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Dasa

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For other uses, seeDasa (disambiguation).

Dasa(Sanskrit:दास,romanized:Dāsa) is a Sanskrit word found in ancient Indian texts such as theRigveda,Pali canon,and theArthashastra.[1]The term may mean "slave", "enemy" or "servant," butDasaorDascan also have the following connotations: "servant of god", "devotee,""votary"or" one who has surrendered to God. "Dasa may be a suffix of a given name to indicate a" servant "of a revered person or a particular deity.[2][3]

Dasa,in some contexts, is also related todasyuandasura,which have been translated by some scholars as "demon","harmful supernatural forces, ""slave,""servant,"or"barbarian,"depending on the context in which the word is used.[4][5]

Etymology[edit]

Dāsafirst appears inVedic textsfrom the second millennium BCE.[4]There is no consensus on its origins.

Karl Heinrich Tzschucke in 1806, in his translations of the Roman geographerPomponius Mela,noted etymological and phonological parallels betweendasaand the ethnonyms of theDahae– Persian داها; SanskritDasa;LatinDahae;Greek ΔάοιDaoi,Δάαι, ΔᾶαιDaaiand ΔάσαιDasai– a people who lived on the south-eastern shores of theCaspian Seain ancient times (and from whom modernDehestan/Dehistantakes its name).[6]

Monier Monier-Williamsin 1899, stated that the meaning ofdasavaries contextually and means "mysterious forces", "savages", "barbarians" or "demons" in the earliest layer of Vedic literature – in other contexts, is a self-effacing way to refer oneself as "worshipper" or "devotee aiming to honor a deity", or a "servant of god".[7]In later Indian literature, according to Monier-Williams, usage ofdasais used to refer to "a knowing man, or a knower of the universal spirit".[8]In the latter sense,dāsais masculine, while the feminine equivalent isdāsi.[7]Some early 20th Century translations, such asP. T. Srinivasa Iyengar(1912), translatedasaas "slave".[9]

Kangle in 1960,[1]and others[10]suggest that, depending on the context,dasamay be translated as "enemy", "servant" or "religious devotee". More recent scholarly interpretations of the Sanskrit wordsdasaordasyusuggest that these words used throughout the Vedas represents "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the worddasamostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."[4]In some contexts, the worddasamay refer to enemies, in other contexts it may refer to those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs, and yet other contexts it may refer to mythical enemies in the battle between good and evil.[4]

In Pali texts, the termdasais mentioned to denote a slave.[6]DasainBuddhisttexts can mean "servant".[3]In Pali language, it is used as suffix in Buddhist texts, whereAmaya-dasawas translated by Davids and Stede in 1925, as a "slave by birth",[11]Kila-dasatranslated as a "bought slave",[12]andAmata-dasaas "one who seesAmata(Sanskrit:Amrita,nectar of immortality) orNibbana".[13]

According toDr Bhimrao Ambedkar,Regarding the Dasas, the question is whether there is any connection between theAzhi-Dahakaof theZend Avesta.The name Azhi-Dahaka is a compound name which consists of two parts. Azhi means serpent, dragon and Dahaka comes from the root "Dah" meaning "to sting, to do harm"[14]

Michael Witzelcompares the etymological root ofdasato words from other Indo-European languages that imply "enemy, foreigner", including the Avestandahåkaanddŋha,Latindahiand Greekdaai.[15]

Asko Parpolain 2015, has proposed thatdasais related to the ancientIranianandproto-Sakaworddaha,which means "man".[16]This is contrasted witharya,the word for "man" used by, and of, Indo-Iranian people from Central Asia.[16]

Identification of Dasa[edit]

As people[edit]

Based on the Arya-Dasa conflict described in Rigvedic text, scholars have tried to identify the Dasa as a population in South and Central Asia.[citation needed]

Max Müllerproposed thatdasareferred to indigenous peoples living in South Asia before thearrivalof theAryans.[17]

Michael Witzelin his review ofIndo-Iraniantexts in 1995, states thatdasain the Vedic literature represented a NorthIraniantribe, who were enemies of the Vedic Aryans, anddas-yumeant "enemy, foreigner." He notes that these enemies could have apparently become slaves if captured.[18]

