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Dhangar

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This article is about the pastoral community in Maharashtra and Goa. For the similarly-named tribe and language found in Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha and Chhattisgarh -Dhangad(tribe) andDhangar(Kurukh language dialect), seeDhangar (disambiguation).For the town in Sagar district, India, seeDhangar, Madhya Pradesh.

TheDhangarsare caste of people found in theIndianstates ofMaharashtra,northernKarnataka,Goa,Madhya Pradesh.They are referred to asGavli Dhangarsin northern Maharashtra (Khandesh region) and the forested hill tracts of India'sWestern Ghats,[1][2][3][4]there are many distinctGavlicastes inMaharashtraandDhangar Gavliis one of them.[5][6][7]

History

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Etymology

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The word "Dhangar"is inscribed in a Buddhist cave inPune districtof Maharashtra. It is believed that this inscription has its origin between the first and the third century AD. Multiple theories have been proposed for the origin of the word Dhangar. It may be associated with a term for "cattle wealth".Bhagwan Lal Indrajimaintains that it is derived from Sanskrit word Dhang which means hill.[8]Syed Siraj-Ul-Hassan noted that some people of his time believed the term to come from the Sanskrit "dhenugar"(" cattle herder ") but dismissed that etymology as being" fictitious ".[9]InKannada,the word Danagãra means cowherd and is derived from Dana which means cattle. Dana is thetadbhavaof Dhana, which comes from Go-dhana which means cattle inSanskrit.[10]

According toShamba Joshi,Hatakara-Dhanagara (Hatkar-Dhangar) is a compound of two words of the same meaning. InOld Kannada,the meaning of Hatti-Kara (Hatkar) is Gavli (milkman/cowherd) and Hatti means cattle pen or fold. Patti inTamilwould mean cowstall, sheepfold, a measure of land sufficient for sheepfold, cattle pound, a hamlet, a village, a place. He observes that Hatti-Karas are descendants of Patti-Janas, people who were settled in the south ofNarmada Riverduring the Middle Ages. This region was called Hatta-Desa. He theorizes that the wordMar-Hattacomes from the word Hatta-Desa, the settlement of Hatti-Karas. After the 12th century AD, the civil strife between theYadavas of DevagiriandHalebidu(Hoysala's capital) split this land into two, into Marhätta and Karnätaka.Saint Ramdasrefers to the two parts, Hatak for Marhätta and Karnatak for Karnätaka, in one of hisAratis.[11]

Subdivisions

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Initially there were twelve tribes of Dhangar, and they had adivision of labouramongst brothers of one family. The nation aroundHingoliwas called Bara-Hatti which means country of twelve Hatkar-Dhangars. These twelve tribes later formed three sub-divisions and one half-division. These three beingHatkar(shepherd),Gavlior Dange (cowherd) andKhutekar(wool and blanket weaver)/Sangar. All sub-castes fall in either of these divisions.[12][13]

Historical migrations

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The archaeological evidence and ethnographic data suggest that the contemporary Dhangar castes are the result of more than one migration from North-WestIndia,between 4000 and 10000 BC.[3]The density and distribution patterns of the different groups of Dhangars seem to have been guided by the suitability of the region for the sustenance of the animals that they traditionally maintained and the products of those animals on which the specific groups subsisted. Ethno-historic investigations among the Dhangars suggest that the Kannade,UnnikankanandKurmarwho speakKannadawere originally fromKarnatakaand might have migrated to the present habitats inMaharashtraat different points of time. WhereasHatkar,Zende, Thellari and Dange trace their origin to a single caste in the remote past, Shegars orSagar Rajputsclaim that they have nothing to do with the Dhangars and are descendants fromRajputsofRajasthan.Ahirsspeak "Ahrani",also known asGavli boli,[14]a mixed dialect ofGujaratiandMarathiand are closely related to the Ladshe and Dange who have supposedly come fromGujarat.On the other hand,Gadhari-Nikhar andGadhari-Dhangar, having migrated fromNorth India,speakSanskrit and Hindi.Telangi speaksTeluguand probably migrated fromAndhra Pradesh,the remaining groups speakMarathi.[3][15]

Past occupation

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The Gavli or Dange Dhangars found in the coastal strip practiced cattle/buffalo/sheep herding andshifting cultivation.[1]ahir,Halmat, Khutekar,Kurmar-Unnikankan,Mendhe,Shegar,Telangi,Unnikankanand Zade herded sheep and wove woolen blankets. Dhangar, Hande,Hatkar,Hattikankan,Kannade,Kurmar-hattikankanand Zende reared only Sheep. However, Hatkars in Sangli district also maintained cattle and some Zendes used to maintain ponies. Thellaris herded both sheep and cattle. Sangars were weavers of woolen blankets.[16][17][18]In the past, some Dhangars wereInamdarsand some were tenure-holders, holding lands either by a share or by paying a lump sum for a certain period.[19]

