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Dingling

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the writer, seeDing Ling.For the tomb, seeDingling (Ming).
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TheDinglingand contemporary Asian polities circa 100 BCE.

TheDingling[a]were an ancient people who appear inChinese historiographyin the context of the 1st century BCE.

The Dingling are considered to have been an earlyTurkic-speaking people.[1][2]They were also proposed to be the ancestors ofTungusic speakersamong the laterShiwei people,[3][4]or are related toNa-DenéandYeniseianspeakers.[5]

Modern archaeologists have identified the Dingling as belonging to theeastern Scythian horizon,namely theTagar culture.[6]

Etymology[edit]

The ethnonym 'Dingling' is regarded by modern scholars in the Western world as being interchangeable with the ethnonym'Tiele',who are believed to be the descendants of the Dingling.[7][8]Chinese historiographers believed that 'Tiele' was a mistaken transription, related them to the ancient RedDi( địch địch ), and recorded various names like Dili ( địch lịch ), Gaoche ( cao xe ) or Chile ( sắc lặc ).[9][10]

Several modern scholars, includingPeter B. Golden,now believe that all of these ethnonyms described by the Chinese all derive from Altaic exonyms describing wheeled vehicles, with 'Dingling' perhaps being an earlier rendering of a Tuoba word (*tegreg), meaning "wagon".[11]

Peter Golden also wrote that "Gaoche" or "high carts" may be a translation of "Dinglinget al. ".[12]Edwin Pulleyblankwrites that "High Cart" is just one of several variations of exonyms that ultimately reflect the original Turkic meaning of 'Dingling', which is possibly derived from *Tägräg, meaning "circle, hoop".[13]

Origin and migration[edit]

Lineage of the Dingling

TheWeilüementioned three Dingling groups:[14]

  • one group south of Majing ( mã hĩnh, literally: "Horse-Shank[ed people]" ), north ofKangju,and west ofWusun;
  • another south of the North Sea, identified asLake Baikal;
  • and another north ofXiongnuand neighbouring the Qushi ( khuất bắn ), Hunyun ( hồn dũ ),Gekun( cách côn ), andXinli( tân lê ), all of whom had once been conquered by the Xiongnu.[15]

Murphy (2003) proposes that the Dingling's country had been in theMinusinsk Basinon theYenisey river,[16]thus close to the location of the Dingling group who neighbored the Kangju, Wusun, and Horse-Shanked people. Dingling gradually moved southward toMongoliaandnorthern China.They were a huge independent horde for centuries, but were later defeated and temporarily became subject of theXiongnuEmpire,[17][18]and thus presumably related to the invaders known asHunsin the west.[19]One group, known as the West Dingling, remained in an area that would becomeKazakhstan,while others – expelled fromMongoliaby theRouran– settled in theTarim Basinduring the 5th century and took control ofTurpan.

Aneastern Scythiancart fromPazyryk.The tall wheels of this cart are related to those used by the Dingling and other Turkic nomads, which provides evidence of cultural continuity between the Scythians and the Turkic peoples.[20][21]

The Dingling had a warlike society, formed by traders, hunters, fishers, and gatherers, living a semi-nomadic life in thesouthern Siberianmountaintaigaregion fromLake Baikalto northern Mongolia. Some ancient sources claims that Di or Zhai ( địch ) was adopted as the group name because the Zhai family had been the ruling house for centuries.[22][23][24]

Other sources claim that they might have been correlated with theGuifang,a northern tribe that appears in theoracle boneinscriptions fromYinxu.[25]

According to theHistory of the GaocheofWei Shou(6th century), the origin of the Dingling can be traced to the Chidi ( xích địch ) (lit. Red Di), who lived in northern China during theSpring and Autumn period.TheMozimentions a total of eight related Di groups, of whom only "Red Di" ( xích địch, Chidi), the "White Di" ( bạch địch, Baidi), and "Tall Di" ( trường địch, Changdi) are known.[26][27][28]

To the north of theXiongnuempire and Dingling territories, at the headwaters of theYeniseiaroundTannu Uriankhai,lived theGekun( cách côn ), also known as theYenisei Kirghizin later records. Further to the west near theIrtyshriver lived the Hujie ( hô bóc ). Other tribes living of the Xiongnu, such as the Hunyu ( hồn dữu ), Qushe ( khuất bắn ), andXinli( tân lê ), were only mentioned once in Chinese records, and their exact location is unknown.[29][30]