Asko Parpolastates thatdasareferred only to Central Asian peoples.[19]Vedic texts that include prayers for the defeat of thedasaas an "enemy people", according to Parpola, possibly refers to people from the so-calledBactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex(BMAC), who spoke a different language and opposed Aryan religious practices.[19]Parpola uses archaeological and linguistic arguments to support his theory. Among the evidences cited were recent BMAC excavation results where forts in circular shapes were found, the shape described in the early parts of the Rigveda as the enemy forts of Indra. He also found that Rigvedic words starting with triple consonant clusters such asBṛhaspati,must be loanwords from the unknown BMAC language.[20]

As spiritual entity[edit]

Authors likeSri Aurobindobelieve that words like Dasa are used in the Rig Veda symbolically and should be interpreted spiritually, and that Dasa does not refer to human beings, but rather to demons who hinder the spiritual attainment of the mystic. Many Dasas are purely mythical and can only refer to demons. There is for example a Dasa called Urana with 99 arms (RV II.14.4), and a Dasa with six eyes and three heads in the Rig Veda.[21]

Aurobindo[22]commented that in the RV III.34 hymn, where the word Arya varna occurs, Indra is described as the increaser of the thoughts of his followers: "the shining hue of these thoughts, sukram varnam asam, is evidently the same as that sukra or sveta Aryan hue which is mentioned in verse 9. Indra carries forward or increases the" colour "of these thoughts beyond the opposition of the Panis, pra varnam atiracchukram; in doing so he slays the Dasyus and protects or fosters and increases the Aryan" colour ", hatvi dasyun pra aryam varnam avat."[23]

According to Aurobindo (The Secret of the Veda), RV 5.14.4 is a key for understanding the character of the Dasyus:

Agni born shone out slaying the Dasyus, the darkness by the light, he found the Cows, the Waters, Swar.(transl. Aurobindo)[24][25]

Aurobindo explains that in this verse the struggle between light and darkness, truth and falsehood, divine and undivine is described.[24]It is through the shining light created by Agni, god of fire, that the Dasyus, who are identified with the darkness, are slain. The Dasyus are also described in theRig Vedaas intercepting and withholding the Cows, the Waters and Swar ( "heavenly world"; RV 5.34.9; 8.68.9). It is not difficult, of course, to find very similar metaphors, equating political or military opponents with evil and darkness, even in contemporarypropaganda.

K.D. Sethna(1992) writes: "According to Aurobindo,(...) there are passages in which the spiritual interpretation of the Dasas, Dasyus and Panis is the sole one possible and all others are completely excluded. There are no passages in which we lack a choice either between this interpretation and a nature-poetry or between this interpretation and the reading of human enemies."[citation needed]

Hindu Texts[edit]

Rig Veda[edit]

Dasaand related words such asDasyuare found in the Rig Veda. They have been variously translated, depending on the context. These words represent in some context represent "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the worddasamostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."[4]In other contexts, the worddasarefers to enemies and in other contexts, those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs.[4][26]

A. A. MacdonellandA. B. Keithin 1912 remarked that, "The great difference between the Dasyus and the Aryans was their religion... It is significant that constant reference is made to difference in religion between Aryans and Dasa and Dasyu."[27][28]

Dasa with the meaning of Barbarians[edit]

Rig Veda 10.22.8 describes Dasyus as "savages" who have no laws, different observances, a-karman (who do not perform rites) and who act against a person without knowing the person.[5]

अकर्मादस्युरभि नो अमन्तुरन्यव्रतो अमानुषः ।
त्वं तस्यामित्रहन्वधर्दासस्य दम्भय ॥८॥[29]

Around us is theDasyu,riteless, void of sense, inhuman, keeping alien laws.
Baffle, thou Slayer of the foe, the weapon which thisDasawields.
– Translated by Ralph Griffith[30]

TheDasyupractising no religious rites, not knowing us thoroughly, following other observances, obeying no human laws,
Baffle, destroyer of enemies [Indra], the weapon of thatDasa.
– Translated byH. H. Wilson[31]

— Rigveda 10.22.8

Dasa with the meaning of Demons[edit]

Within the Vedic texts,Dasais the word used to describe supernatural demonic creatures with many eyes and many heads. This has led scholars to interpret that the wordDasain Vedic times meant evil, supernatural, destructive forces. For example, Rigveda in hymn 10.99.6 states,[32]

स इद्दासंतुवीरवं पतिर्दन्षळक्षं त्रिशीर्षाणं दमन्यत् ।
अस्य त्रितो न्वोजसा वृधानो विपा वराहमयोअग्रया हन् ॥६॥

The sovereign Indra attacking him overcame the loud shouting, six eyed, three headedDasa,
Trita invigorated by his strength, smote the cloud with his iron-tipped finger.