Poniesused by Dhangar tribe ofMaharashtra

Dhangars were also known for producing fine breeds of cattle and ponies.Khillari cattle,a mixture with a breed ofMysore,was pioneered by a Dhangar ofNashiknamed Gowdia who owned cattle inMysore state.[20]Similarly, Dhangar or Khilariponyis considered the best breed of ponies in Deccan. It is believed that their superior excellence is due to the Dhangar's practice of castrating them.[21]

Role in the Maratha Empire

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Dhangars are noted for their martial qualities. A large number ofShivaji's most trustedMawalasorMarathafootmen were West-PuneDhangars.[22]On the other hand,HatkarDhangars, who are found mainly in the formerNizam state,especially inNanded,ParbhaniandVidarbha,are known asBargiDhangars or "shepherds with the spears" and were perhapsBargirsor mounted troopers during the time of theMaratha Empire.However,Bargior Bande Dhangar is a distinct sub-caste from them.[22][23]Hatkars were in the army ofShivajiin large numbers and were known for their bravery in theMaratha Empire."Naik" and "Rao" were the titles given to them.Hatkarswere a dread to others and evenNizamwas afraid of them. It is on the historical record that for restraining the Hatkars, Nizam had sought help from theBritish Indian army.[23]While some sources claimMalhar Rao Holkar,Founder of theMaratha Indore state,belonged to the Hatkar Dhangar sub-caste, thebakharsofHolkar dynastysay that he was a Khutekar Dhangar.[24]

"The three great tribes which compose theMarathacaste are theKunbior farmer, The Dhangar or shepherd, and theGoalaor cowherd. To this original cause may perhaps be ascribed that great simplicity of manner which distinguishes theMarathapeople ".[25][26]

— Colonel Tone, Commander of a regiment in thePeshwa's army in 1798

In fact, the word "Maratha"in its narrower use is applied to a society in which Rajputs or quasi-Rajputs,at the top, withKunbis(farmers), Dhangars (shepherds), andGoalas(cowherds) practise hypergamy, each group taking wives from the one below, causing a superfluity of women at the top and a scarcity at the bottom of the social scale.[27]

— John Henry Hutton,former chair ofWilliam Wyse Professor of Social Anthropologyat theUniversity of Cambridge

Relationship with Deccan Yadavas

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The wordYadavadoes not have knownIndo Europeanetymology. According toFranklin Southworth,it might be ofDravidianorigin, meaning "herder". Yadu means goat or sheep inTamiland Yaduvan means goat/sheep-herd. He further claims that Yadava is the original word and mythicalYaduis derived from Yadava by back-formation.[28]Similarly, Kuri means goat or sheep in Kannada andKurubameans shepherd.[29]While inKannadaDanagara/Hattikara/Gavli means cowherd/milkman,[10]inMarathiDhangar/Hatkar(derived from Danagara/Hattikara) refers to shepherd and Gavli means cowherd/milkman.[30]Similarly inTelugu,the wordGollais synonymous with Gavli but both Gollas andKuruvas(Kuruba) engage in sheep/goat and cattle pastoralism, in that they either herd exclusively sheep, or a mixed herd of sheep and goats, or cattle.[31][32]According to Sontheimer,GollasandHatkar-Dhangars underwent an occupational change from cattle keeping to sheep pastoralism because of the operational advantages offered by the sheep/goat pastoral system in the semi-arid grasslands.[33]The original worshippers of pastoralist godVitthal– the Gollas and Kurubas ofAndhra PradeshandKarnatakaandGavlisand Dhangars ofMaharashtra,especially southern Maharashtra – are continued to be called "Yāḍavas" in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Similar to them, several royal families who enhanced the magnificence of Vitthal's worship are called "Yādavas". These families elevated their traditional pastoralist god (Vitthal) into a form ofVishnu-Krishnaand accorded high prestige to his worship.[34]

Seuna YadavasandHoysala Yadavaswere originally pastoralists, and ruledMarhattaandKarnatakarespectively.[35][10]Furthermore, Hoysalas was aKannadigapower and epigraphic evidence suggests that Seunas too emerged from aKannada-speaking background.[36]In one of hisAratis,Saint Ramdasmentions that, because of the civil strife betweenSeunasandHoysalas,the country ofHatkars(Hatta-Desa) was split into Hatak (Marhatta) and Karnatak (Karnataka).[11]InOld Kannada,Hatti-Kara (Hatkar) means Gavli (cowherd).[10]According to the traditional sources,Devagiri,the capital of Seuna Yadavas, was founded by a king who was a Dhangar Gavli.[7][37]Moreover,Seunasare traditionally called "Gavli Kings".[35]

Apart from Seunas and Hoysalas,Vijayanagara Empire's founders of theSangama dynasty,[38]Pallavas,[39][40]RashtrakutasofMalkhed,and rulers ofPakanaduandKammanadualso claimed Yadava lineage.[32]This claim legitimized the process of Aryanization.[41]According toR. C. Dhere,two factors made it easy for medieval South Indian pastoralist groups to associate themselves to the famousYadufamily from thePuranasto whichLord Krishnabelonged. First, by occupation these South Indian groups were herdsmen, cattle herders, just like the famousYādavasin the Puranas. Secondly, the Puranas family were "Yādavas" and the South Indian pastoralists were "Yāḍavas". The difference between "ḍ" and "d" is subtle, and soDravidian"Yāḍavas" becameSanskritized"Yādavas".[30]

