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Donbas

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"Donbass" redirects here. For the 2018 film, seeDonbass (film).
Not to be confused withDombås.

Donbas
Донбас (Ukrainian)
Map indicating the location of Donbass within Ukraine
Location of Donbas within Ukraine
CountryUkraine[note 1]
Largest cityDonetsk
Area
• Total53,201 km2(20,541 sq mi)
Population
[1]
• Total6,651,378a
• Density125/km2(320/sq mi)
a. Before war
A map showing the present-day definition of the Donbas withinUkraine
Map of the historical region of Donbas, within modern-day Ukraine and theRostov Oblastof Russia
Geology of Ukraine
(8) = Donets fold belt

TheDonbas(UK:/dɒnˈbɑːs/,[2]US:/ˈdɒnbɑːs,dʌnˈbæs/;[3][4]Ukrainian:Донба́с[donˈbɑs];[5]) orDonbass(Russian:Донба́сс[dɐnˈbas][6]) is a historical, cultural, and economic region in easternUkraine.[7][8]Parts of the Donbasare occupiedbyRussiaas a result of theRusso-Ukrainian War.[9][10][11]

The wordDonbasis aportmanteauformed from "Donets Basin",an abbreviation of"Donets Coal Basin"(Ukrainian:Донецький вугільний басейн,romanized:Donetskyi vuhilnyi basein;Russian:Донецкий угольный бассейн,romanized:Donetskiy ugolnyy basseyn). The name of the coal basin is a reference to theDonets Ridge;the latter is associated with theDonetsriver.

There are numerous definitions of the region's extent.[12]TheEncyclopedia of History of Ukrainedefines the "small Donbas" as the northern part ofDonetskand the southern part ofLuhanskregions of Ukraine, and the attached part ofRostovregion of Russia.[13]The historicalcoal miningregion excluded parts of Donetsk and Luhanskoblasts,and included areas inDnipropetrovsk OblastandSouthern Russia.[8]AEuroregionof the same name is composed of Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts in Ukraine andRostov OblastinRussia.[14]

The Donbas formed the historical border between theZaporizhian Sichand theDon Cossack Host.It has been an important coal mining area since the late 19th century, when it became a heavily industrialised territory.[15]

In March 2014, following theEuromaidanprotest movement and the resultingRevolution of Dignity,large swaths of the Donbas became gripped bypro-Russian and anti-government unrest.This unrest later grew intoa warbetween Ukrainian government forces and pro-Russian separatists affiliated with the self-proclaimedDonetskandLuhansk"People's Republics", who were supported by Russia as part of the broaderRusso-Ukrainian War.The conflict split the Donbas into Ukrainian-held territory, constituting about two-thirds of the region, and separatist-held territory, constituting about one-third. The region remained this way for years until Russia launcheda full-scale invasion of Ukraine.On 30 September 2022, Russia unilaterally declared itsannexation of Donbas together with two other Ukrainian oblasts, Kherson and Zaporizhzhia.[16]

The city ofDonetsk(the fifth largest city in Ukraine) is considered the unofficialcapitalof the Donbas. Other large cities (over 100,000 inhabitants) includeLuhansk,Makiivka,Horlivka,Kramatorsk,Sloviansk,Mariupol,Alchevsk,Lysychansk,andSievierodonetsk.

History

Ancient, medieval and imperial Russian periods

Bronze Age spread ofYamnayaSteppe pastoralistancestry[17]
A map of theCuman–Kipchak confederationinEurasia,c. 1200

TheKurgan hypothesisplaces thePontic steppesof Ukraine and southern Russia as thelinguistic homelandof theProto-Indo-Europeans.[18]TheYamnaya cultureis identified with the late Proto-Indo-Europeans.[19]

The region has been inhabited for centuries by various nomadic tribes, such asScythians,Alans,Huns,Bulgars,Pechenegs,Kipchaks,Turco-Mongols,TatarsandNogais.The region now known as the Donbas was largely unpopulated until the second half of the 17th century, whenDon Cossacksestablished the first permanent settlements in the region.[20]