During the 2nd century BCE, the Dingling became subjects ofModu Chanyualong with 26 other tribes, including theYuezhiandWusun.[31]

Dingling and Xiongnu[edit]

The Dingling were first subjugated by theXiongnu,but the latter gradually weakened. In 71 BCE, after numerous conflicts between the Chinese and the Xiongnu, the Dingling, led by Zhai Jin, with help from neighboring tribes, took the opportunity to revolt. From 63 to 60 BCE, during a split within the Xiongnu ruling clan of Luanti ( Luyên Đê ), the Dingling attacked the Xiongnu, together with theWusunfrom the west, supported by the Chinese from the south and theWuhuanfrom the southeast.[32]

In 51 BCE, the Dingling, together with the Hujie and Gekun, were defeated by the Xiongnu underZhizhi Chanyu,on his way toKangju.Over the next century there may have been more uprisings, but the only recorded one was in the year 85, when together with theXianbeithey made their final attack on the Xiongnu, and Dingling regained its power under Zhai Ying.[33]After that, under the Dingling pressure, the remaining of northern Xiongnu and theTuobaformed the confederacy by Xianbei chiefTanshihuai( đàn thạch hòe ). After his death in 181, the Xianbei moved south and the Dingling took their place on the steppe.

Some groups of Dingling, called the West Dingling by the ancient Chinese, started to migrate into western Asia, but settled inKangju( khang cư ), modern dayKazakhstanandUzbekistan.There is no specific source to tell where exactly they settled, but some claimLake Zaysan( tể tang or trai tang ).

Assimilation[edit]

Between the short-livedXianbei confederacyin 181 and the foundation of theRouranQaghanate in 402, there was a long period without a tribal confederacy on the steppe. During this period, a part of the Dingling were assimilated to thenorthern Xiongnuby permanently settling further to the south.[34]Another group, documented as about 450,000, moved southeast and merged into the Xianbei.

Some groups of Dingling settled in China duringWang Mang's reign. According to theWeilüe,another group of Dingling escaped to the western steppe in Kazakhstan, which has been called the West Dingling.[35]Around the 3rd century, Dinglings living in China began to adopt family names such as Zhai or Di ( địch ), Xianyu ( tiên với ), Luo ( Lạc ) and Yan ( nghiêm ).[36]These Dingling became part of the southern Xiongnu tribes known asChile( xích lặc ) during the 3rd century, from which the name Chile ( sắc lặc ) originated.

During theSixteen Kingdomsperiod, the West Dingling Khan Zhai Bin ( địch bân ) lead his hordes, migrate from Kazakhstan into Central China, served under theFormer Qin,after series of plotting, Zhai Bin was betrayed by Former Qin, to avoid Qin nobles further attempts, he revolted against the Former Qin Dynasty. Murong Chui ( Mộ Dung rũ ), the Xianbei leader under Former Qin court, got appointed as the high command of Former Qin army, was expected to take down the revolt, but convinced by Zhai Bin, joined his mutiny to against Former Qin. Their mutiny were also joined by several other Xianbei tribes which formed the Anti-Qin leagues, with the suggestion by Zhai Bin, Murong Chui was elected to be the leader of the leagues. Near end of the same year, Murong Chui styled himself King of Yan ( Yến vương ), left Zhai Bin the new leader of the league and a dilemma of the war, later Murong Chui broke the alliance with the leagues, murdered Zhai Bin and his three sons in an ambush. His nephew Zhai Zhen ( địch thật ) inherited the horde, was elected be the new Leader of the leagues, seeking for revenge, but later assassinated by his military advisor Xianyu Qi ( tiên với khất ), Xian did not escape far, were caught by the Dingling soldiers and got executed, the leagues elected Zhai Zhen's cousin Zhai Cheng ( địch thành ) as the new Leader, but later also been assassinated by Yan spy, thenZhai Liao( địch liêu ), became the new leader of Dingling horde, with the support from the Leagues, he founded theWei state,a DingLing Dynasty in China in modern Henan Province.[37]

About one-quarter of the Tuoba clans show similar names as found among the later Gaoche and Tiele tribes. Among them, theHegu( hột cốt ) and Yizhan ( Ất chiên ) clans kept their high status.

Between the 4th and 7th centuries, the name "Dingling" slowly disappeared from Chinese records, coinciding with the rise of theUyghur Khaganate.[38]

Cultural and linguistic theories[edit]

Several theories have been proposed about the relationship between the Dingling and both ancient and living cultures, based on linguistic, historical and archaeological evidence.

