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Taraxacum

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(Redirected fromDandelion)
"Dandelion" redirects here. It may refer to any species of the genusTaraxacumor specifically toTaraxacum officinale.For similar plants, seeFalse dandelion.For other uses, seeDandelion (disambiguation)

Taraxacum
Temporal range: Miocene–recent[1]
A dandelion flower head composed of numerous small florets (top). The seedhead is shown below it.
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Subfamily: Cichorioideae
Tribe: Cichorieae
Subtribe: Crepidinae
Genus: Taraxacum
F. H. Wigg.
Type species
Taraxacum officinale[2]
Species

See text

Synonyms
List
  • CaramanicaTineo
  • EriopusD.Don
  • LasiopusD.Don
  • Neo-taraxacumY.R.Ling & X.D.Sun
  • WendelboaSoest
Dandelion bilobed stigma bearing pollen

Taraxacum(/təˈræksəkəm/)[3]is a largegenusofflowering plantsin the familyAsteraceae,which consists of species commonly known asdandelions.The scientific and hobby study of the genus is known as taraxacology.[4]The genus is native to Eurasia but the two most commonplace species worldwide,T. officinale(the common dandelion) andT. erythrospermum(the red-seeded dandelion), were introduced from Europe into North America, where they are invasive aliens.[5]Dandelions thrive in temperate regions and can be found in yards, gardens, sides of roads, among crops, and in many other habitats.[6]Both species areediblein their entirety[a]and have a long history of consumption.[7]The common namedandelion(/ˈdændəlaɪ.ən/DAN-də-ly-ən;fromFrenchdent-de-lion'lion's tooth', referring to the jagged leaves) is also given to specific members of thegenus.[8]

Like other members of the family Asteraceae, they have very small flowers collected together into a compositeflower head.Each single flower in a head is called afloret.In part due to their abundance, along with being ageneralist species,dandelions are one of the most vital early springnectarsources for a wide host ofpollinators.[9]ManyTaraxacumspecies produce seedsasexuallybyapomixis,where the seeds are produced withoutpollination,resulting in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent plant.[10]

In general, the leaves are 50–250 mm (2–10 in) long or longer, simple, lobed-to-pinnatisect, and form a basalrosetteabove the central taproot. Theflower headsare yellow to orange coloured, and are open in the daytime, but closed at night. The heads are borne singly on a hollow stem (scape) that is usually leafless and rises10–100 mm (3⁄8–3+7⁄8in) or more[5]above the leaves. Stems and leaves exude a white, milkylatexwhen broken. A rosette may produce several flowering stems at a time. The flower heads are20–50 mm (3⁄4–2 in) in diameter and consist entirely of rayflorets.The flower heads mature into spherical seed heads sometimes calledblowballs[11]orclocks(in both British and American English)[12][13][14][15]containing many single-seeded fruits calledcypselae,similar toachenes.Each cypsela is attached to apappusof fine hair-like material which enablesanemochorous(wind-aided) dispersal over long distances.[citation needed]

The flower head is surrounded bybracts(sometimes mistakenly calledsepals) in two series. The inner bracts are erect until the seeds mature, then flex downward to allow the seeds to disperse. The outer bracts are often reflexed downward, but remain appressed in plants of the sectionsPalustriaandSpectabilia.Between the pappus and the achene is a stalk called a beak, which elongates as the fruit matures. The beak breaks off from the achene quite easily, separating the seed from the parachute.[16]

Description[edit]

These are individualpollen grainsof the dandelion -Taraxacum officinale.
Segment ofpappusfiber showing barbs

The species ofTaraxacumaretap-rooted,perennial,herbaceousplants, native totemperateareas of the Northern Hemisphere. The genus contains many species, which usually (or in the case oftriploids,obligately) reproduce byapomixis,resulting in many local populations andendemism.In the British Isles alone, 234microspecies(i.e. morphologically distinct clonal populations) are recognised in nine loosely defined sections, of which 40 are "probably endemic".[17]A number of species ofTaraxacumare seed-dispersedruderalsthat rapidly colonize disturbed soil, especially the common dandelion (T. officinale), which has been introduced over much of the temperate world. After flowering is finished, the dandelion flower head dries out for a day or two. The dried petals and stamens drop off, the bracts reflex (curve backwards), and the parachute ball opens into a full sphere. When development is complete, the mature seeds are attached to white, fluffy "parachutes" which easily detach from the seedhead and glide by wind, dispersing.

