Dobruja

"Dobrudzha" redirects here. For the Bulgarianfootballteam, seeFC Dobrudzha Dobrich.

"Dobrogea" redirects here. For the village inChișinău,Moldova,seeSîngera.

Dobruja (dark green) withinBulgariaandRomania(light green), both inSoutheast Europe.

Coat of arms of the Romanian Dobruja

DobrujaorDobrudja(US:/ˈdoʊbrʊdʒə/;Bulgarian:Добруджа,romanized:DobrudzhaorDobrudža;Romanian:Dobrogea,pronounced[ˈdobrodʒe̯a]or[doˈbrodʒe̯a];Ukrainian:Задунав'я,romanized:Zadunav "ya;Turkish:Dobruca) is ageographicalandhistorical regioninSoutheastern Europethat has been divided since the 19th century between the territories ofBulgariaandRomania.It is situated between the lowerDanube Riverand theBlack Sea,and includes theDanube Delta,the Romanian coast, and the northernmost part of theBulgarian coast.The territory of Dobruja is made up ofNorthern Dobruja,which is a part of Romania, andSouthern Dobruja,which is a part of Bulgaria.

The territory of the Romanian regionDobrogeais organised as the counties ofConstanțaandTulcea,with a combined area of 15,588 km²(6,019 sq mi) and, as of 2021,a population of slightly less than 850,000. Its main cities areConstanța,Tulcea,Medgidia,andMangalia.Dobrogea is represented bydolphinsin thecoat of arms of Romania.

The Bulgarian regionDobrudzhais divided among the provinces ofDobrichandSilistra;the following villages ofRazgrad Province:Konevo, Rainino, Terter and Madrevo; and the village General Kantardzhievo (Varna). The region has a total area of 7,566 km²(2,921 sq mi), with a combined population as of 2021of some 250,000 people.The main towns areDobrichandSilistra,the administrative centers of the two provinces.

Geography

Geographical map of Dobruja

Woods and agricultural land in the Northern Dobruja Plateau

Steppe and agricultural land in the Central Dobruja Plateau

Rocky shores characteristic for the Southern Dobrujan coast

Except for theDanube Delta,a marshy region located in its northeastern corner, Dobruja is hilly, with an average altitude of about 200–300 metres. The highest point is the Țuțuiatu (Greci) Peak in theMăcin Mountains,having a height of 467 m. TheDobruja Plateaucovers most of the Romanian part of Dobruja. TheLudogorie Plateauis found in Bulgaria.Lake Razelmis one of the most important lakes in Northern Dobruja.

Dobruja lies in the temperatecontinentalclimatic area; the localclimateis determined by the influx of oceanic air from the northwest and northeast and continental air from theEast European Plain.Dobruja's relatively level terrain and its bare location facilitate the influx of humid, warm air in the spring, summer, and autumn from the northwest, as well as that of northern and northeastern polar air in the winter. The Black Sea also exerts an influence over the region's climate, particularly within 40–60 kilometres from the coast. The average annual temperatures range from 11 °C inland and along the Danube, to 11.8 °C on the coast and less than 10 °C in the higher parts of the plateau. The coastal region of Southern Dobruja is the most arid part of Bulgaria, with an annualprecipitationof 450 millimetres.

Dobruja is a windy region once known for itswindmills.There is wind during about 85–90% of all days; it usually comes from the north or northeast. The average wind speed is about twice higher than the average in Bulgaria. Due to the limited precipitation and the proximity to the sea, rivers in Dobruja are usually short and with low discharge. The region has several shallow seaside lakes withbrackish water.

Etymology

The most widespread opinion among scholars is that the origin of the termDobrujais to be found in the Turkish rendition of the name of a 14th‑century Bulgarian ruler,despotDobrotitsa.It was common for the Turks to name countries after one of their early rulers (for example, nearbyMoldaviawas known asBogdanIflakby the Turks, named afterBogdan I). Other etymologies have been considered, but never gained widespread acceptance.

Abdolonyme Ubicinibelieved the name meant "good lands", derived fromSlavicdobro( "good" ), an opinion that was adopted by several 19th‑century scholars. This derivation appears to contrast with the usual 19th‑century description of Dobruja as a dry barren land; it has been explained as expressing the point of view ofRuthenes,who considered the Danube delta in the northern Dobruja as a significant improvement over thesteppesto the North.I. A. Nazaretteancombines the Slavic word with theTatarbudjak( "corner" ), thus proposing the etymology "good corner".

A version matching contemporaneous descriptions was suggested byKanitz,who associated the name with theBulgariandobrice( "rocky and unproductive terrain" ).According toGheorghe I. Brătianu,the name is a Slavic derivation from the Turkic wordBordjanorBrudjars,which referred to the TurkicProto-Bulgarians;this term was also used by Arabic writers.

One of the earliest documented uses of the name can be found in theTurkishOghuz-namenarrative, dated to the 15th century, where it appears asDobruja-éli.Thepossessive suffixel-iindicated that the land was considered as belonging to Dobrotitsa ( "دوبرجه"in the original Ottoman Turkish).The loss of the final particle is not unusual in the Turkish world, a similar evolution being observed in the name ofAydın,originallyAydın-éli.Another early use is in the 16th‑centuryLatintranslation ofLaonicus Chalcondyles'Histories,where the termDobroditiais used for the originalGreek"Dobrotitsa's country" (Δοβροτίκεω χώρα).In the 17th century, the region was referred to in more accounts, with renditions such asDobrucia,Dobrutcha,Dobrus,Dobruccia,Dobroudja,Dobrudscha,and others being used by foreign authors.

Initially, the name meant just the steppe of the southern region, between the forests aroundBabadagin the north and theSilistra–Dobrich–Balchikline in the south.Eventually, the term was extended to include the northern part and theDanube Delta.In the 19th century, some authors used the name to refer just to the territory between the southernmost branch of the Danube (St. George) in the north and the Karasu Valley (nowadays theDanube-Black Sea Canal) in the south.