Turkic hypothesis[edit]

The Dingling are considered to have been an earlyTurkic-speaking people.[39][40]

Weilüerecords the Dingling word for thearctic fox(vulpes lagopus) as côn tửkūnzǐ(Middle Chinese(ZS): *kuən-t͡sɨX< Early Middle Chinese: *kwən-tsɨ’/tsi’<Eastern Han Chinese:*kûn-tsəʔ), which is proposed to be fromProto-Turkic*qïrsaq~ *karsak.[41][42][43][44]

Tungusic hypothesis[edit]

Chinese historians linked the Tungusic speakers among the later Shiwei people to the Dingling, considering them as descendants of the Dingling owing to linguistic similarities.[3][4][b]

Dené-Yeniseian hypothesis[edit]

InZur jenissejisch-indianischen Urverwandtschaft (Concerning Yeniseian-IndianPrimal Relationship),the German scholar, Heinrich Werner developed a new language family which he termedBaikal–Siberic.By extension, he groups together theYeniseianpeoples (Arin,Assan,Yugh,Ket,Kott,andPumpokol), theNa-DeneIndigenous peoples of the Americas, and the Dingling of Chinese chronicles toProto-Dingling.[46]The linguistic comparison of Na-Dene and Yeniseian shows that the quantity and character of the correspondences points to a possible common origin. According to Russian linguistic experts, they likely spoke apolysyntheticorsynthetic languagewith anactiveform ofmorphosyntactic alignment,exhibiting a linguistically and culturally unified community.

The name Dingling resembles both:

  • the Yeniseian word *dzhengpeople>Ket de?ng, Yug dyeng, Kott cheang
  • the Na-Dene word *ling or*hlingpeople,i.e. as manifested in the name of theTlingit(properlyhling-gitson of man, child of the people).

Although theDené–Yeniseianlanguage family is now a widely known proposal, his inclusion of the Dingling is not widely accepted.

Physical appearance[edit]

There is some evidence that the Dingling looked similar to European people, based on their identification with theTagar cultureof the Altai region in Siberia. In the 20th century, several historians proposed that the Tagar people were characterized by a high frequency of light hair and light eyes, and that the associated Dingling were blond-haired.[47][48]Genetic testing of fossils from the Tagar culture has confirmed the theory that they were often blue eyed and light-haired.[49]Twenty-first century scholars continue to describe the Dingling in a similar manner. Adrienne Mayor repeated N. Ishjants' description (1994) of the Dingling as "red-haired, blue-eyed giants" while M.V. Dorina called the Dingling "European-looking."[50][51]

The Chinese sources do not differentiate the Dingling's appearance from the Han Chinese. Chinese histories unanimously depict the Dingling as the ancestors of the Tiele, whose physical appearance is also not described, but seem to have included non-Turkic speaking peoples. TheAlans,an Iranic people, are included among them, as well as the Bayegu, who had a somewhat different language than the Tiele according to theNew Book of Tang.TheNew Bookalso relates that the Kyrgyz intermixed with the Dingling. TheBook of Suistates that the Tiele had similar customs to theGöktürksbut different marriage and burial traditions.[52]