— Rigveda 10.99.6, translated by H. H. Wilson[33]

Dasa with the meaning of Servant[edit]

Dasa is also used in Vedic literature, in some contexts, to refer to "servants", a few translate this as "slaves", but the verses do not describe how the Vedic society treats or mistreats the servants.R. S. Sharma,in his 1958 book, states that the only word which could possibly mean slave inRigvedaisdāsa,and this sense of use is traceable to four verses out of 10,600 verses in Rigveda, namely 1.92.8, 1.158.5, 10.62.10 and 8.56.3.[34]The translation of worddasato servant or slave varies by scholars.[4]HH Wilson, for example, translatesDasain Rigvedic instances identified by Sharma, as servant rather than slave,[35]as in verse 10.62.10:[36]

उतदासापरिविषे स्मद्दिष्टी गोपरीणसा । यदुस्तुर्वश्च मामहे ॥१०॥[37]

Yadu and Indra speaking auspiciously, and possessed of numerous cattle, gave them likeservants,for the enjoyment.

— Rigveda 10.62.10, Translated by HH Wilson[35]

R. S. Sharma translatesdasiin a Vedic era Upanishad as "maid-servant".[38]

Aryan-Dasa conflict[edit]

See also:Vedic period

Hermann Oldenbergstates that no distinction between historical events and mythology existed for the Vedic poets. For them, the conflict between the Aryans and Dasas extended into the realms of gods and demons with the hostile demon being on the same level as the hated and despised savages.[39]

Bridget Allchin and Raymond Allchin suggest Indo-Aryans were not the only inhabitants of the region when they arrived toSapta-Sindhavaor land of seven Indus rivers and their encounter with Dasyu was not entirely peaceful.[40]

Ram Sharan Sharmastates that theRig-Vedic societywas primarily organized on basis of tribe, kin and lineage. The "Aryan"tribes mentioned by theRig Vedatherefore may not have been of the same ethnicity, but may have been united by a common language and way of life. He states that while it has been argued thatDasyuand Dasa were not non-Aryans, it is more true in the case of the latter. Further the Dasas are said to be organized into tribes calledviś,a term used for Vedic people or tribes. The godIndrais said to be the conqueror of Dasas, who appear mostly human. There are more references to the destruction of Dasyus by Indra instead of Dasas. He is said to have protected the Aryan varna by killing them.[41]The Aryans also fought between themselves. The godManyu (deity)is invoked to overcome both Aryans and Dasyus. Indra is asked to fight against the godless Dasyus and Aryans, who are the enemies of his followers. (X, 88, 3 & XX, 36, 10).[42]

The fight between Aryans and their enemies consisted mostly of fortresses and walled settlements of the latter. Both Dasas and Dasyus were in the possession of them. Sharma states that this reminds us of the later discovery of fortifications ofHarappan settlements,though there is no clear archaeological evidence of mass-scale confrontation between Aryans and Harappans. He adds that the Aryans seemed to be attracted to their wealth over which a regular warfare took place. The worshiper in the Rig Veda expects that those who offered nooblationshould be killed and their wealth be divided (I, 176, 4). However, it was the cattle which held the most importance to Aryans who were cattle-herders. For example, it is argued thatKikatasdidn't need cows because they made no use of milk products in sacrifice.[43]

Sacrifice played an important part in Aryan way of life, however the Dasyus or Dasas did not offer sacrifices. An entire passage in the seventh book of Rig Veda uses adjectives such asakratün,aśraddhānandayajñānapplied to Dasyus emphasizes their non-sacrificing character.Indrais asked to discriminate between them and the sacrificing Aryas. Sharma states that the wordanindra(without Indra) may refer to Dasyus, Dasa and Aryan dissenters. Per the Aryan view, the Dasyus practiced black magic andAtharva Vedarefers to them as evil spirits to be scared away from the sacrifice. The Atharva Veda states that the god-blaspheming Dasyus are to be offered as victims. The Dasyus are believed to be treacherous, not practicing Aryan observances, and are hardly human.[44]