History

Prehistory

The territory of Dobruja has been inhabited by humans sinceMiddleandUpper Palaeolithic,as the remains atBabadag,Slava RusăandEnisalademonstrate. Paleolithic people made tools ofsilexand ate fruits, fish, and other hunted animals. In this period fire was discovered, and at its end, the bow with arrows and the boat sculpted from a trunk tree was invented. There were found tools in caves, inclusiveGura Dobrogei.In theNeolithic,the territory was occupied by members of theHamangia culture(named after a village on the Dobrujan coast),Boian culture,andKaranovo Vculture. At the end of the fifth millennium BC, under the influence of some Aegeo-Mediterranean tribes and cultures, theGumelniţa cultureappeared in the region. In theEneolithic,populations migrating from the north of the Black Sea, of theKurganculture, mixed with the previous population, creating theCernavodă Iculture. Under Kurgan II influence, the Cernavodă II culture emerged. Through the combination of the Cernavodă I andEzero culture,the Cernavodă III culture developed. The region had commercial contact with the Mediterranean world since the 14th century BC, as proven by aMycenaea sword discovered atMedgidia,but under the reserve demanded by lack of hard evidence in what concerns the provenience/manufacturer of such armours.

Ancient history

See also:Scythia Minor (Dobruja)

Ancient towns and colonies in Dobruja

The first Greek colony in the region,Histria

During the earlyIron Age(8th–6th centuries BC), there was increased differentiation of the localGetictribes from theThracianmass. In the second part of the 8th century BC, the first signs of commercial relations between the indigenous population and the Greeks appeared on the shore of the Halmyris Gulf (now theSinoe Lake).

In 657/656 BCancient Greekcolonists fromMiletusfounded a colony in the region:Histria.In the 7th and 6th centuries BC, moreGreek colonieswere founded on the Dobrujan coast (Callatis,Tomis,Dionysopolis,Parthenopolis, Aphrodisias, Eumenia etc.). In the 5th century BC these colonies were under the influence of theDelian League,passing in this period fromoligarchytodemocracy.In the 6th century BC, the firstScythiangroups began to enter the region. TwoGetictribes, theCrobyziandTerizi,and the town of Orgame (Argamum) were mentioned on the territory of present Dobruja byHekataios of Miletus(540–470 BC).

In 514/512 BC KingDarius I of Persiasubdued theGetaeliving in the region during his expedition against Scythians living north of the Danube.At about 430 BC, theOdrysian kingdomunderSitalkesextended its rule to the mouths of the Danube.In 429 BC, Getae from the region participated in an Odrysian campaign inMacedonia.In the 4th century BC, the Scythians brought Dobruja under their sway. In 341–339 BC, one of their kings,Atheas,fought against Histria, which was supported by aHistrianorum rex(probably a local Getic ruler). In 339 BC, King Atheas was defeated by theMacedoniansunder KingPhilip II,who afterwards extended his rule over Dobruja.

In 313 BC and again in 310–309 BC, the Greek colonies led by Callatis, supported byAntigonus I Monophthalmus,revolted against Macedonian rule.The revolts were suppressed byLysimachus,thediadochusofThrace,who also began a military expedition againstDromichaetes,the ruler of the Getae north of the Danube, in 300 BC. In the 3rd century BC, colonies on the Dobrujan coast paid tribute to thebasileiZalmodegikosandMoskon,who probably also ruled northern Dobruja.In the same century,Celtssettled in the north of the region. In 260 BC,Byzantionlost the war with Callatis and Histria for the control of Tomis. At the end of the 3rd century BC and the beginning of the 2nd century BC, theBastarnaesettled in the area of the Danube Delta. Around 200 BC, the Thracian kingZoltesinvaded the province several times, but was defeated byRhemaxos,who became the protector of the Greek colonies.

Early Greek scholars such asHerodotusappear to have regarded the region as the south-western extension ofScythia– a practice also followed in a 2nd-century BC inscription, recording a decree made in Histria, which refers to the region surrounding the Greek city asScythia.However, thetoponymΜικρά Σκυθία (Mikra Skythia), usually translated asScythia Minorappears to have become the name for the region later known as Dobruja.The earliest known usage ofMikra Skythiais found inStrabo's earlyGeography(1st century AD). The Greeks thus apparently distinguished it fromScythia Major,which lay north of the Danube delta.

Around 100 BC KingMithridates VI of Pontusextended his authority over the Greek cities in Dobruja.However, in 72–71 BC, during theThird Mithridatic War,these cities were occupied by the forces ofMarcus Terentius Varro Lucullus,theRomanproconsulofMacedonia.Afoeduswas signed between the Greek colonies and the Roman Republic, but in 62–61 BC the colonies revolted.Gaius Antonius Hybridaintervened, but was defeated by Getae and Bastarnae at theBattle of Histria.After 55 BC theDacian Kingdomunder KingBurebistaconquered Dobruja and all the Greek colonies on the coast.

Roman rule

See also:MoesiaandScythia Minor (Roman province)

In 28/29 BCRholes,aGeticruler from Southern Dobruja, supported the proconsul of Macedonia,Marcus Licinius Crassus,in his action against the Bastarnae. Declaredfriend and ally of the Roman peoplebyOctavian,Rholes helped Crassus in conquering the states ofDapyx(in central Dobruja) andZyraxes(in the north of the region).Dobruja became part of theclient kingdomof theOdrysians,while the Greek cities on the coast came under direct rule of the governor ofMacedonia.

In 6 AD the Roman province ofMoesiawas created when mention is made of its governor,Caecina Severus.,but Dobruja, under the nameRipa Thraciae,remained part of the Odrysian kingdom.The Greek cities on the coast formed apraefectura orae maritimae.

In 12 AD and 15 AD, Getic armies succeeded in conquering the cities ofAegyssusandTroesmisfor a short time, but Odrysian kingRhoemetalces Idefeated them with the help of the Roman army.