The first town in the region was founded in 1676, called Solanoye (nowSoledar), which was built for the profitable business of exploiting newly discovered rock-salt reserves. Known for being aCossackland, the "Wild Fields"(Ukrainian:дике поле,dyke pole), the area that is now called the Donbas was largely under the control of the UkrainianCossack Hetmanateand the TurkicCrimean Khanateuntil the mid-late 18th century, when theRussian Empireconquered the Hetmanate and annexed the Khanate.[21][22]

In the second half of the 17th century, settlers and fugitives fromHetman's UkraineandMuscovysettled the lands north of theDonetsriver.[23]At the end of the 18th century, manyRussians,Ukrainians,SerbsandGreeksmigrated to lands along the southern course of the Donets river, into an area previously inhabited by nomadicNogais,who were nominally subject to the Crimean Khanate.[23][24]Tsarist Russia named the conquered territories "New Russia"(Russian:Новоро́ссия,Novorossiya). As theIndustrial Revolutiontook hold across Europe, the vastcoalresources of the region, discovered in 1721, began to be exploited in the mid-late 19th century.[25]

A map of the sparsely populatedWild Fieldsin the 17th century

It was at this point that the nameDonbascame into use, derived from the term "Donets Coal Basin" (Ukrainian:Донецький вугільний басейн;Russian:Донецкий каменноугольный бассейн), referring to the area along theDonetsriver where most of the coal reserves were found. The rise of the coal industry led to a population boom in the region, largely driven by Russian settlers.[26]

Donetsk,the most important city in the region today, was founded in 1869 byWelshbusinessmanJohn Hugheson the site of the oldZaporozhian Cossacktown of Oleksandrivka. Hughes built a steel mill and established severalcollieriesin the region. The city was named after him as "Yuzovka" (Russian:Юзовка). With the development of Yuzovka and similar cities, large numbers of landless peasants from peripheralgovernorates of the Russian Empirecame looking for work.[27]

According to theRussian Imperial Censusof 1897, Ukrainians ( "Little Russians",in the official imperial language) accounted for 52.4% of the population of the region, whilst ethnic Russians constituted 28.7%.[28]Ethnic Greeks,Germans,JewsandTatarsalso had a significant presence in the Donbas, particularly in thedistrictofMariupol,where they constituted 36.7% of the population.[29]Despite this, Russians constituted the majority of the industrial workforce. Ukrainians dominated rural areas, but cities were often inhabited solely by Russians who had come seeking work in the region's heavy industries.[30]Those Ukrainians who did move to the cities for work were quickly assimilated into the Russian-speaking worker class.[31]

Russian Civil War and Soviet period (1918–1941)

See also:Battle for the Donbas (1919)andDonbas operation (1919)
A Soviet Russian propaganda poster from 1921 that says "The Donbas is the heart of Russia"

In April 1918 troops loyal to theUkrainian People's Republictook control of large parts of the region.[32]For a while, its government bodies operated in the Donbas alongside theirRussian Provisional Governmentequivalents.[33]TheUkrainian State,the successor of the Ukrainian People's Republic, was able in May 1918 to bring the region under its control for a short time with the help of itsGermanandAustro-Hungarianallies.[33]

During the 1917–22Russian Civil War,Nestor Makhno,who commanded theRevolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine,was the most popular leader in the Donbas.[33]

Along with other territories inhabited by Ukrainians, the Donbas was incorporated into theUkrainian Soviet Socialist Republicin the aftermath of the Russian Civil War. Cossacks in the region were subjected todecossackisationduring 1919–1921.[34]Ukrainians in the Donbas were greatly affected by the 1932–33Holodomorfamine and theRussificationpolicy ofJoseph Stalin.As most ethnic Ukrainians were rural peasant farmers, they bore the brunt of the famine.[35][36]