The claim to "Yaduvamsha" was very popular in ancient and medieval India. Many dynasties were eager to associate themselves with the Yaduvamsha in which was born the great heroYadu.This may not be altogether without any specific reason. It is difficult to find undisputablyBrahminandKshatriyadynasties, particularly after thePallavas.Most of the dynasties belonged to theShudracaste. But most of them had become powerful ruling families of importance. Their political power and their lowly origin had to be reconciled by assuming a higher status for themselves. In such cases Yaduvamsha came in very handy and hence most of the dynasties professed to belong to Yaduvamsha. This claim gave them a higher status they very much liked to have.[42]

— Historian A. V. Narasimha Murthy

The political, social, and religious history of the medieval period allows us to conclude that most of the royal families who connected themselves with Yadava clan, and who connected their god (Vitthal) withKrishna,arose from pastoralist groups.[42]

— Ramchandra Chintaman Dhere,a scholar of the religious traditions of Maharashtra

Lord Vitthalis ofKannadaorigin and has Dhangar roots.[43]He is still worshiped by Dhangars in his original pastoralist form. In Dhangar traditions he survives as a Gavli cowherd and continues his relationship with Dhangar's renowned popular godBiroba.[44]Vithobaand Biroba are considered brothers by Dhangars and they worship them as inseparable companions.[45]However, Initially they were worshiped independently among Dhangars.[43]Present dayTemple of Vitthal at Pandharpur,his original center of worship, is still surrounded by many Dhangar settlements and displays numerous marks of previous Kannada influence.[46]Kurubasworship these gods asVitthalandBirappa.[47]Virupaksha,Virabhadra,BirappaandBirobaare the same god and are a form ofShiva.Virupaksha is a sanskritized version ofVirupa,where Virupa means strange looking or ugly, indicating the strange three eyes of Shiva andakshainSanskritmeans eyes. Birappa, also known as Virappa, and Biroba are honorific versions ofVirupa,where "-appa"and"-ba"are honorific suffixes indicating fatherhood inKannadaandMarathirespectively. According to the traditional sources, founders of theVijayanagara Empire,who belonged to theSangama dynasty,were ofKurubaorigin.[48]Virupaksha was their family deity (kuladevata) and became the principal deity of the state during their reign.[49]Moreover, Biroba/Birappa has been exclusively a god of the Dhangars and Kurubas.[33]On the other hand,VithobaandVenkateshwaraare derived from the same god and are forms ofVishnu.However, they were initially worshiped as a form of Shiva and underwent vaishnavization process to be worshiped as a form Vishnu.[50][51]Yadava dynasties worshiped Vishnu and Shiva as a unity which are seen in the forms like Vithoba-Biroba, Vitthal-Birappa and Virupaksha-Vitthal.[52]Emperors of Vijayanagara were devoted to both Virupaksha (earlier worshiped as Birappa) and Vitthal and built/extended their temples at bothHampiandLepakshi,and Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi.[53][54]Similarly, during the reign ofSeunasandHoysalasthe temple of Vitthal atPandharpur,under their care, grew from a small pastoral deity site to a major temple complex.[55]Furthermore, Yadava Kings (Yadavarayas) ofTondaimandalamenhanced the worship of Venkateshwara and built/extendedVenkateshwara TempleatTirupati.[56][57]

Another form ofShivaworshiped by Dhangars in Maharashtra isMalhar(Khandoba). WhenHolkars,who were of Dhangar origin, came to power in theMaratha Empire,they increased the splendor of the worship of Malhar, who was theirKuladevata.Jejuri templeof Khandoba was substantially enlarged by Holkar queenAhilyabai Holkarand her generalTukojirao Holkar.[46][58]Similar to Dhangars, theKuruvasin southwesternAndhra PradeshworshipMallikãrjuna,theKurubasin northwesternKarnatakaand northwestern Andhra Pradesh are devotees ofMailãr,and theGollasin Andhra Pradesh are worshipers ofMallanna.All of these gods are said to be incarnations ofShiva.They are not completely identical and share many common features. Historically, they may be traced back to a prototype god who made his appearance in the earlyTamil(Sangam) literature of the second to fourth century AD in which he is calledMurukan.Murukan, who is later identified withKãrttikeyaor Skanda, has especially one feature in common with other gods, namely that they all have two wives. One of his wife comes from the settled advanced communities who were either agricultural, but with a propensity towards cattle keeping, or the once influential merchant groups. The second wife of the god, often regarded as a concubine, comes from the pastoral communities.[33]

Relationship with Yadavs

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According to the1891 Census of India,the pastoral class of Indian population was divided into two groups. First group was called cattle graziers which includedAhirs,Gopas,GawaliandGolla.The second group was called shepherds which includedGadaria,Dhangars,Kuruba,Idaiyan,BharwadandRabari.[59]