In 46 ADThraciabecame a Roman province and the territories of present Dobruja were absorbed into the province of Moesia.TheGeto–Daciansinvaded the region several times in the 1st century AD, especially between 62 and 70.In the same period, the base of theRoman Danube fleet(classis Flavia Moesica) was moved toNoviodunum.Thepraefecturawas annexed to Moesia in 86 AD. In the same yearDomitiandivided Moesia, Dobruja being included in the eastern part,Moesia Inferior.

TheTropaeum Traianimonument inAdamclisicommemorating Roman victory over Dacians (Modern reconstruction)

In the winter of 101–102 the Dacian kingDecebalusled a coalition of Dacians,Carpians,SarmatiansandBursin an attack against Moesia Inferior. The invading army was defeated by the Roman legions under EmperorTrajanon theYantra river.(LaterNicopolis ad Istrumwas founded there to commemorate the victory.) The invaders were also defeated near the modern village ofAdamclisi,in the southern part of Dobruja. The latter victory was commemorated by theTropaeum Traianimonument built in 109 at the site and the founding of the city of the same name. After 105,Legio XI ClaudiaandLegio V Macedonicawere moved toDurostorumandTroesmis,respectively.

In 118Hadrianintervened in the region to calm a Sarmatian rebellion.In 170Costobociinvaded Dobruja, attackingLibida,UlmetumandTropaeum.The province was generally stable and prosperous until thecrisis of the Third Century,which led to the weakening of defences and numerous barbarian invasions. In theGothic War (248-253)a coalition ofGothsunder KingCnivadevastated Dobruja.Barbarian attacks followed in 258, 263 and 267. In 269 a fleet of allied Goths,Heruli,Bastarnaeand Sarmatians attacked the cities on the coast, including Tomis.In 272Aureliandefeated the Carpians north of the Danube and settled a part of them nearCarsium.The same emperor put an end to the crisis in the Roman Empire, thus helping the reconstruction of the province.

During the reign ofDiocletian,Dobruja was organized administratively as a separate province, calledScythia,part of theDioceseof Thracia. Its capital city was Tomis. Diocletian createdLegio II HerculiaandLegio I Ioviaand installed them at Troesmis and Noviodunum respectively. In 331–332Constantine the Greatdefeated the Goths who attacked the province.But Dobruja was devastated again byOstrogothsin 384–386. Under the Roman emperorsLicinius,Julian the Apostate,andValens,the cities of the region were repaired or rebuilt.

Byzantine rule

After the division of theRoman Empire,Dobruja was absorbed into theEastern Roman Empire.Between 513 and 520, the region participated in a revolt againstAnastasius I.Its leader,Vitalian,native ofZaldapain Southern Dobruja, defeated the Byzantine generalHypatiusnearKaliakra.DuringJustin I's rule,AntesandSlavsinvaded the region, butGermanus Justinusdefeated them. In 529, theGepidcommanderMundusrepelled a new invasion byBulgarsand Antes.KutrigursandAvarsinvaded the region several times, until 561–562, when the Avars underBayan Iwere settled south of the Danube asfoederati.During the rule ofMauricius Tiberius,the Slavs devastated Dobruja, destroying the cities ofDorostolon,Zaldapa, and Tropaeum. In 591/593, Byzantine generalPriscustried to stop invasions, attacking and defeating the Slavs underArdagastin the north of the province. In 602 during the mutiny of the Byzantine army in the Balkans underPhocas,a large mass of Slavs crossed the Danube, settling south of the Danube. Dobruja remained under loose Byzantine control, and was reorganised during the reign ofConstantine IVasThemaScythia.

First Bulgarian Empire rule

Further information:First Bulgarian Empire

Monument toAsparukh,the founder of the First Bulgarian State, inDobrich;Dobruja was part of Asparukh's conquest in the 7th century

The results of archaeological research indicate that the Byzantine presence on Dobruja's mainland and the banks of the Danube were reduced at the end of the 6th century, under the pressure of theMigration Period.In the coastal fortifications on the southern bank of the Danube, the latest Byzantine coin found dates from the time of the emperorsTiberius II Constantine(574–582) andHeraclius(610–641). After that period, all inland Byzantine cities were demolished by the invaders and abandoned.

Some of theearliest Slavicsettlements to the south of Danube have been discovered in Dobruja, near the villages ofPopina,GarvănandNova Cherna.They have been dated to the end of the 6th and the beginning of the 7th centuries.These lands became the main zone of compactBulgarsettlement in the end of the 7th century.

According to the peace treaty of 681, signed after the Bulgarian victory over Byzantines in theBattle of Ongala,Dobruja became part of theFirst Bulgarian Empire.Shortly after, the Bulgar founded the city ofPliska,which became the first Bulgarian capital, near the southern border of Dobruja.They rebuiltMadaraas a major Bulgar pagan religious centre.According to theBulgarian Apocryphal Chronicle,from the 11th century, Bulgarian TsarIspor"accepted the Bulgarian tsardom", created "great cities,Drastaron the Danube ", a" great wall from Danube to the sea "," the city ofPliska"and" populated the lands ofKarvuna".

According to Bulgarian historians, during the 7th–10th centuries, the region was fortified by construction of a large network of earthen and wooden strongholds and ramparts.Around the end of the 8th century, widespread building of new stone fortresses and defensive walls began.The Bulgarians also reconstructed some of the ruined Byzantine fortresses (Kaliakra and Silistra in the 8th century, Madara andVarnain the 9th).According to Barnea, among other historians, during the following three centuries of Bulgarian domination, Byzantines still controlled the Black Sea coast and the mouths of Danube, and for short periods, even some cities.But Bulgarian archaeologists note that the last Byzantine coins found, which are considered a proof of Byzantine presence, date inKaliakrafrom the time of EmperorJustin II(565–578),inVarnafrom the time of EmperorHeraclius(610–641),and in Tomis fromConstantine IV's rule (668–685).