Nazi occupation (1941–1943)

See also:Operation Little Saturn,Donbas strategic offensive (July 1943),andDonbas strategic offensive (August 1943)

The Donbas was greatly affected by theSecond World War.In the lead-up to the war, the region was racked by poverty and food shortages. War preparations resulted in an extension of the working day for factory labourers, whilst those who deviated from the heightened standards were arrested.[37]Nazi Germany's leaderAdolf Hitlerviewed the resources of the Donbas as critical toOperation Barbarossa.As such, the Donbas suffered under Nazi occupation during 1941 and 1942.[38]

Thousands of industrial labourers were deported toNazi Germanyfor use in factories. In what was then called StalinoOblast,nowDonetsk Oblast,279,000 civilians were killed over the course of the occupation. In Voroshilovgrad Oblast, nowLuhansk Oblast,45,649 were killed.[39]

In 1943 theOperation Little SaturnandDonbas strategic offensiveby theRed Armyresulted in the return of Donbas to Soviet control. The war had taken its toll, leaving the region both destroyed and depopulated.

Soviet period (1943–1991)

During the reconstruction of the Donbas after the end of the Second World War, large numbers of Russian workers arrived to repopulate the region, further altering the population balance. In 1926, 639,000 ethnic Russians resided in the Donbas, and Ukrainians made up 60% of the population.[40]As a result of theRussificationpolicy, the Ukrainian population of the Donbass then declined drastically as ethnic Russians settled in the region in large numbers.[41]By 1959, the ethnic Russian population was 2.55 million. Russification was further advanced by the 1958–59 Soviet educational reforms, which led to the near elimination of all Ukrainian-language schooling in the Donbas.[42][43]By the time of theSoviet Census of 1989,45% of the population of the Donbas reported their ethnicity as Russian.[44]In 1990, theInterfront of the Donbasswas founded as a movement against Ukrainian independence.

In independent Ukraine (from 1991)

A monument toDon CossacksinLuhansk."To the sons of glory and freedom".

In the1991 referendumon Ukrainian independence, 83.9% of voters in Donetsk Oblast and 83.6% in Luhansk Oblast supported independence from theSoviet Union.Turnout was 76.7% in Donetsk Oblast and 80.7% in Luhansk Oblast.[45]In October 1991, a congress of South-Eastern deputies from all levels of government took place in Donetsk, where delegates demanded federalisation.[33]

The region's economy deteriorated severely in the ensuing years. By 1993, industrial production had collapsed, and average wages had fallen by 80% since 1990. The Donbas fell into crisis, with many accusing the new central government inKyivof mismanagement and neglect. Donbas coal miners went on strike in 1993, causing a conflict that was described by historian Lewis Siegelbaum as "a struggle between the Donbas region and the rest of the country". One strike leader said that Donbas people had voted for independence because they wanted "power to be given to the localities, enterprises, cities", not because they wanted heavily centralised power moved from "Moscow to Kyiv".[45]

This strike was followed by a 1994 consultative referendum on various constitutional questions in Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts, held concurrently with thefirst parliamentary electionsin independent Ukraine.[46]These questions included whether Russian should be declared an official language of Ukraine, whether Russian should be the language of administration in Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts, whether Ukraine should federalise, and whether Ukraine should have closer ties with theCommonwealth of Independent States.[47]

Close to 90% of voters voted in favour of these propositions.[48]None of them were adopted since the vote was nationwide. Ukraine remained aunitary state,Ukrainian was retained as the sole official language, and the Donbas gained no autonomy.[44]Nevertheless, the Donbas strikers gained many economic concessions from Kyiv, allowing for an alleviation of the economic crisis in the region.[45]

Small strikes continued throughout the 1990s, though demands for autonomy faded. Some subsidies to Donbas heavy industries were eliminated, and many mines were closed by the Ukrainian government because of liberalising reforms pushed for by theWorld Bank.[45]Leonid Kuchma,who had won the1994 presidential electionwith support from the Donbas and other areas in eastern Ukraine, was re-elected aspresident of Ukrainein1999.[45]President Kuchma gave economic aid to the Donbas, using development money to gain political support in the region.[45]

Power in the Donbas became concentrated in a regional political elite, known asoligarchs,during the early 2000s. Privatisation of state industries led to rampant corruption. Regional historian Hiroaki Kuromiya described this elite as the "Donbas clan", a group of people that controlled economic and political power in the region.[45]Prominent members of the "clan" includedViktor YanukovychandRinat Akhmetov.