In the early 1920s, the leaders from the North IndianAhirand the MaharashtrianGavlicommunity, who foundedAll-India Yadav Mahasabha,insisted cowherds, herdsmen and milksellers all over India to call themselves Yadav, adopt the last name "Yadav", and practice vegetarianism and teetotalism. Various communities, all over India, who were traditionally involved in cattle related occupations enthusiastically followed these recommendations.[60]They claimed descendancy from theYadudynasty of thepuranas,hence the termYadav,through theAbhiratribe andLord Krishna,a cowherd, is the hero-god of Abhiras. This effort was part of the process ofSanskritizationand Aryanization. Soon, the adoption of the name Yadav began to take traction.[61][62][60]

Today, theYadavsociety consist of different allied castes of several denominations such as Ahir inNorth India,Thetwar and Raot inMadhya Pradesh,Gavli inMaharashtra,Idaiyan inTamil Nadu,Golla inAndhra PradeshandKarnataka,and Gopas inBengal.[63]On the other hand, Dhangar society in India includes Dhangars in Maharashtra andGoa,Gadaria in North India, Bharwad inGujarat,and Kuruba both in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. However,Dhangar Gavliis a distinct caste fromYadav GavliinMaharashtraandGoa.[1][64][9]Moreover,Ahirsof Maharashtra prefer to be known as Ahir Dhangars andMarathasofIndore(Madhya Pradesh), likeHolkars,call themselves Dhangar gadaria. In North India the gadaria, who call themselvesdhangar,were at one time a wing of Dhangar society. Ahir is one of thegotraof Dhangars.[65]Historians such as P. M. Chandorkar has used epigraphical evidence to argue that Ahirs and Gavlis are representative of the ancientYadavasandAbhirasmentioned in the classicalSanskritworks. Furthermore,Khandesh regionofMaharashtra,at one point ruled by the Abhiras, was formerly known as the land of the Ahirs, and Ahirs in the present day Khandesh region speakMarathidialect which is continued to be calledAhirani.[66]

Varna status

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The Dhangars are the main streamkshatriya,they resemblekshatriyavarna in hindu varna system.[67]According toShyam Singh Shashi,80 percent ofgotrasof Dhangars are similar tokshatriyasthough 15 percent resembles those ofBrahmins,Vaishyasand backward classes.[68]While the social status of Dhangars outside Konkan region is on par with Kunbis, in Konkan Dhangars are ranked below them. The status was determined by the essential economic importance of their occupation. Dhangars were seasonal migrants to Konkan and while they had good and enduring relationships with farmers they provided only a valuable supplement to agriculture.[69]

The Shegar Dhangars, also known asSagar Rajputs,were previously identified as shepherd by occupation and Shudra by Varna but later they changed their surname toRajputand started wearingsacred thread.[70][71]

Dhangars employBrahminsfor religious and ceremonial purposes, and theseBrahminsare received on terms of equality by otherBrahmins.When Brahmins are not easily available, the elders of the caste perform the ceremonies. The marriage ceremonies of Dhangars do not differ much from those ofKunbis.[72]

Affirmative action: Reservation in India

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As per India'ssystem of reservation,Dhangars are classified asOther Backward Classin Goa,[73]Karnataka,[74]Gujarat,[75]Madhya Pradesh,[76]Chhattisgarh,[77]Uttar Pradesh,[78][79]Uttarakhand[80]and Delhi.[81]In Maharashtra, they are classified as aNomadic Tribe,which comes underOther Backward Classcategory.[15][82][83]According toGail OmvedtandBharat Patankar,The group considering themselves "highest" in theOther Backward Classcategory are mainly the peasant castes (JatandKurmiin north India,Kunbiin Maharashtra,Vellalarin south India, etc.), close to these are the herding (Yadav,Dhangar,Kuruba) and gardening (Mali,Saini) communities. Ranging below these are the various artisan and service groups – goldsmiths, blacksmiths, potters, barbers, washermen etc.[84]

Culture

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Khandoba(literally "father swordsman" ), the guardian deity of theDeccanis the favorite god of the caste and is worshiped every Sunday and on Saturday – the light sixth ofMargashirshaday – with offerings of sweetmeats.VithobaofPandharpuris worshiped daily in every household.[85][86]BirobaandMhaskobaare other popular gods amongst Dhangars.[42][87]

Gaja Nach, which literally means the dance of elephant, is a traditional dance of the Dhangars. Since it is considered auspicious, the dance is also performed at the time of temple festivals. The dancers also hold colorful scarves which when moved in a swaying manner suggest the fanning of elephant's ears.[88]

Dhangari Ovi is a type of folk singing, which is about women's work songs and the epic-length performances of Dhangars, in which sung verses alternate with narrative passages in prose.[89]

Current situation

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Traditionally being shepherds, cowherds, buffalo keepers, blanket and wool weavers, butchers and farmers, the Dhangars were late to take up modern-day education. InMaharashtra,the Dhangars are classified as aNomadic Tribebut in 2014 were seeking to be reclassified as aScheduled Tribein India'ssystem of reservation.[90]The Dhangar community's population in Maharashtra is around 1.5 crore, which is 13% of the total 11.25 crore (112.5 million) population of the state.Devendra Fadnavis,formerChief Minister of Maharashtra,had said that "The situation of the Dhangars in some areas of the state was worse than that ofScheduled Tribes,and the government was committed to providing them reservation under theSTcategory ".[91]