At the beginning of the 8th century,Justinian IIvisited Dobruja to ask BulgarianKhanTervelfor military help. KhanOmurtag(815–831) built a "glorious home on the Danube" and erected a mound in the middle of the distance between Pliska and his new building, according to his inscription kept inSS. Forty Martyrs ChurchinVeliko Tarnovo.The location of this edifice is unclear; the main theories place it at Silistra or atPăcuiul lui Soare.Many early medieval Bulgar stone inscriptions were found in Dobruja, including historical narratives, inventories of armament or buildings, and commemorative texts.During this period Silistra became an important Bulgarian ecclesiastical centre—an episcopate after 865 and seat of the Bulgarian Patriarch at the end of the 10th century.In 895,Magyartribes fromBudjakinvaded Dobruja and northeastern Bulgaria. An old Slavic inscription, found atMircea Vodă,mentionsZhupanDimitri (Дѣимитрѣ жѹпанѣ), a local feudal landlord prominent in the south of the region in 943.

Return of Byzantine rule and late migrations

With financial encouragement from the Byzantine emperor,Nikephoros II Phocas,Sviatoslav I of Kievagreed to assist the Byzantines in their war with the Bulgarians. Sviatoslav defeated the Bulgarians (led byBoris II) and proceeded to occupy the whole of northern Bulgaria. He occupied Dobruja in 968 and moved the capital ofKievan Rus'toPereyaslavets,in the north of the region. Sviatoslav refused to turn his Balkan conquests over to the Byzantines, and the parties fell out as a result. So the Byzantines underJohn I Tzimiscesreconquered Dobruja in 971 and included it in the theme 'Mesopotamia of the West' (Μεσοποταμια της Δυσεον).

According to some historians, soon after 976or in 986, the southern part of Dobruja was included in the Bulgarian state then ruled bySamuel.The northern part remained under Byzantine rule, being reorganised in an autonomousklimata.Other historians are of the view that Northern Dobruja was reconquered by Bulgarians as well.In 1000, a Byzantine army commanded byTheodorokanosreconquered the whole of Dobruja,organizing the region as theStrategiaofDorostolonand, after 1020, asParistrion(Paradounavon).

To prevent mounted attacks from the north, the Byzantines constructed threerampartsfrom the Black Sea down to the Danube, in the 10th–11th centuries.According to Bulgarian archaeologists and historians, these fortifications may have been built much earlier and were erected by the First Bulgarian Empire in response to the threat ofKhazars' raids.

From the 10th century, Byzantines accepted small groups ofPechenegssettling in Dobruja.In the spring of 1036, an invasion of the Pecheneg devastated large parts of the region,destroying the forts atCapidavaandDervent,and burning the settlement ofDinogeţia.In 1046 the Byzantines accepted the Pecheneg underKegensettling in Paristrion as foederati.The Pecheneg dominated the region until 1059, whenIsaac I Komnenosreconquered Dobruja.

In 1064, an invasion by theOghuz Turksaffected the region. During 1072 to 1074, when Nestor (the newstrategosof Paristrion) was in Dristra, he found that the Pecheneg ruler, Tatrys, was leading a rebellion. In 1091, three autonomous, probably Pecheneg,rulers were mentioned in theAlexiad:Tatos (Τατοῦ) or Chalis (χαλῆ), in the area ofDristra(probably the same person as Tatrys),and Sesthlav (Σεσθλάβου) and Satza (Σατζά) in the area ofVicina.TheCumansmoved into Dobruja in 1094 and were influential in the region until the advent of theOttoman Empire.

Second Bulgarian Empire and Mongol domination

Bulgaria in the second half of the 13th century. The red points show the range of the Ivailo Uprising.

In 1187 the Byzantines lost control of Dobruja to the restored Bulgarian Empire. In 1241, the firstTatargroups, underKadan,invaded Dobruja starting a century long history of turmoil in the region.Around 1263–64, Byzantine EmperorMichael VIII Palaeologusgave permission toSultanKaykaus IIto settle in the area with a group ofSeljuk TurksfromAnatolia.A missionaryTurkish mystic,Sarı Saltuk,was the spiritual leader of this group.His tomb inBabadag(which was named after him)is still a place of pilgrimage for Muslims. Arab chronicles of the 13th century mentioned Dobrogea under the name "Şakji" and the Vlachs inhabitants under the names "al-Awalak" and "ulaqut". In 1265, the Bulgarian EmperorConstantine Tikh Asenhired 20,000 Tatars to cross the Danube and attack ByzantineThrace.On their way back, the Tatars forced most of the Seljuk Turks, including their chief Sarı Saltuk, to resettle in Kipchak (Cumania).

In the second part of the 13th century, the Turco–MongolianGolden HordeEmpire continuously raided and plundered Dobruja.The inability of the Bulgarian authorities to cope with the numerous raids became the main reason for the uprising, led byIvailo(1277–1280), that broke out in eastern Bulgaria.Ivailo's army defeated the Tatars, who were forced to leave the Bulgarian territory; he next outed Constantine Tikh's army, and Ivailo has crowned Emperor of Bulgaria.

The war with the Tatars continued. In 1278, after a new Tatar invasion in Dobruja, Ivailo was forced to retreat to the strong fortress of Silistra, where he withstood a three-month siege.In 1280 the Bulgarian nobility, which feared the growing influence of the peasant emperor, organised a coup. Ivailo had to flee to his enemy the TatarNogai Khan,who later killed him.In 1300Toqta,the new Khan of the Golden Horde, cededBessarabiato EmperorTheodore Svetoslav.

Kaliakra fortress,the seat of the autonomous Dobrujan Principality

Autonomous Dobruja

Main article:Principality of Karvuna

In 1325, theEcumenical Patriarchnominated Methodius as Metropolitan of Varna and Carvona.After this date,Balik/Balicais mentioned as a local ruler in Southern Dobruja. In 1346, he supportedJohn V Palaeologusin hisdisputefor the Byzantine throne withJohn VI Cantacuzenus.He sent an army corps under his sonDobrotitsa/Dobroticiand his brother, Theodore, to help the mother of John Palaeologus, Anna of Savoy. For his bravery, Dobrotitsa received the title ofstrategosand married the daughter ofmegaduxApokaukos.After the reconciliation of the two pretenders, a territorial dispute broke out between the Dobrujan polity and the Byzantine Empire for the port ofMidia.In 1347, at John V Palaeologus' request,EmirBahud-din Umur,BeyofAydın,led a naval expedition against Balik, destroying Dobruja's seaports. Balik and Theodore died during the confrontation, and Dobrotitsa became the new ruler.

