeandMassagetae
  4. ^Padányi, Viktor (1963).Dentumagyaria(in Hungarian). Editorial Transsylvania.
  5. ^Hollósy, István (1913).Magyarország őslakói és az oláhok eredete[Natives of Hungary and the origin of the Vlachs](PDF).Mór Ráth.
  6. ^Müller 1877,tabulae XV.
  7. ^"History of Romania – Antiquity – The Dacians".Encyclopædia Britannica.15 July 2023.
  8. ^Murray 2001,p. 1120.
  9. ^abStrabo,Geography
  10. ^abcdTaylor 2001,p. 215.
  11. ^Lengyel & Radan 1980,p. 87: "No matter where the Boii first settled after they left Italia, however, when they arrived at the Danube they had to fight the Dacians who held the entire territory – or at least part of it. Strabo tells us that later animosity between the Dacians and the Boii stemmed from the fact that the Dacians demanded the land from the latter which the Dacians pretended to have possessed earlier."
  12. ^Ehrich 1970,p. 228.
  13. ^Gruen 2011,p. 204: Germany as a whole is separated from the Gauls and from the Raetians and Pannonians by the rivers Rhine and Danube, from the Sarmatians and Dacians by mutual fear or mountains; the ocean surrounds the rest of it
  14. ^Hrushevskyi 1997,p. 93.
  15. ^Bosworth 1980,p. 60.
  16. ^Carnap-Bornheim 2003,p. 228.
  17. ^Shelley 1997,p. 10.
  18. ^Mattern 2002,p. 61.
  19. ^Hrushevskyi 1997,p. 97: "Dacia, as described by Ptolemy, occupied the region between the Tisa, Danube, upper Dnister, and Seret, while the Black Sea coast – namely, the Greek colonies of Tyras, Olbia, and others – were included in Lower Moesia."
  20. ^Bunbury 1979,p. 517.
  21. ^Mocsy 1974,p. 21.
  22. ^Bărbulescu 2005,p. 71.
  23. ^Berenger 1994,p. 25.
  24. ^abMountain 1998,p. 59.
  25. ^Waldman & Mason 2006,p. 205.
  26. ^Avery 1972,p. 113.
  27. ^Fol 1996,p. 223.
  28. ^Dobiáš 1964,p. 70.
  29. ^abBerindei & Candea 2001,p. 429.
  30. ^abSchütte 1952,p. 270.
  31. ^Giurescu & Giurescu 1974,p. 31.
  32. ^Childe 1930,p. 245.
  33. ^Schütte 1917,pp. 109 & 143.
  34. ^Opreanu 1997,p. 249.
  35. ^abOdahl 2003.
  36. ^Oltean 2007,p. 114.
  37. ^Strabo,Geography,VII:3.11
  38. ^MacKendrick 1975,p. 48.
  39. ^Goodman & Sherwood 2002,p. 227.
  40. ^Vico & Pinton 2004,p. 325.
  41. ^Goldsworthy 2004,p. 322.
  42. ^Matyszak 2004,p. 213.
  43. ^Matyszak 2004,p. 215.
  44. ^Matyszak 2004,p. 216.
  45. ^Luttwak 1976,p. 53.
  46. ^Matyszak 2004,p. 217.
  47. ^"De Imperatoribus Romanis"(Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions).An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors.Retrieved8 November2007.Battle of Sarmizegetusa (Sarmizegetuza), AD 105. During Trajan's reign Rome achieved victory over the Dacians. The first important confrontation between the Romans and the Dacians took place in the year AD 87 and was initiated by Domitian. Thepraetorian prefectCorneliusled five or six legions across the Danube on a bridge of ships and advanced towardsBanat(in Romania). The Romans were surprised by a Dacian attack at Tapae (near the village ofBucova,in Romania). Legion V Alaude was crushed and Cornelius Fuscus was killed. The victorious general was originally known asDiurpaneus(see Manea, p. 109), but after this victory he was called Decebalus (the brave one).
  48. ^Koch, Nándor. Mangold, Lajos; Horváth, Cirill; Ballagi, Aladár (eds.).Tolnai Világtörténelme[World history of Tolnai] (in Hungarian).Budapest.p. 180.
  49. ^Matyszak 2004,p. 219.
  50. ^Goldsworthy 2004,p. 329.
  51. ^Matyszak 2004,p. 222.
  52. ^Matyszak 2004,p. 223.
  53. ^Luttwak 1976,p. 54.
  54. ^Stoica 1919,p. 52.
  55. ^Luttwak 1976,p. 39.
  56. ^J. Bennett.Trajan Optimus Princips,Routledge, London and New York, 1997, pp. xii–xiii
  57. ^Sinnegen & Boak.A History of Rome to A.D. 565,6th ed. MacMillan Publishing Co., New York, 1977 p. 312
  58. ^"Of the Manner in which the persecutors died" byLactantius(early Christian author AD 240–320)
  59. ^Battle of NaissusandCladius Gothicus.Beside Zosimuss account there is also Historia Augusta, The Life of Claudius.
  60. ^Eutropious."Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History (Historiae Romanae Breviarium)".ccel.org.Archived fromthe originalon 20 February 2009.Retrieved17 June2008.
  61. ^abMadgearu 2008,pp. 64–126.
  62. ^Heather, Peter (1996).The Goths.Blackwell Publishers. pp. 62, 63.
  63. ^Barnes, Timothy D. (1981).Constantine and Eusebius.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-16531-1.p. 250.
  64. ^Costin Croitoru, (Romanian) Sudul Moldovei în cadrul sistemului defensiv roman. Contribuții la cunoașterea valurilor de pământ. Acta terrae septencastrensis, Editura Economica, Sibiu, 2002,ISSN1583-1817,p. 111.
  65. ^Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. New York:Routledge,2004. HardcoverISBN0-415-17485-6PaperbackISBN0-415-38655-1,p. 261.

References

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Media related toDaciaat Wikimedia Commons

Preceded by
Prehistory of the Balkans 		History of Romania Succeeded by
Roman Dacia

45°42′N26°30′E/ 45.7°N 26.5°E/45.7; 26.5

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