Dhangar vs Dhangad issue in Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra

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Dhangar (shepherds) is a sub-caste of theGadariacaste inDelhi,Madhya PradeshandChhattisgarh,theKurubacaste in Karnataka and theBharwadcaste inGujarat.[76][81][77][74][75]Gadaria, Kuruba are classified asOther Backward Classin those respective states while Bharwad is classified asScheduled Tribein Gujarat, in India'ssystem of reservation.[80][78]InMaharashtra,the Dhangars come underNomadic Tribecategory within the largerOther Backward Classcategory.[15][82][83] On the other hand, Dhangad (cultivators), also known asOraon,Dhanka and Dom, are listed asScheduled Tribesin the states of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh andOrissa.InBihar,JharkhandandWest BengalDhangad or Dom is listed asScheduled Castewhereas Oraon asScheduled Tribe.[92][93]

According to the 27th report of Standing Committee on Labour and Welfare with regards to SCs and STs order (Second Amendment) Bill, 2002:[94]

There are two distinct communities having similar nomenclature, one is Dhangad which is a sub-group of Oraon, a Scheduled Tribe appearing at S.No..36 of the List of Scheduled Tribes. The traditional occupation of this community is cultivation. There is another community known as 'Dhangar' whose traditional occupation is cattle rearing and weaving of woolens. The 'Dhangad' and the 'Dhangar' are two distinct communities having no ethnic affinity at all. The Dhangars who are shepherds have been notified as Nomadic tribe in the State of Maharashtra. Therefore, there is no printing mistake in the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Amendment) Act, 1976 through which the Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order, 1950 was amended.

On 17 January 2019, the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Research and Training Institute (SCSTRTI) wrote a letter to the Principal Secretary to theGovernment of Uttar Pradeshstating the difference between Dhangar andGadaria,and that theHindiversion of the word Dhangar is धंगड़ (Dhangad), which is classified asScheduled CasteinUttar Pradesh,as per the Gazette notification issued in 1950 by thePresident/Indian Government.They recommended that theGadariacommunity's धनगर (Dhangar) should not be included in theScheduled Castecategory and rather belong to theOther Backward Classcategory in the state of Uttar Pradesh.[79]