The seeds are able to cover large distances when dispersed due to the unique morphology of thepappuswhich works to create a unique type ofvortex ring[18][19]that stays attached to the seed rather than being sent downstream. In addition to the creation of this vortex ring, the pappus can adjust its morphology depending on the moisture in the air. This allows the plume of seeds to close up and reduce the chance to separate from the stem, waiting for optimal conditions that will maximize dispersal and germination.[20][21]

The pappus of a dandelion seed, which aids in wind-driven dispersal
Field with flowering dandelions,Tatarstan,Russia

Similar plants[edit]

Hawksbeardflower heads and ripe seeds are sometimes confused with dandelions.
ATaraxacum officinaleseedhead with only one seed still attached

Many similar plants in the familyAsteraceaewith yellow flowers are sometimes known asfalse dandelions.Dandelion flowers are very similar to those of cat's ears (Hypochaeris). Both plants carry similar flowers, which form into windborne seeds. However, dandelion flowers are borne singly on unbranched, hairless and leafless, hollow stems, while cat's ear flowering stems are branched, solid, and carry bracts. Both plants have a basal rosette of leaves and a central taproot. However, the leaves of dandelions are smooth or glabrous, whereas those of cat's ears are coarsely hairy.[17]: 740 

Early-flowering dandelions may be distinguished fromcoltsfoot(Tussilago farfara) by their basal rosette of leaves, their lack of disc florets, and the absence of scales on the flowering stem.[22]

Other plants with superficially similar flowers includehawkweeds(Hieracium) andhawksbeards(Crepis). These are readily distinguished by branched flowering stems, which are usually hairy and bear leaves.[17]: 740 

Classification[edit]

The genus istaxonomicallycomplex due to the presence of apomixis: any morphologically distinct clonal population would deserve its ownmicrospecies.Phylogenetic approaches are also complicated by the accelerated mutation in apomixic lines and repeated ancient hybridization events in the genus.[23]

As of 1970, the group is divided into about 34 macrospecies orsections,and about 2000microspecies;[24]some botanists take a much narrower view and only accept a total of about 60 (macro)species.[24]By 2015, the number has been revised to include 60 sections and about 2800 microspecies. 30 of these sections are known to reproduce sexually.[23]

About 235apomicticandpolyploidmicrospecies have been recorded in Great Britain and Ireland alone.[25]

Botanists specialising in the genusTaraxacumare sometimes called taraxacologists,[26]for exampleGunnar Marklund,Johannes Leendert van Soestor A.J. Richards.[27]

Selected species[edit]

Main article:List of Taraxacum species
T. albidum
T. albidum
T. californicum
T. californicum
T. japonicum
T. japonicum
T. laevigatum
T. laevigatum
T. officinale
T. officinale
T. platycarpum
T. platycarpum

Cultivars[edit]

  • 'Amélioré à Coeur Plein' yields an abundant crop without taking up much ground, and tends toblanchitself naturally, due to its clumping growth habit.
  • 'Broad-leaved' - The leaves are thick and tender and easily blanched. In rich soils, they can be up to 60 mm (2') wide. Plants do not go to seed as quickly as French types.
  • 'Vert de Montmagny' is a large-leaved, vigorous grower, which matures early.[34]

History[edit]

Hand-coloured print, plate 1 ofDens LeonisinA Curious Herbal,1737, byElizabeth Blackwell
1679 hand-coloured print byMaria Sibylla Merianof a dandelion serving as a plant host to thepale tussock moth

Dandelions are thought to have evolved about 30 million years ago inEurasia.[35]Fossilseeds ofTaraxacum tanaiticumhave been recorded from thePlioceneof southernBelarus.[36]Dandelions have been used by humans for food and as anherbfor much of recorded history. They were well known to ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, and are recorded to have been used intraditional Chinese medicinefor over a thousand years. The plant was used as food and medicine byNative Americans.[37]Dandelions were probably brought to North America on theMayflowerfor their supposed medicinal benefits.[38]

Etymology[edit]

Leaf resemblance to the teeth of a lion (French:dent-de-lion)

The Latin nameTaraxacumoriginates inmedievalArabic writings on pharmacy. The scientistAl-Raziaround 900 CE wrote "the tarashaquq is like chicory".[citation needed]The scientist and philosopherIbn Sīnāaround 1000 CE wrote a book chapter onTaraxacum.[citation needed]Gerard of Cremona,in translating Arabic to Latin around 1170, spelled ittarasacon.[39]