TheClassic of Mountains and Seasdescribed the Dingling as human beings with horses' legs and hooves and excellent at running.[53]However, this description is mythological in nature.[54]A similar description is also echoed in aWusunaccount, recorded in theWeilüe(compiled 239-265 CE), which describes the men of Majing ( "Horse Shanks" ), located north of the Dingling, as possessing horse legs and hooves.[55]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Chinese:Leng keng(174 BCE);Đinh linh(200 BCE);Eastern Han Chinese:*teŋ-leŋ<Old Chinese:*têŋ-rêŋ
  2. ^Shiwei were stated in most Chinese sources (e.g.Weishu100,Suishu84,Jiu Tangshu199) to be relatives to para-Mongolic-speakingKhitans;the Shiwei sub-tribe Mengwu ( mông ngột ) / Mengwa ( mông ngói ) were considered ancestral to theMongols.[45]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Hyun Jin Kim:The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe.Cambridge University Press, 2013. pp.175-176.
  2. ^ Peter B. Golden:Some Thoughts on the Origins of the Turks and the Shaping of the Turkic PeoplesinContact and Exchange in the Ancient World.Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawaii Press, 2006. p.140
  3. ^abXin Tangshuvol. 219 "Shiwei"txt:" Thất Vi, Khiết Đan đừng loại, Đông Hồ chi phía bắc, cái leng keng dòng dõi cũng "translation by Xu (2005:176)" The Shiwei, who were a collateral branch of the Khitan inhabited the northern boundary of the Donghu, were probably the descendants of the Dingling... Their language was the same as that of the Mohe. "
  4. ^abXu Elina-Qian,Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan,University of Helsinki, 2005. p. 176. quote: "The Mohe were descendants of the Sushen and ancestors of the Jurchen, and identified as Tungus speakers."
  5. ^Werner, HeinrichZur jenissejisch-indianischen Urverwandtschaft.Harrassowitz Verlag. 2004abstract.p. 25
  6. ^Hartley, Charles W.; Yazicioğlu, G. Bike; Smith, Adam T. (19 November 2012).The Archaeology of Power and Politics in Eurasia: Regimes and Revolutions.Cambridge University Press. p. 245.ISBN978-1-139-78938-7."The Dinlin are considered to have been part of the Tagar Culture and are mentioned in the written sources as being among the acquired" possessions "of the Huns (Mannai—Ool 1970: 107; Sulimirski 1970: 112)."
  7. ^Wang, Penglin (28 March 2018).Linguistic Mysteries of Ethnonyms in Inner Asia.Le xing ton Books. p. 5.ISBN978-1-4985-3528-1."Dingling is alternatively called Tiele. Suishu and Beishi, both of which were written during the seventh century during the Tang period, traced the origin of the Tiele or Dingling back to Xiongnu."
  8. ^Hickman, Bill; Leiser, Gary (14 October 2015).Turkish Language, Literature, and History: Travelers' Tales, Sultans, and Scholars Since the Eighth Century.Routledge. p. 149.ISBN978-1-317-61295-7."...the Dingling leng keng, Old Chin. (before 200 BCE): *têŋ-rêŋ > Late Han (after 200 BCE to 200 CE): teŋ leŋ,32 a tribal union north of the Xiongnu, viewed as ancestral to the Tiele and possibly an early rendering of that ethnonym."
  9. ^WeishuVol 103 Gaoche"Cao xe, cái cổ xích địch rất nhiều loại cũng, sơ hào vì địch lịch, phương bắc cho rằng lai lặc, chư hạ cho rằng cao xe, leng keng." tr. "Gaoche, probably the remnant stock of the ancient RedDi.Initially, they had been called Dili; northerners considered them to be Chile; thevarious Xia(i.e. Chinese) considered them to be Gaoche Dingling (i.e. Dingling with High Cart) "
  10. ^Xin Tangshuvol. 217a"Hồi Hột, này trước Hung nô cũng, tục nhiều thừa cao luân xe, nguyên Ngụy khi cũng hào cao xe bộ, có người nói rằng sắc lặc, ngoa vì thiết lặc." tr: "Uyghurs,their predecessors were the Xiongnu. Because, customarily, they ride high-wheeled carts. InYuan Weitime, they were also called Gaoche (i.e. High-Cart) tribe. Or called Chile, or mistakenly as Tiele. "
  11. ^Tasar, Eren; Frank, Allen J.; Eden, Jeff (11 October 2021).From the Khan's Oven: Studies on the History of Central Asian Religions in Honor of Devin DeWeese.BRILL. p. 5.ISBN978-90-04-47117-7."The latter were part of the Tiĕlè union, earlier termed theGāochē"High Carts" (Liu, 1985, I:127--128; Pulleyblank, 1990: 21-26; Dobrovitz, 2011: 375-378), and before that the Dīnglíng, perhaps a rendering of *tegreg"wagon", a Tuoba/Tabgač exonym for Tiele (Kljaštornyj, 2010: 162-163; Golden, 2012: 179-180.) "