Notable people

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References

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  1. ^abcMalhotra, K. C. (March 1982)."Ecology of a pastoral caste: Gavli Dhangars of peninsular India"(PDF).Human Ecology.10(1): 107–143.doi:10.1007/BF01531107.S2CID154253698.
  2. ^"Govt gives another push to get ST tag for Dhangar-Gouly".The Times of India.9 September 2020.Retrieved9 September2020– via Associated Press.
  3. ^abcMalhotra, K. C. (December 2001)."Patterns of Variation in a Caste-Cluster of Dhangars of Maharashtra, India".Collegium Antropologicum.25(2): 425–42.PMID11811272.
  4. ^Shashi (2011),p. 47.
  5. ^Rao (1979),p. 129.
  6. ^Enthoven (1990),p. 368.
  7. ^abFeldhaus (1989),p. 101.
  8. ^Shashi (2006),p. 183.
  9. ^abHassan (1989),p. 166.
  10. ^abcdJoshi, S. B. (1952)."ETYMOLOGY OF PLACE-NAMES PAṬṬI-HAṬṬI: Some observations on the History of Mahārāṣṭra & Karṇāṭaka".Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.33(1/4): 41–56.ISSN0378-1143.JSTOR41784634.
  11. ^abJoshi, S. B. (1952)."ETYMOLOGY OF PLACE-NAMES PAṬṬI-HAṬṬI: Some observations on the History of Mahārāṣṭra & Karṇāṭaka".Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.33(1/4): 41–56.ISSN0378-1143.JSTOR41784634.जयदेवी जयदेवी जयवेद माते, हाटक कर्नाटक करुणा कल्लोळी
  12. ^Dandekar, Ajay (August 1991). "Landscapes in Conflict: Flocks, Hero-stones, and Cult in Early Medieval Maharashtra".Studies in History.7(2): 301–324.doi:10.1177/025764309100700207.S2CID162355452.
  13. ^Sontheimer (1975),p. 140.
  14. ^Critical Enquiry Vol.VI Issue IV. Oct.- Dec. 2014
  15. ^abcCentral Commission for Backward Classes (20 October 2020).Central List of OBCs Maharashtra(Report). Archived fromthe originalon 10 November 2020.
  16. ^Malhotra, K. C. (April 1977)."Haptoglobin and acid phosphatase gene distributions in the Dhangars of Maharashtra, India".Journal of Genetics.63(1): 39–45.doi:10.1007/BF02984224.S2CID25217479.
  17. ^Gadgil, Madhav; Malhotra, K. C. (1981)."The ecological basis of the geographical distribution of the Dhangars a pastoral caste cluster of Maharashtra"(PDF).South Asian Anthropologist.2(2): 49–59.
  18. ^Guha (1993),p. 84.
  19. ^Enthoven (1990),p. 321.
  20. ^Mehta (1984),p. 747.
  21. ^Watt (2014),p. 295.
  22. ^abSingh (2004),p. 498.
  23. ^abPathak (2009),p. 52.
  24. ^Sontheimer (1975),p. 139.
  25. ^Russell, Robert Vane(28 September 2020).The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, Volume IV of IV.Library of Alexandria.ISBN9781465583024.
  26. ^Constable, Philip (2001)."The Marginalization of a Dalit Martial Race in Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Western India".The Journal of Asian Studies.60(2): 439–478.doi:10.2307/2659700.JSTOR2659700.PMID18268829.S2CID40219522.Retrieved28 November2020.While the bulk of Shivaji's men were naturally Marathas, they included not only the allied castes of Dhangars and Gowalas, shepherds and herdsmen, but many who had no claim to kinship. For example Shivaji's famous infantry was composed largely of Bhandaris and Kolis. The Ramoshis... who afterwards formed the infantry of Haidar and Tipu in Mysore, were relied an for the capture of the hill forts, while the outcaste Mahars and Mangs served in his artillery, and in the garrisons of these forts - Patrick Cadell
  27. ^Hutton (1961),p. 19.
  28. ^Erdosy (1995),p. 266.
  29. ^Shashi (2011),p. 15.
  30. ^abDhere (2011),p. 241.
  31. ^Vignesha (1993),p. 47.
  32. ^abMurthy, M.L.K. (1 February 1993). "Ethnohistory of pastoralism: A study of Kuruvas and Gollas".Studies in History.9(1): 33–41.doi:10.1177/025764309300900102.S2CID161569571.section: Kingship and Kshatriyization of the Pastoral Communities
  33. ^abcSontheimer, Günther D.; Murty, M. L. K. (1980)."Prehistoric Background to Pastoralism in the Southern Deccan in the Light of Oral Traditions and Cults of Some Pastoral Communities".Anthropos.75(1/2): 163–184.JSTOR40460587.
  34. ^Dhere (2011),p. 237-238.
  35. ^abDhere (2011),p. 247.
  36. ^Novetzke (2016),pp. 51–54.
  37. ^Wink (2001),p. 231.
  38. ^Dhere (2011),p. 243: A donative inscription of Harihara II states (Upādhyāy 1945: 23–24), “Śrī Saṅgameśvara was in the laudable Yadu family known as Yādavas, who are praiseworthy because of being born in the lineage of the Moon (Soma).” Another inscription affirms, “Lord Viṣṇu himself descended in the form of Saṅgam with the purpose of being born in the Moon (Candra) lineage.” Elsewhere Saṅgam was praised by saying that he adorned the Yadu lineage with his virtues the way the arrival of spring increases the beauty of all the seasons. Such claims make it clear that the founder of the Vijayanagar empire considered himself a Yādava.
  39. ^Dhere (2011),p. 237,243: The history of South India shows clearly that all the southern royal dynasties who arose from pastoralist, cowherd groups gained Kshatriya status by claiming to be Moon lineage Kshatriyas, by taking Yadu as their ancestor, and by continually keeping alive their pride in being 'Yadavas'. Many dynasties in South India, from the Pallavas to the Yadavarayas, were originally members of pastoralist, cowherd groups and belonged to Kuruba lineages.
  40. ^Iyer, L.K. (1988).The Mysore Tribes and Castes Volume 1.The Mysore University, Mysore, 1935. p. 68.ISBN9780836425352.
  41. ^Dhavalikar (2014),p. 274.
  42. ^abcDhere (2011),p. 246,247.