Principality of Dobrotici/Dobrotitsa during the 1370s

Between 1352 and 1359, with the collapse of Golden Horde rule in Northern Dobruja, a new state appeared. It was controlled byTatarprinceDemetrius,who claimed to be the protector of the river mouths of the Danube.

In 1357 Dobrotitsa was mentioned as adespotruling over a large territory, including the fortresses ofVarna,Kozeakos (nearObzor), andEmona.In 1366, John V Palaeologus visited Rome andBuda,trying to gather military support for his campaigns. On his return, he was captured at Vidin byIvan Alexander,TsarofTarnovo,who believed that the new alliances were directed against his realm. An anti-Ottoman crusade underAmadeus VI of Savoy,supported by the republics ofVeniceandGenoa,was diverted to free the Byzantine emperor. Dobrotitsa collaborated with the crusaders, and after the allies conquered several Bulgarian forts on the Black Sea, Ivan Alexander freed John and negotiated a peace agreement. Dobrotitsa's role in this conflict brought him numerous political advantages: his daughter married one of John V's sons, Michael, and his principality extended its control over some of the forts lost by the Bulgarians (AnchialosandMesembria).

In 1368, after the death of prince Demetrius, Dobrotitsa was recognised as ruler byPangaliaand other cities on the right bank of the Danube. In 1369, together withVladislav I of Wallachia,Dobrotitsa helped PrinceStratsimirto win back the throne ofVidin.

Between 1370 and 1375, allied with Venice, Dobritsia challenged Genoese power in the Black Sea. In 1376, he tried to impose his son-in-law, Michael, as Emperor ofTrebizond,but was unsuccessful. Dobrotitsa supported John V Palaeologus against his sonAndronicus IV Palaeologus.In 1379, the Dobrujan fleet participated in the blockade ofConstantinople,fighting with the Genoese fleet.

In 1386, Dobrotitsa died and was succeeded byIvanko.That same year he accepted a peace agreement withMurad Iand in 1387 signed a commercial treaty with Genoa. Ivanko was killed in 1388 during the expedition ofOttoman Grand VizierÇandarli Ali PashaagainstTarnovoandDristra.The expedition brought most of the Dobrujan forts under Turkish rule.

Wallachian rule

In 1388/1389 Dobruja (Terrae Dobrodicii—as mentioned in a document from 1390) and Dristra (Dârstor) came under the control ofMircea the Elder,ruler ofWallachia,who defeated theOttomanGrand Vizier.

Dobruja (Terra Dobrotici) as part of Wallachia under Mircea the Elder

Ottoman SultanBayezid Iconquered the southern part of the territory in 1393, attacking Mircea one year later, but without success. In the spring of 1395Mircearegained the lost Dobrujan territories, with the help of hisHungarianallies.

The Ottomans recaptured Dobruja in 1397 and ruled it to 1404, although in 1401 Mircea strongly defeated an Ottoman army.

The defeat of Sultan Beyezid I byTamerlaneatAnkarain 1402 opened a period of anarchy in the Ottoman Empire. Mircea took advantage of it to organise a new anti-Ottoman campaign: in 1403, he occupied the Genoese fort ofKiliaat the mouths of the Danube. Thus in 1404, he could impose his authority on Dobruja. In 1416, Mircea supported the revolt againstSultanMehmed I,led bySheikh Bedreddinin the area of Deliorman, in Southern Dobruja.

After Mircea died in 1418, his sonMihail Ifought against the amplified Ottoman attacks, eventually being killed in a battle in 1420. That year, Sultan Mehmed I conducted the definitive conquest of Dobruja by theTurks.Wallachiakept only the mouths of the Danube, but not for a long duration.

In the late 14th century, German travellerJohann Schiltbergerdescribed these lands as follows:

I was in three regions, and all three were called Bulgaria.... The third Bulgaria is there, where theDanubeflows intothe sea.Its capital is called Kaliakra.

Ottoman rule

Map of the Danube mouths from 1867 byHeinrich Kiepert

Ethnic map of the Balkans from 1861, byGuillaume Lejean.Dobruja is populated mostly by Turks who are marked with red color.

Annexed by theOttoman Empirein 1420, the region remained under Ottoman control until the late 19th century. Initially, it was organised as anudj(border province), included in thesanjakof Silistra, part of theEyalet of Rumelia.Later, underMurad IIorSuleiman I,the sanjak of Silistra and surrounding territories were organised as a separateeyalet.In 1555, a revolt led by the "false" (düzme) Mustafa, a pretender to the Turkish throne, broke out against Ottoman administration inRumeliaand rapidly spread to Dobruja, but was repressed by thebeylerbeyofNigbolu.In 1603 and 1612, the region suffered from the forays ofCossacks,who burnt downIsaķčiand plunderedKüstendje.

18th-19th century Russo-Turkish Wars

The Russian Empire occupied Dobruja several times during theRusso-Turkish wars— in 1771–1774, 1790–1791, 1809–1810, 1829, and 1853. The most violent invasion was that of 1829, which resulted in the depopulation of numerous villages and towns. TheTreaty of Adrianople of 1829ceded theDanube Deltato theRussian Empire.However, Russia was forced to return it to the Ottomans in 1856, after theCrimean War.In 1864 Dobruja was included in theVilayet of Danube.

Russo-Turkish War of 1878 and aftermath

Romanian troops triumphantly cross the Danube into Northern Dobruja, in a colourful patriotic lithograph, 1878

Dobruja after 1878.