Common names[edit]

The English name, dandelion, is acorruptionof the Frenchdent de lion[40]meaning "lion's tooth", referring to the coarsely toothed leaves. The plant is also known as blowball, cankerwort, doon-head-clock, witch's gowan, milk witch, lion's-tooth, yellow-gowan, Irish daisy, monks-head, priest's-crown, and puff-ball;[41]other common names includefaceclock,pee-a-bed,wet-a-bed,[42] swine's snout,[43]white endive, and wild endive.[44]

The English folk name "piss-a-bed"(and indeed the equivalent contemporary Frenchpissenlit) refers to the strongdiureticeffect of the plant's roots.[45]In various northeastern Italian dialects, the plant is known aspisacan( "dog pisses"), because they are found at the side of pavements.[46][unreliable source?]InSwedish,it is calledmaskros(worm rose) after the nymphs of small insects (thripslarvae) usually present in the flowers.[47]

Nutrition[edit]

Plate of sauteed dandelion greens, withWehani rice

Raw dandelion greens contain high amounts of vitaminsA,C,andK,and are moderate sources ofcalcium,potassium,iron,andmanganese.[48]Raw dandelion greens are 86% water, 9%carbohydrates,3%protein,and 1%fat.[48]A 100 gram (3+1⁄2oz) reference amount supplies 45Calories.[48]

Phytochemicals[edit]

The raw flowers contain diversephytochemicals,includingpolyphenols,such asflavonoidsapigenin,isoquercitrin (aquercetin-like compound), andcaffeic acid,as well asterpenoids,triterpenes,andsesquiterpenes.[49]The roots contain a substantial amount of the prebiotic fiberinulin.Dandelion greens containlutein.[50]

Taraxalisin,a serineproteinase,is found in thelatexof dandelion roots.[51][52]Maximal activity of the proteinase in the roots is attained in April, at the beginning of plant development after the winter period.[52]Each dandelion seed has a mass(weight) of 500 micrograms or 0.0005g (1/125 of a grain).[citation needed]

Properties[edit]

Edibility[edit]

Bunches oforganicdandeliongreensfor sale

The entire plant, including the leaves, stems, flowers, and roots, is edible and nutritious, with nutrients such as vitamins A and K as well as calcium and iron. [53]Dandelions are found on six continents and have been gathered for food since prehistory, but the varieties commercially cultivated for consumption are mainly native toEurasiaandNorth America.Aperennial plant,its leaves grow back if thetaprootis left intact. To make leaves more palatable, they are oftenblanchedto remove bitterness,[54]orsauteedin the same way asspinach.[55]Dandelion greens have been a part of traditionalKashmiri cuisine,Lebanese cuisine,[56]Spanish cuisine,Italian cuisine,Albanian cuisine,Slovenian,Sephardic Jewish,Chinese,Greek cuisine(χόρτα) andKorean cuisines.InCrete,the leaves of a variety called 'Mari' (Μαρί), 'Mariaki' (Μαριάκι), or 'Koproradiko' (Κοπροράδικο) are eaten by locals, either raw or boiled, in salads.T. megalorhizon,a species endemic to Crete, is eaten in the same way; it is found only at high altitudes (1,000–1,600 metres (3,300–5,200 ft)) and in fallow sites, and is calledpentaramia(πενταράμια) oragrioradiko(αγριοράδικο).[57]

The flowerpetals,along with other ingredients, usually includingcitrus,are used to makedandelion wine.Its ground, roasted roots can be used asa caffeine-free coffee alternative.[58]Dandelion was also commonly used to make the traditional British soft drinkdandelion and burdock,and is one of the ingredients ofroot beer.Dandelions were once considered delicacies by the Victorian gentry, who used them mostly in salads and sandwiches.[citation needed]

Dye[edit]

The yellow flowers can be dried and ground into a yellow-pigmentedpowderand used as adye.[59]

Allergies[edit]

Dandelions may causeallergic reactionsfor sensitive individuals when consumed or coming into contact with skin, but the risk is mild.[60][61]Latex containingsesquiterpene lactonesare present in high concentrations in the main root and stems of the common dandelion.[60][62][63]However, only a few researchers have mentioned the possible risk of mild allergiccontact dermatitisfor people withlactone hypersensitivity.[64][65][66]