  43. ^abGlushkova, Irina (2000).""GIVE ME BACK MY BLANKET!": VARKARI SAINTS STRIVING FOR THEIR BODIES (Metaphor and Metonymy in the Construction of Divinity) ".Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.81(1/4): 15–34.ISSN0378-1143.JSTOR41694605.
  44. ^Dhere (2011),p. 248.
  45. ^Zelliot (1988),p. 170.
  46. ^abDhere (2011),p. 237.
  47. ^Dhere (2011),p. 241,242.
  48. ^Dhere (2011),p. 243-244.
  49. ^Eaton (2005),p. 82.
  50. ^Novetzke (2005),p. 116.
  51. ^Dhere (2011),p. 237,239,240,267.
  52. ^Dhere (2011),p. 238-242.
  53. ^National Geographic (2008).Sacred Places of a Lifetime: 500 of the World's Most Peaceful and Powerful Destinations.National Geographic Society. pp. 123–124.ISBN978-1-4262-0336-7.
  54. ^Dhere (2011),p. 241-245.
  55. ^Novetzke (2016),p. 94.
  56. ^Rangarajan, A. d. (12 June 2020)."Yadavas hail restoration of 'Golla Mirasi".The Hindu.Archived fromthe originalon 14 June 2020.Retrieved12 June2020.
  57. ^Dhere (2011),p. 239.
  58. ^Michell (2014),p. 78.
  59. ^Presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of her majesty (10 July 1893).General Report on Census of India, 1891(PDF)(Report). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 28 October 2020.
  60. ^abRao (1979),p. 141.
  61. ^Jaffrelot (2003),p. 189,194-196.
  62. ^Gooptu (2001),p. 205–210.
  63. ^Rao, M. S. A. (29 August 1964)."Caste and the Indian Army".Economic and Political Weekly.epw.
  64. ^"Govt gives another push to get ST tag for Dhangar-Gouly".The Times of India.9 September 2020.Retrieved9 September2020– via Associated Press.
  65. ^Shashi (2011),p. 29,44,47.
  66. ^Guha (2006),p. 47:P. M. Chandorkar, using both literary and epigraphic sources has argued that the modern Ahirs and Gavlis - until recently cattle-keepers - should be identified with the Yadavas and Abhiras of the classical Sanskrit texts. He also notes that Khandesh, on the margin of the central Indian forests, was earlier known as the land of the Ahirs, and the local Marathi dialect continued to be called Ahirani.
  67. ^Guha (1993),p. 83.
  68. ^Shashi (2011),p. 34.
  69. ^Feldhaus (1989),p. 105.
  70. ^Frykenberg, Robert Eric (1984).Land Tenure and Peasant in South Asia.Manohar. p. 197.Another example of castes' successful efforts to raise their sacred status to twice-born are the Sagar Rajputs of Poona district. Previously they were considered to be Dhangars—shepherds by occupation and Shudras by traditional varna. However, when their economic strength increased and they began to acquire land, they found a genealogist to trace their ancestry back to a leading officer in Shivaji's army, changed their names from Dhangars to Sagar Rajputs, and donned the sacred thread.
  71. ^Baviskar, B. S.; Attwood, D. W. (30 October 2013).Inside-Outside: Two Views of Social Change in Rural India.SAGE Publications. p. 389.ISBN9788132118657.As one example among thousands, a small caste living partly in the Nira Valley was formerly known as Shegar Dhangar and more recently as Sagar Rajput
  72. ^Enthoven (1990),p. 317.
  73. ^Central Commission for Backward Classes (20 October 2020).Central List of OBCs Goa(Report). Archived fromthe originalon 20 October 2020.
  74. ^abCentral Commission for Backward Classes (20 October 2020).Central List of OBCs Karnataka(Report). Archived fromthe originalon 22 December 2018.
  75. ^abCentral Commission for Backward Classes (20 October 2020).Central List of OBCs Gujarat(Report). Archived fromthe originalon 20 October 2020.
  76. ^abCentral Commission for Backward Classes (20 October 2020).Central List of OBCs Madhya Pradesh(Report). Archived fromthe originalon 20 October 2020.
  77. ^abCentral Commission for Backward Classes (20 October 2020).Central List of OBCs Chattisgarh(Report). Archived fromthe originalon 20 October 2020.
  78. ^abCentral Commission for Backward Classes (20 October 2020).Central List of OBCs Uttar Pradesh(Report). Archived fromthe originalon 20 October 2020.
  79. ^abNangal, Preeti (29 August 2019)."Adivasis and the Indian State: Deliberately misclassified as SC, Dhangar tribe in UP is being deprived of its constitutional rights".Firstpost.Mumbai.Retrieved29 August2019.As recent as on 17 January 2019, the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Research and Training Institute (SCSTRTI) wrote a letter to the Principal Secretary to the Government of Uttar Pradesh stating the difference between Dhangar and Gaderia, and that the Hindi version of the word Dhangar is धंगड़ as per the Gazette notification issued in 1950 by the President/Indian Government. Therefore, the Gadaria community's धनगर cannot be included in the SC category since they are not a sub-caste in Dhangar and rather belong to the OBC category in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
  80. ^abCentral Commission for Backward Classes (20 October 2020).Central List of OBCs Uttarakhand(Report). Archived fromthe originalon 20 October 2020.
  81. ^abCentral Commission for Backward Classes (20 October 2020).Central List of OBCs Delhi(Report). Archived fromthe originalon 20 October 2020.
  82. ^abGhoge, Ketaki (28 June 2019)."Maharashtra's OBC communities not happy with HC ruling on Maratha quota".Archived fromthe originalon 10 November 2020.The Dhangars come under nomadic tribe category within the larger OBC quota in Maharashtra, but were promised reservation under scheduled tribes in 2014