After the 1878 war, theTreaty of San Stefanoawarded Dobruja toRussiaand the newly establishedPrincipality of Bulgaria.The northern portion, held by Russia, was ceded to Romania in exchange for Russia obtaining territories inSouthern Bessarabia,thereby securing direct access to the mouths of theDanube.The population included a Bulgarian ethnic enclave in the northeast (aroundBabadag), as well as an important Muslim majority (mostly Turks and Tatars) scattered around the region.

The southern portion, held by Bulgaria, was reduced the same year by theTreaty of Berlin.At the advice of the French envoy, a strip of land extended inland from the port ofMangalia(shown orange on the map) was ceded to Romania, since its southwestern corner contained a compact area of ethnic Romanians. The town ofSilistra,located at the area's most southwestern point, remained Bulgarian due to its large Bulgarian population. Romania subsequently tried to occupy the town as well, but in 1879 a new international commission allowed Romania to occupy only the fortArab Tabia,which overlooked Silistra, but not the town itself.

Ethnic groups in Dobruja around 1918

At the beginning of theRusso-Turkish War of 1877–1878,most of Dobruja's population was composed of ethnic Tatars, and Turks, with minorities of Romanians, and Bulgarians. During the war, a large part of the Muslim population was evacuated to Bulgaria and Turkey.After 1878, the Romanian government encouraged Romanians from other regions to settle in Northern Dobruja and accepted the return of some Muslim population displaced by the war.

According to Bulgarian historians, after 1878 the Romanian church authorities took control over all local churches, with the exception of two in the towns of Tulcea and Constanţa, which managed to retain use of their Bulgarian Slavonic liturgy.Between 1879 and 1900, Bulgarians built 15 new churches in Northern Dobruja.After 1880,ItaliansfromFriuliandVenetosettled in Greci, Cataloi andMăcinin Northern Dobruja. Most of them worked in the granite quarries in theMăcin Mountains,while some became farmers.The Bulgarian authorities encouraged the settling of ethnic Bulgarians in the territory of Southern Dobruja.

Balkan Wars and World War I

In May 1913, theGreat Powersawarded Silistra and the area in a 3 km radius around it to Romania, at theSaint PetersburgConference. In August 1913, after theSecond Balkan War,Bulgaria lostSouthern Dobruja(Cadrilater) to Romania (SeeTreaty of Bucharest, 1913). With Romania's entry inWorld War Ion the side of France and Russia, theCentral Powersoccupied all of Dobruja and gave the Cadrilater, as well as the southern portion of Northern Dobruja, to Bulgaria in theTreaty of Bucharestof 1918. This situation lasted for a short period. As theAllied Powersemerged victorious at the end of the war, Romania regained the lost territories in theTreaty of Neuillyof 1919. Between 1926 and 1938, about 30,000Aromaniansfrom Bulgaria,Macedonia,and Greece, were resettled in Southern Dobruja. SomeMegleno-Romaniansalso emigrated to the region.

In 1923 theInternal Dobrujan Revolutionary Organisation(IDRO), a Bulgarian nationalist organisation, was established. Active in Southern Dobruja under different forms until 1940, the IDRO detachments fought against the widespread brigandage in the region,as well as the Romanian administration. Thus, while considered "a terrorist organisation" by the Romanian authorities, the IDRO was regarded by ethnic Bulgarians as a liberation movement. In 1925, part of the Bulgarian revolutionary committees formed the Dobrujan Revolutionary Organisation (DRO), which later became subordinated to theCommunist Party of Romania.In contrast with the IDRO, which fought for the inclusion of the region in the Bulgarian state, the DRO requested the independence of Dobruja and its inclusion in a projectedFederative Republic of the Balkans.The means used by DRO to attain its goals were also more peaceful.

World War II and aftermath

DuringWorld War II,Bulgaria regained Southern Dobruja in the September 1940Axis-sponsoredTreaty of Craiova,despite Romanian negotiators' insistence thatBalchikand other towns should remain in Romania. As part of the treaty, theRomanianinhabitants (Aromanian and Megleno-Romanianrefugee-settlers,settlers from other regions of Romania, and the Romanians indigenous to the region) were forced to leave the regained territory, while the Bulgarian minority in the north was expelled to go to Bulgaria in apopulation exchange.The post-warParis Peace Treatiesof 1947 reaffirmed the 1940 border.

In 1948 and again in 1961–1962, Bulgaria proposed a border rectification in the area of Silistra, consisting mainly of the transfer of a Romanian territory containing the water source of that city. Romania made an alternative proposal that did not involve a territorial change and, ultimately, no rectification took place.

In Romania, 14 November is a holiday observed asDobruja Day.

Demographic history

Ottoman era

The port ofKustendjein 1856. Drawing by Camille Allard

During Ottoman rule, groups ofTurk,Arab,Muslim Romani peopleandCrimean Tatarssettled in the region, the latter, especially between 1512 and 1514. During the reign ofPeter I of RussiaandCatherine the Great,Lipovansimmigrated to the region of the Danube Delta. On account of theRusso-Turkish War (1768–1774),one of the greatest migration events of the region occurred where an estimated 200,000 Tatars emigrated to the Dobruja region between 1770 and 1784. Whereas, a large group of Christians (likely Greeks and Slavs) moved the other direction into theTatar'srecently-loss region ofAzovin 1778.After the destruction ofZaporozhian Sichin 1775,Cossackswere settled in the area north of Lake Razim by the Turkish authorities (where they founded theDanubian Sich). They were forced to leave Dobruja in 1828.

In the second part of the nineteenth century,Rutheniansfrom theAustrian Empirealso settled in the Danube Delta. After theCrimean War,a large number ofTatarswere forcibly driven away fromCrimea,immigrating to then-Ottoman Dobruja and settling mainly in the Karasu Valley in the centre of the region and around Bābā Dāgh. In 1864,Circassiansfleeing from the Russian invasion and genocide of theCaucasuswere settled in the wooded region near Babadag, forminga community there.GermansfromBessarabiaalso founded colonies in Dobruja between 1840 and 1892.