Herbalism[edit]

Dandelion has been used intraditional medicinein Europe, North America, and China.[49] It's possible that the Dandelion has physiological effects in Type 2 Diabetes.[67][68]Dandelion components play a significant role in the control of lipid metabolism and adipogenesis, which means dandelion can potentially be used to treat obesity.[69]Dandelion leaves and dandelion root extracts have been shown to possibly decrease growth of cancer cells.[70][71]

Food for wildlife[edit]

Dandelions do not depend on wildlife for distribution or pollination; however much of wildlife benefits from the abundance of the plant. Rabbits, wild turkeys, white-tailed deer, eastern chipmunks, bobwhite quail, and many species of birds will consume the seeds and foliage. Additionally, many insects will collect nectar from the flower, especially in early spring when there are very few other flowers in bloom.[72]

Dandelion specimen 85 cm (33 in) in height

Seeds[edit]

Taraxacumseeds are an important food source for certain birds (linnets,Linariaspp.).[73]

Nectar[edit]

Main article:Nectar

Szabo studied nectar secretion in a dandelion patch over two years (59.2 and 8.9 flowers per square metre (5.50 and 0.83/sq ft) in 1981 and 1982). He measured average nectar volume at 7.4μl/flower in 1981 and 3.7 μl/flower in 1982. The flowers tended to open in the morning and close in the afternoon with the concentrations significantly higher on the second day.[74]

Leaves[edit]

Dandelions are used as food plants by thelarvaeof some species ofLepidoptera(butterfliesandmoths).

Invasive species[edit]

Dandelion roots

Dandelions can cause significant economic damage as aninvasive speciesand infestation of other crops worldwide;[74]in some jurisdictions, the speciesT. officinaleis listed as anoxious weed.[74][75]It can also be considered invasive in protected areas such asnational parks.For example,Denali National Park and Preservein Alaska listsTaraxacum officinaleas the most common invasive species in the park[76]and hosts an annual "Dandelion Demolition" event where volunteers are trained to remove the plant from the park's roadsides.[77]

Benefits to gardeners[edit]

Main article:Beneficial weed

With a wide range of uses, the dandelion is cultivated in small gardens to massive farms. It is kept as acompanion plant;itstaprootbrings up nutrients for shallow-rooting plants. It is also known to attractpollinatinginsectsand releaseethylenegas, which helps fruit to ripen.[78]

Cultural importance[edit]

It has been a Western tradition for someone to blow out a dandelion seedhead and think of a wish they want to come true.[79]

Five dandelion flowers are the emblem ofWhite Sulphur Springs, West Virginia.[80]The citizens celebrate spring with an annual Dandelion Festival.[81]

The dandelion is the official flower of theUniversity of RochesterinNew York State,and "Dandelion Yellow" is one of the school's official colors. "The Dandelion Yellow" is an official University of Rochester song.[82]

Inspiration for engineering[edit]

The ability of dandelion seeds to travel as far as a kilometer in dry, windy and warm conditions, has been an inspiration for designing light-weight passive drones.

In 2018, researchers discovered that dandelion seeds have a separated vortex ring.[18]This work provided evidence that dandelion seeds have fluid behavior around fluid-immersed bodies that may help understand locomotion, weight reduction and particle retention in biological and man-made structures.

In 2022, researchers at theUniversity of Washingtondemonstrated battery-free wireless sensors and computers that mimic dandelion seeds and can float in the wind and disperse across a large area.[83]

As a source of natural rubber[edit]

See also:Taraxacum kok-saghyz § Rubber

Dandelions secretelatexwhen the tissues are cut or broken, yet in the wild type, the latex content is low and varies greatly.Taraxacum kok-saghyz,the Russian dandelion, is a species that produced industrially useful amounts during WW2. Using modern cultivation methods and optimization techniques, scientists in theFraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology(IME) in Germany developed a cultivar of the Russian dandelion that is suitable for current commercial production of natural rubber. The latex produced exhibits the same quality as thenatural rubberfromrubber trees.[84]In collaboration withContinental AG,IME is building a pilot facility. As of May 2014,the first prototype test tires made with blends from dandelion-rubber are scheduled for testing on public roads over the next few years.[85]In December 2017, Linglong Group Co. Ltd., a Chinese company, invested $450 million into making commercially viable rubber from dandelions.[86]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Eating the seedhead is not recommended.

References[edit]

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External links[edit]

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