  83. ^abJog, Sanjay (21 September 2020)."Maharashtra Dhangar community to launch statewide agitation to press for quota under ST category".Archived fromthe originalon 10 November 2020.At present, the Dhangar community gets 3.5 per cent quota in government jobs and education under Nomadic Tribe (C) category, which comes under OBC category.
  84. ^Omvedt, Gail (10 April 2012)."Who are OBCs?".Archived fromthe originalon 15 October 2020.Retrieved10 April2012.There is a great hierarchy among the OBCs. The group considering themselves "highest" are the mainly peasant castes (Jats and Kurmis in north India, Kunbis in Maharashtra, Vellalas in south India, etc); close to these are the herding (Yadavas, Dhangars, Korbis) and gardening (Malis, Sainis) communities. Ranging below these are the various artisan and service groups – goldsmiths, blacksmiths, potters, barbers, washermen etc. This linkage of caste with profession is unique to the Indian caste system. Ambedkar had described caste as a "graded hierarchy" with a ascending ladder of status and a descending degree of contempt; Phule had talked of how the "ignorant Kunbi looked down on the ignorant Mahar, the ignorant Mahar scorned the ignorant Mang" – these were expressions of this hierarchy of caste, in which every group tried to claim a higher status than another.
  85. ^Cashman (1975),p. 11.
  86. ^Hassan (1989),p. 169.
  87. ^Zelliot (1988),p. 117.
  88. ^Jiwan (2000),p. 63.
  89. ^Dhere (2011),p. 292.
  90. ^Kulkarni, Dhaval (10 February 2014)."Demands for quotas from new groups add to Maharashtra govt's woes".DNA.Retrieved17 June2014.
  91. ^"Maharashtra Chief Minister Devendra Fadnavis promises quota for Dhangar community".The Economic Times.Retrieved20 September2022.
  92. ^Government of India (31 March 2020).2011 Census of India Scheduled Caste(PDF)(Report). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 20 October 2020.
  93. ^Government of India (31 March 2020).2011 Census of India Scheduled Tribe(PDF)(Report). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 7 November 2013.
  94. ^Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India (December 2002).27th report of Standing Committee on Labour and Welfare with regards to SCs and STs order (Second Amendment) Bill, 2002(PDF)(Report). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 24 October 2020.
  95. ^Ramusack, Barbara N.(2004).The Indian Princes and their States.The New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge University Press. p. 35.ISBN9781139449083.
  96. ^Jones, Rodney W. (1974).Urban Politics in India: Area, Power, and Policy in a Penetrated System.University of California Press. p.25.
  97. ^Khanolkar, D.D. (1979).Marathwada University Journal - Volumes 17-18.Marathwada University. p. 67.
  98. ^Bhattacharya, Sabyasachi (2002).Education and the Disprivileged Nineteenth and Twentieth Century India.Orient BlackSwan. p. 40.ISBN9788125021926.
  99. ^Deshpande, Devidas (August 2019)."They'd like you to caste your vote".
  100. ^"Former BJP minister Dange joins NCP".30 September 2006. Archived fromthe originalon 2 October 2017.
  101. ^"Government positive about the reservation of Dhangar community: Uddhav Thackeray".Archived fromthe originalon 14 November 2020.
  102. ^Goa, HCN (August 2019)."Dy CM Babu Kavlekar on appointment of Shri N. D. Agrawal (G.C.S) as Advisor for Dhangars community".
  103. ^"Goa Gets Four New Ministers in Cabinet Reshuffle, Chandrakant Kavlekar to Become New Deputy CM".July 2019.
  104. ^"Vidhansabhet Dhangar samajachi sankhya pachavarun ekvar".2 November 2019. Archived fromthe originalon 13 November 2020.
  105. ^Mhaske, Pandurang (October 2014)."At 94, Deshmukh ready for 11th term".
  106. ^Alok Deshpande (1 October 2019)."BJP poaches Dhangar leader to take on Ajit Pawar".Archived fromthe originalon 13 November 2020.
  107. ^"Archived copy".Retrieved9 July2016.
  108. ^Mrityunjay Bose (18 October 2019)."Pawar vs Ram Shinde, an eyeball to eyeball conflict".Archived fromthe originalon 13 November 2020.
  109. ^"Dr Vikas Mahatme raises Dhangar reservation demand in Rajya Sabha - Times of India".The Times of India.Retrieved16 September2018.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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  • Baviskar, B.S., "Co-operatives and caste in Maharashtra: A case study".Sociological Bulletin,XVIII:2:1969:148-166.
  • Chaubey Ganesh, "The Dhangar Songs",Folklore,Vol. I No 4, Calcutta, 1958, pp. 22–25.
  • Malhotra, K., 1980a, "Inbreeding among the four Dhangar castes of Maharashtra. India". Collegium antropologicum, 3.
  • Malhotra, K., 1980b, "Matrimonial distances among four Dhangar castes of Maharashtra",South Asian Anthropology,1.
  • Malhotra, K., 1984, "Population structure among the Dhangar caste cluster of Maharashtra", in J.R. Lukacs (ed.),The People of South Asia.
  • Prasad Satyanarain. "Modern education among the tribals of Bihar in the second half of the 19th century".Man in India,LI:4:1971:365-393.
  • Saksena, R.N., and Chinchalkar, "Dhangars and Gadariyas: The Most backward divisions of Indian tribes and caste".Vanyajati,XXV:2: 1977:14–17.
  • Prof. Prabhu N Kokane, "Socio-Legal" Identification of Scheduled Castes/Tribes & Backward Classes (2007). Nanded, Maharashtra.
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