Ethnic map of the Danube mouths from 1861, according to the map above, from the French geographer Guillaume Lejean. (See the legendhere)

According to Bulgarian historianLyubomir Miletich,most Bulgarians living in Dobruja in 1900 were nineteenth-century settlers or their descendants.In 1850, the scholarIon Ionescu de la Brad,wrote in a study on Dobruja, ordered by the Ottoman government, that Bulgarians came to the region "in the last twenty years or so".According to his study, there were 2,285 Bulgarian families (out of 8,194 Christian families) in the region,1,194 of them in Northern Dobruja.Lyubomir Miletich puts the number of Bulgarian families in Northern Dobruja in the same year at 2,097.According to the statistics of theBulgarian Exarchate,before 1877 there were 9,324 Bulgarian families out of a total 12,364 Christian families in the Northern Dobruja.According to RussianknyazVladimir Cherkassky, chief of the Provisional Russian government in Bulgaria in 1877–1878, the Bulgarian population in Dobruja was larger than the Romanian one.However, count Shuvalov, the Russian representative to theCongress of Berlin,stated that Romania deserved Dobruja "more than anybody else, because of its population".In 1878, the statistics of the Russian governor of Dobruja, Bieloserkovitsch, showed a number of 4,750 Bulgarian "family chiefs" (out of 14,612 Christian family chiefs) in the northern half of the region.

The Christian religious organisation of the region was put under the authority of theBulgarian Orthodox Churchby afirmanof theSultan,promulgated on February 28, 1870.However, the ethnic Greeks and most Romanians in Northern Dobruja remained under the authority of theGreekArchdiocese ofTulça(founded in 1829).

20th century

In 1913, Dobruja was all made part of Romania in the aftermath of the1913 Treaty of Bucharestwhich ended theSecond Balkan War.Romania acquired Southern Dobruja from Bulgaria, a territory with a population of 300,000 from which only 6,000 (2%) were Romanians.In 1913, Romanian-held Northern Dobruja had a population of 380,430, from which 216,425 (56.8%) were Romanians.Thus, when Dobruja was unified within Romania in 1913, there were over 222,000 Romanians in the region out of a total population of 680,000, or nearly 33% of the population. By 1930, the Romanian population within Dobruja had increased to 44.2%.

Northern Dobruja

Ethnicity	1878	1880	1899	1913	19301	1956	1966	1977	1992	2002	2011	2021
All	225,692	139,671	258,242	380,430	437,131	593,659	702,461	863,348	1,019,766	971,643	897,165	849,352
Romanian	46,504 (21%)	43,671 (31%)	118,919 (46%)	216,425 (56.8%)	282,844 (64.7%)	514,331 (86.6%)	622,996 (88.7%)	784,934 (90.9%)	926,608 (90.8%)	883,620 (90.9%)	751,250 (83.7%)	657,438 (77.4%)
Bulgarian	30,177 (13.3%)	24,915 (17%)	38,439 (14%)	51,149 (13.4%)	42,070 (9.6%)	749 (0.13%)	524 (0.07%)	415 (0.05%)	311 (0.03%)	135 (0.01%)	58 (0.01%)	106 (0.01%)
Turkish	48,783 (21.6%)	18,624 (13%)	12,146 (4%)	20,092 (5.3%)	21,748 (5%)	11,994 (2%)	16,209 (2.3%)	21,666 (2.5%)	27,685 (2.7%)	27,580 (2.8%)	22,500 (2.5%)	17,114 (2%)
Tatar	71,146 (31.5%)	29,476 (21%)	28,670 (11%)	21,350 (5.6%)	15,546 (3.6%)	20,239 (3.4%)	21,939 (3.1%)	22,875 (2.65%)	24,185 (2.4%)	23,409 (2.4%)	19,720 (2.2%)	17,024 (2%)
Russian-Lipovan	12,748 (5.6%)	8,250 (6%)	12,801 (5%)	35,859 (9.4%)	26,210 (6%)2	29,944 (5%)	30,509 (4.35%)	24,098 (2.8%)	26,154 (2.6%)	21,623 (2.2%)	13,910 (1.6%)	12,094 (1.4%)
Ruthenian (Ukrainian from 1956)		455 (0.3%)	13,680 (5%)		33 (0.01%)	7,025 (1.18%)	5,154 (0.73%)	2,639 (0.3%)	4,101 (0.4%)	1,465 (0.1%)	1,177 (0.1%)	1,033 (0.1%)
Dobrujan Germans	1,134 (0,5%)	2,461 (1.7%)	8,566 (3%)	7,697 (2%)	12,023 (2.75%)	735 (0.12%)	599 (0.09%)	648 (0.08%)	677 (0.07%)	398 (0.04%)	166 (0.02%)	187 (0.02%)
Greek	3,480 (1.6%)	4,015 (2.8%)	8,445 (3%)	9,999 (2.6%)	7,743 (1.8%)	1,399 (0.24%)	908 (0.13%)	635 (0.07%)	1,230 (0.12%)	2,270 (0.23%)	1,447 (0.16%)	498 (0.06%)
Roma		702 (0.5%)	2,252 (0.87%)	3,263 (0.9%)	3,831 (0.88%)	1,176 (0.2%)	378 (0.05%)	2,565 (0.3%)	5,983 (0.59%)	8,295 (0.85%)	11,977 (1.3%)	10,556 (1.2%)
N/A	-	-	-	-	134	327	95	-	7	67	72,488 (8%)	130,231 (15.3%)

¹According to the 1926–1938 Romanian administrative division (counties ofConstanțaandTulcea), which excluded a part of today's Romania (chiefly the communes ofOstrovandLipnița,now part ofConstanța County) and included a part of today's Bulgaria (parts ofGeneral ToshevoandKrusharimunicipalities)

²Only Russians. (Russians and Lipovans counted separately)