  12. ^Cosmo, Nicola Di; Maas, Michael (26 April 2018).Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity: Rome, China, Iran, and the Steppe, ca. 250–750.Cambridge University Press. p. 326.ISBN978-1-108-54810-6."55 Chinese accounts of the Northern Wei era also termed them Gaoche “high carts,” seemingly a translation of Dingling et al.: E. G. Pulleyblank, “The 'High Carts': A Turkish Speaking People before the Türks,”Asia Major3.1 (1990) 21–26. "
  13. ^PULLEYBLANK, EDWIN G. (1990)."The" High Carts ": A Turkish-Speaking People Before the Türks".Asia Major.3(1): 22.ISSN0004-4482.JSTOR41645442."The name Ting-ling continued to be used occasionally but other forms soon became more common. One is the Chinese Kao-ch'e" High Carts, "which is explained as referring to their wagons with very large wheels. The others, Ti-li, T'e-le, Ch'ih-le, Chih-le, and T'ieh-le,4 which are obviously transcriptions of foreign names, are evidently new transcriptions of the name that underlay Ting-ling. James Hamilton proposes to interpret this as *Tägräg, a word defined in Kashgari's dictionary as" circle, hoop. "5 The Chinese term" High Carts "was therefore probably not merely descriptive of their habits but related to the meaning of the Turkish name."
  14. ^Yu Huan,Weilüe,quoted inChen Shou,Sanguozhi,vol. 30 Xirong,draft translation by John E. Hil 2004Section 28
  15. ^Sima QianRecords of the Grand HistorianVol. 110"Sau bắc phục hồn dữu, khuất bắn, leng keng, cách côn, tân lê quốc gia. Thế là Hung nô quý nhân đại thần toàn phục, lấy Mặc Ðốn Thiền Vu vi hiền." tr. "Later [in the] north [he] subjugated the nations of Hunyu, Qushe, Dingling, Gekun, and Xinli. Therefore, the Xiongnu nobles and dignitaries all admired [and] considered Modunchanyuas capable. "
  16. ^Murphy, Eileen M. (2003).Iron Age Archaeology and Trauma from Aymyrlyg, South Siberia.Archaeopress. p. 16.ISBN978-1-84171-522-3."...the country of Dinlin [sic], which was located in the Minusinsk Basin on the Yenisey river."
  17. ^Lu (1996), pp. 111, 135-137.
  18. ^Li (2003), pp. 110-112.
  19. ^A. J. Haywood,Siberia: A Cultural History,Oxford University Press, 2010, p.203
  20. ^Andrews, Peter A. (1999).Felt Tents and Pavilions: The Nomadic Tradition and Its Interaction with Princely Tentage.Melisende. p. 89.ISBN978-1-901764-03-1.
  21. ^Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila S.; Blair, Sheila (14 May 2009).Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set.OUP USA. p. 281.ISBN978-0-19-530991-1."...among the Hsiung-nu and the High Cart confederation. Since the Turkic type, with its dependence on wood bending techniques, can be related to bent wooden wheels (c. 350 bce) found in barrow No. V at Pazyryk in Siberia, deriving from a tradition a millennium older, the connection with these cart dwelling nomads is significant."
  22. ^Xue (1992), pp. 54-60.
  23. ^Lu (1996), pp. 305-320.
  24. ^Duan (1988) pp. 35-53.
  25. ^Duan (1988) pp. 8-11.
  26. ^Duan (1988), pp. 1-6
  27. ^Suribadalaha (1986), p. 27.
  28. ^Theobald, Ulrich (2012).Di địchin ChinaKnowledge.de - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art
  29. ^Lu (1996), p. 136.
  30. ^Shen (1998), p. 75.
  31. ^Li (2003), p. 73.
  32. ^Duan (1988) pp. 99-100.
  33. ^Duan (1988) pp. 101-103.
  34. ^Duan (1988) pp. 111-113.
  35. ^Hill (2004), Section 28
  36. ^Duan (1988), pp. 137-142, 152-158.
  37. ^Duan (1988), pp. 148-152.
  38. ^Rhyne, George N.; Adams, Bruce Friend (2007).The Supplement to The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian, Soviet and Eurasian History: Deni, Viktor Nikolaevich - Dzhungaria.Academic International Press. p. 44.ISBN978-0-87569-142-8.
  39. ^ Hyun Jin Kim:The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe.Cambridge University Press, 2013. pp.175-176.
  40. ^ Peter B. Golden:Some Thoughts on the Origins of the Turks and the Shaping of the Turkic PeoplesinContact and Exchange in the Ancient World.Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawaii Press, 2006. p.140
  41. ^“Section 28 – The Kingdom of Dingling (Around Lake Baikal and on the Irtish River)”note 28.3The Peoples of the West from the Weilue Ngụy lược by Yu Huan cá hoạn A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE Quoted in zhuan 30 of the Sanguozhi Published in 429 CE Draft English translation by John E. Hill (September, 2004)
  42. ^Pulleyblank, E. G. (1962)"The consonantal system of Old Chinese. Part II"pdf, Asia Major 9; p. 226 of 206‒65.