Tony Ballantynestates thatRig Vedadepicts the cultural differences between the Aryan invaders and non-Aryans of Indus valley. He states that although the inter-Aryan conflict is prominent in its hymns, a cultural opposition is drawn between Aryans and the indigenous people of North India. According to him, it depicts the indigenous tribes such as thePaniandDasasas godless, savage and untrustworthy. Panis are cattle thieves who seek to deprive Aryans of them. He states Dasas were savages, whose godless society, darker complexion and different language were culturally different from Aryans. They are called barbarians (rakshas), those without fire (anagnitra) and flesh-eaters (kravyad). The Aryas were on the other hand presented as noble people protected by their godsAgniandIndra.He adds that their names were extended beyond them to denote savage and barbarian people in general. He concurs that this continued into later Sanskritic tradition wheredasacame to mean a slave whileAryameant noble.[45]

Later Vedic texts[edit]

The three words Dasa, Dasyu and Asura (danav) are used interchangeably in almost identical verses that are repeated in different Vedic texts, such as the Rig Veda, the Saunaka recension ofAtharva veda,the PaippaladaSamhitaof the Atharva Veda and theBrahmanastext in various Vedas. Such comparative study has led scholars to interpretDasaandDasyumay have been a synonym ofAsura(demons or evil forces, sometimes simply lords with special knowledge and magical powers) of later Vedic texts.[46][need quotation to verify]

Sharma states that the worddasaoccurs in Aitareya and GopathaBrahmanas,but not in the sense of a slave.[38]

Arthashastra[edit]

Kautilya'sArthashastradedicates the thirteenth chapter ondasas,in his third book on law. This Sanskrit document from theMaurya Empireperiod (4th century BCE), has been translated by several authors. Shamasastry's translation in 1915,[47]Kangle's translation in the 1960s[48]and Rangarajan's translation in 1987[49]all mapdasaas slave. However, Kangle suggests that the context and rights granted todasabyKautilya,such as the right to the same wage as a free labourer and the right to freedom on payment of an amount, distinguish this form of slavery from that of contemporary Greece.[50]Edmund Leachpoints out that the Dasa was the antithesis of the concept ofArya.As the latter term evolved through successive meanings, so did Dasa: from "indigenous inhabitant" to "serf," "tied servant," and finally "chattel slave." He suggests the term "unfreedom" to cover all these meanings.[51]

According to Arthashastra, anyone who had been found guilty ofnishpatitah(Sanskrit: निष्पातित, ruined, bankrupt, a minor crime)[52]may mortgage oneself to becomedasafor someone willing to pay his or her bail and employ thedasafor money and privileges.[47][50]

According to Arthashastra, it was illegal to force adasa(servant) to do certain types of work, to hurt or abuse him, or to force sex on a femaledasa.[47]

Employing a Servant(dasa) to carry the dead or to sweep ordure, urine or the leavings of food; forcing a servant to be naked; hurting or abusing him; or violating the chastity of a female servant shall cause the forfeiture of the value paid for him or her. Violation of the chastity shall at once earn their liberty for them.

— Arthashastra, Translated by Shamasastry[47]

When a master has connection (sex) with a pledged female slave (dasa) against her will, he shall be punished. When a man commits or helps another to commit rape with a female slave pledged to him, he shall not only forfeit the purchase value, but also pay a certain amount of money to her and a fine of twice the amount to the government.

— Arthashastra, Translated by Shamasastry[47]

A slave (dasa) shall be entitled to enjoy not only whatever he has earned without prejudice to his master's work, but also the inheritance he has received from his father.

— Arthashastra, Translated by Shamasastry[47]

Buddhist texts[edit]

Words related todasaare found in early Buddhist texts, such asdāso na pabbājetabbo,which Davids and Stede translate as "the slave cannot become a Bhikkhu".[53]This restriction on who could become a Buddhist monk is found in Vinaya Pitakam i.93,Digha Nikaya,Majjhima Nikāya,TibetanBhiksukarmavakyaandUpasampadajnapti.[53][54]


In Buddhist scriptures, slavery is a backdrop to the narratives, and dasas (slaves) were among the donations to the monastic community. Various terms were used, like "bondsmen," "proper slave," and "proper bondman", and individuals were treated as property and could be donated as such to monks and monasteries. In variousVinayas,Buddha permits the offering and utilization of household servants and slaves, along with land, mats, livestock, tools, and medicinal items. At times, slaves were tasked with carrying out actions that were explicitly prohibited for monks[55]