Southern Dobruja

Ethnicity	1910	19301	2001	2011	2021
All	282,007	378,344	357,217	283,3953	231,9384
Bulgarian	134,355 (47.6%)	143,209 (37.9%)	248,382 (69.5%)	192,698 (68%)	160,620 (69.25%)
Turkish	106,568 (37.8%)	129,025 (34.1%)	76,992 (21.6%)	72,963 (25.75%)	53,227 (22.9%)
Roma	12,192 (4.3%)	7,615 (2%)	25,127 (7%)	12,163 (4.29%)	15,362 (6.62%)
Tatar	11,718 (4.2%)	6,546 (1.7%)	4,515 (1.3%)	808 (0.29%)	n/a
Romanian	6,348 (2.3%)2	77,728 (20.5%)	591 (0.2%)2	947 (0.33%)	n/a

¹According to the 1926–1938 Romanian administrative division (counties ofDurostorandCaliacra), which included a part of today's Romania (chiefly the communes ofOstrovandLipnița,now part ofConstanța County) and excluded a part of today's Bulgaria (parts ofGeneral ToshevoandKrusharimunicipalities)

²Including persons counted asVlachsin Bulgarian Census

³Only includes persons who answered the optional question on ethnic identity. The total population was 309,151.

⁴Only includes persons who answered the optional question on ethnic identity. The total population was 247,916.

Area, population and cities

The entire region of Dobruja has an area of around 23,100 km²(8,919 sq mi) and a population of around 1.2 million, of which just over two-thirds of the former and nearly three-quarters of the latter lie in the Romanian part.

Ethnicity	Dobruja		Romanian Dobruja		Bulgarian Dobruja
	Number	Percentage	Number	Percentage	Number	Percentage
All	1,180,560	100.00%	897,165	100.00%	283,395	100.00%
Romanian	752,197	63.72%	751,250	83.74%	947	0.33%
Bulgarian	192,756	16.33%	58	0.01%	192,698	68%
Turkish	95,463	8.09%	22,500	2.51%	72,963	25.75%
Tatar	20,528	1.74%	19,720	2.20%	808	0.29%
Roma	24,140	2.04%	11,977	1.33%	12,163	4.29%
Russian	14,608	1.24%	13,910	1.55%	698	0.25%
Ukrainian	1,250	0.11%	1,177	0.13%	73	0.03%
Greek	1,467	0.12%	1,447	0.16%	20	0.01%

Major cities areConstanța,Tulcea,MedgidiaandMangaliain Romania, andDobrichandSilistrain Bulgaria.

• 
  Constanța
• 
  Tulcea
• 
  Medgidia
• 
  Mangalia
• 
  Dobrich
• 
  Silistra

See also

• Bulgaria during World War I
• Romania during World War I

References

• Dănescu, Grigore (1903).Dobrogea (La Dobroudja). Étude de Géographie physique et ethnographique(in French). Bucarest: Imprimerie de l'Indépendance Roumaine.OCLC10596414.
• Ischirkoff, A.(1919).Les Bulgares en Dobroudja; aperçu historique et ethnographique(in French). Berne: Imprimerie Pochon-Jent & Bühler.OCLC4061330.
• Wittek, Paul (1952). "Yazijioghlu 'Ali on the Christian Turks of the Dobruja ".Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies.14(3). Cambridge University Press on behalf ofSchool of Oriental and African Studies:639–668.doi:10.1017/S0041977X00088595.ISSN0041-977X.JSTOR609124.S2CID140172969..Subscription needed for online access.
• Barnea, Ion; Ștefănescu, Ștefan (1971).Bizantini, romani și bulgari la Dunărea de Jos.Din Istoria Dobrogei (in Romanian). Vol. 3. București: Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste România.OCLC1113905.
• Vaklinov, Stancho (1977).Формиране на старобългарската култура VI-XI век(in Bulgarian). Sofia: Издателство Наука и Изкуство.OCLC71440284.
• Kuzev, Aleksandar; Gyuzelev, Vasil, eds. (1981).Градове и крепости но Дунава и Черно море.Български средновековни градове и крепости (in Bulgarian). Vol. 1. Varna: Книгоиздателство "Георги Бакалов".OCLC10020724.
• Rădulescu, Adrian; Bitoleanu, Ion (1998).Istoria Dobrogei(in Romanian). Constanţa: Editura Ex Ponto.ISBN978-973-9385-32-9.
• Mărculeţ, Vasile (2003)."Asupra organizării teritoriilor bizantine de la Dunărea de Jos în secolele X-XII: thema Mesopotamia Apusului, strategatul Dristrei, thema Paristrion – Paradunavon".In Dobre, Manuela (ed.).Istorie şi ideologie(in Romanian). București: Editura Universității din București.ISBN978-973-575-658-1.Archived fromthe originalon 2018-04-18.Retrieved2007-04-29.
• Hitchins, Keith(2004).Romania 1866–1947(in Romanian) (II ed.). București: Humanitas.ISBN978-973-50-0551-1.

Further reading

• Strabo(1903)."Book VII".In Hans Claude Hamilton; W. Falconer (eds.).The Geography of Strabo.London: George Bell & Sons.OCLC250411.Retrieved2007-04-29.
• Rădulescu, Adrian; Bitoleanu, Ion (1979).Istoria românilor dintre Dunăre şi Mare: Dobrogea(in Romanian). București: Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică.OCLC5832576.
• Iordachi, Constantin (2001),"The California of the Romanians": The Integration of Northern Dobrogea into Romania, 1878-1913,inNation-Building and Contested Identities Romanian & Hungarian Case Studies
• Sallanz, Josef, ed. (2005).Die Dobrudscha. Ethnische Minderheiten, Kulturlandschaft, Transformation; Ergebnisse eines Geländekurses des Instituts für Geographie der Universität Potsdam im Südosten Rumäniens. (= Praxis Kultur- und Sozialgeographie; 35)(in German) (II ed.). Potsdam: Universitätsverlag Potsdam.ISBN978-3-937786-76-6.
• Sallanz, Josef (2007).Bedeutungswandel von Ethnizität unter dem Einfluss von Globalisierung. Die rumänische Dobrudscha als Beispiel. (= Potsdamer Geographische Forschungen; 26)(in German). Potsdam: Universitätsverlag Potsdam.ISBN978-3-939469-81-0.