  43. ^Schuessler (2014), p. 258, 273
  44. ^Starostin, Sergei; Dybo, Anna; Mudrak, Oleg (2003),“*KArsak”,inEtymological dictionary of the Altaic languages(Handbuch der Orientalistik; VIII.8), Leiden, New York, Köln: E.J. Brill
  45. ^Xu (2005), p. 86; quote: "The ancestors of the Mongols are believed to be the Mengwu Shiwei (Mengwa Shiwei) who appeared in history as late as in the Tang Dynasty (618-907)."; p. 184
  46. ^Werner, HeinrichZur jenissejisch-indianischen Urverwandtschaft.Harrassowitz Verlag. 2004abstract
  47. ^Russian Translation Series of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University.Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. 1964. p. 10."It is quite probable that the inhabitants of the Upper Yenissei during the epoch of the Tagar culture were characterized by light pigmentation (light hair and light eyes). This point of view was also held by Debets in one of his earlier published works concerning the so - called" blond Dinlin race, "which at the time Debets wrote gave rise to an extensive literature."
  48. ^Alekseev, Valerij P.; Gochman, Il'ja I. (3 December 2018).Asien II: Sowjet-Asien.Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 39.ISBN978-3-486-82294-6."For instance, the tribes which came from the upper Yenisei are called" dinlin "and they are described as fair pigmented in comparison with the Chinese (Bičurin, 1950-1953; Grumm Grzimajlo 1899, 1926)."
  49. ^Keyser, Christine; Bouakaze, Caroline; Crubézy, Eric; Nikolaev, Valery G.; Montagnon, Daniel; Reis, Tatiana; Ludes, Bertrand (May 16, 2009). "Ancient DNA provides new insights into the history of south Siberian Kurgan people".Human Genetics.126(3): 395–410.doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0683-0.PMID19449030.S2CID21347353.
  50. ^Mayor, Adrienne (9 February 2016).The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World.Princeton University Press. p. 421.ISBN978-0-691-17027-5."...the Dingling (described as “red-haired, blue-eyed giants,” perhaps related to the Altai, Tuva, Pazyryk, Kyrgyz cultures); "
  51. ^Dorina, M.V. (27 September 2017)."Fine arts and music: The cultural links of Southern Siberia and India".Eurasia and India: Regional Perspectives.Routledge. p. 106.ISBN978-1-351-69195-6."It was the time of intensive interracial marriages of European-looking men (dinlin) and the Turkic language–speaking Mongols (guangun-kyrgyz),"
  52. ^Lee, Joo-Yup; Kuang, Shuntu (18 October 2017)."A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and y-dna Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples".Inner Asia.19(2): 197–239.doi:10.1163/22105018-12340089.ISSN1464-8172.S2CID165623743.
  53. ^A Chinese bestiary: strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas.Translated by Richard E. Strassberg. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. (2002). p. 226.
  54. ^Mairs, Rachel (29 November 2020).The Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek World.Routledge. p. 460.ISBN978-1-351-61028-5.
  55. ^"Weilue: The Peoples of the West".depts.washington.edu."...north of the Dingling ( đinh lệnh ) is the kingdom of Majing ( mã hĩnh ‘Horses Shanks’). These men make sounds like startled wild geese. From above the knee, they have the body and hands of a man, but below the knees, they grow hair, and have horses’ legs and hooves. They don't ride horses as they can run faster than horses. They are brave, strong, and daring fighters".

Further reading[edit]

  • Duan, Lianqin (1988).Dingling, Gaoju and Tiele.Shanghai: Shanghai People's Press, 1988.
  • Hill, John E. (2004)."The Peoples of the West" from the Weilüe,Section 15. (Draft version). Downloadable from:[1].
  • Li, Jihe (2003).A Research on Migration of Northwestern Minorities Between pre-Qin to Sui and Tang.Beijing: Nationalities Press.
  • Lu, Simian(1996).A History of Ethnic Groups in China.Beijing: Oriental Press.
  • Shen, Youliang (1998).A Research on Northern Ethnic Groups and Regimes.Beijing: Central Nationalities University Press.
  • Suribadalaha (1986).New Studies of the Origins of the Mongols.Beijing: Nationalities Press.
  • Trever, Camilla (1932).Excavations in Northern Mongolia (1924-1925).Leningrad: J. Fedorov Printing House.
  • Xue, Zongzheng (1992).A History of Turks.Beijing: Chinese Social Sciences Press.
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