Other uses[edit]

Use of religious "devotees"[edit]

InTamildasais commonly used to refer to devotees ofVishnuorKrishna.[56]

InGaudiya Vaishnavism,devotees often usedasa(meaning servant of Krishna) as part of their names, as inHari Dasa.[57]

As a surname or byname[edit]

Main article:Das (surname)

Dasa or Das is also a surname or middle name found among Hindus and Sikhs, typically in northern half of India, where it literally means "votary, devotee, servant of God."[58]For example,Mohandas Gandhi's first name, Mohandas, means servant of Mohan orKrishna.Also, the name Surdas means servant of Sur or Deva. In the past, many saints of theBhakti movementadded it to their names, signifying their total devotion or surrender to God.[57]

Comparative linguistics[edit]

Dasa and related terms have been examined by several scholars.[59]While the termsDasaandDasyuhave a negative meaning in Sanskrit, their Iranian counterpartsDahaandDahyuhave preserved their positive (or neutral) meaning. This is similar to the Sanskrit termsDeva(a "positive" term) andAsura(a "negative" term). The Iranian counterparts of these terms (DaevaandAhura) have opposite meanings.

Asko Parpolastates the originalDasais related to the Old Persian wordDahawhich also means "man", but refers specifically to a regional ethnic minority of Persia.[60]Parpola contrastsDahawithArya,stating that the latter also referred to "man" but specifically to the incomingIndo-Iraniansfrom Central Asia. The Vedic text that include prayers to help defeat the "Dasa as enemy people", states Parpola, may refer to the wars of the Indo-Iranians against the bearers of theBactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex(BMAC) culture. The latter spoke a different language and opposed Indo-Iranian religious practices.[60]Parpola uses archaeological and linguistic arguments to support his theory, but his theory is controversial.[61]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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  3. ^abGregory Schopen (2004), Buddhist Monks and Business Matters, University of Hawaii Press,ISBN978-0824827748,page 201
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  6. ^abSociety, Pali Text (1921–1925)."The Pali Text Society's Pali-English Dictionary".dsal.uchicago.edu.Retrieved2023-09-17.
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  23. ^Sethna 1992:114 and 340
  24. ^abSethna 1992:114–115 and 348–349
  25. ^Which is translated by Griffith thus:Agni shone bright when born, with light killing the Dasyus and the darkHe found the Kine, the Floods, the Sun.(trans. Griffith)
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  59. ^e.g.,Asko Parpola(1988), Mayrhofer (1986–1996), Benveniste (1973), Lecoq (1990), Windfuhr (1999)
  60. ^abAsko Parpola (2015),The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization,Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0190226923,pages 100–106
  61. ^Colin Renfrew (1991),The Coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the Cultural and Ethnic Identity of the Dāsas by Asko Parpola,Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series, Vol. 1, No. 1, pages 106–109
Sources

Further reading[edit]

  • Bryant, Edwin:The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture.2001. Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-513777-9
  • J. Bronkhorst and M.M. Deshpande. 1999. Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
  • Hock, Hans. 1999b, Through a Glass Darkly: Modern "Racial" Interpretations vs. Textual and General Prehistoric Evidence on Arya and Dasa/Dasyu in Vedic Indo-Aryan Society. "in Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia.
  • Iyengar, Srinivas. 1914. "Did the Dravidians of India Obtain Their Culture from Aran Immigrant [sic]." Anthropos 1–15.
  • Macdonell, A.A. and Keith, A.B. 1912. The Vedic Index of Names and Subjects.
  • Parpola, Asko: 1988, The Coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the Cultural and Ethnic Identity of the Dasas; The problem of the Aryans and the Soma.
  • Rg Veda 1854–57. Rig-Veda Samhita. tr. H.H. Wilson. London: H.Allen and Co.
  • Schetelich, Maria. 1990, "The problem of the" Dark Skin "(Krsna Tvac) in the Rgveda." Visva Bharati Annals 3:244–249.
  • Sethna, K.D.1992.The Problem of Aryan Origins.New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
  • Trautmann, Thomas R. 1997, Aryans and British India. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Witzel, Michael. 1995b, 325, fn, "Rgvedic History" in The Indo-Aryans of South Asia.
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