During the2010 Ukrainian presidential election,most people in Donbas voted forViktor Yanukovych.

A brief attempt at gaining autonomy by pro-Viktor Yanukovych politicians and officials was made in 2004 during theOrange Revolution.The so-calledSouth-East Ukrainian Autonomous Republicwas intended to consist out of nineSouth-Easternregions of Ukraine. The project was initiated on 26 November 2004 by the Luhansk Oblast Council, and was discontinued the next month by the Donetsk Oblast Council. On 28 November 2004, inSievierodonetsk,the so-calledFirst All-Ukraine Congress of People's Deputies And Local-Council's Deputies[uk]took place, organised by the supporters of Viktor Yanukovych.[49][50]

A total of 3,576 delegates from 16oblastsof Ukraine,CrimeaandSevastopoltook part in the congress, claiming to represent over 35 million citizens. Moscow MayorYurii Luzhkovand an advisor from the Russian Embassy were present in the presidium. There were calls for the appointment of Viktor Yanukovych as president of Ukraine orprime minister,for declaring of martial law in Ukraine, dissolution of theVerkhovna Rada,creation of self-defence forces, and for the creation of a federative South-Eastern state with its capital inKharkiv.[49][50]

Donetsk MayorOleksandr Lukyanchenko,however, stated that no one wanted autonomy, but rather sought to stop the Orange Revolution demonstrations going on at the time in Kyiv and negotiate a compromise. After the Orange Revolution's victory, some of the organisers of the congress were charged with "encroachment upon the territorial integrity and inviolability of Ukraine", but no convictions were made.[51][52]

In other parts of Ukraine during the 2000s, the Donbas was often perceived as having a "thug culture", as being a "Soviet cesspool", and as "backward". Writing in theNarodne slovonewspaper in 2005, commentator Viktor Tkachenko said that the Donbas was home to "fifth columns",and that speaking Ukrainian in the region was" not safe for one's health and life ".[53]It was also portrayed as being home to pro-Russian separatism. The Donbas is home to a significantly higher number of cities and villages that were named afterCommunistfigures compared to the rest of Ukraine.[54]Despite this portrayal, surveys taken across that decade and during the 1990s showed strong support for remaining within Ukraine and insignificant support for separatism.[55]

Russo-Ukrainian War (2014–present)

War in Donbas

Main article:War in Donbas (2014–2022)
A map of the region during the frozen conflict phase of the Donbas war, from the conclusion of theBattle of Debaltsevein 2015 until the February 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine

From the beginning of March 2014, demonstrations bypro-Russianand anti-government groups took place in the Donbas, as part of the aftermath of theRevolution of Dignityand theEuromaidanmovement. These demonstrations, which followed theannexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation,and which were part of a wider group ofconcurrent pro-Russian protests across southern and eastern Ukraine,escalated in April 2014 intoa warbetween the Russian-backedseparatist forcesof the self-declaredDonetskandLuhanskPeople's Republics (DPR and LPR respectively), and theUkrainian government.[56][57]

Amid that conflict, the self-proclaimed republics heldreferendumson the status of Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts on 11 May 2014. In the referendums, viewed as illegal by Ukraine and undemocratic by the international community, about 90% voted for the independence of the DPR and LPR.[58][note 2]

The initial protests in the Donbas were largely native expressions of discontent with the new Ukrainian government.[60]Russian involvement at this stage was limited to its voicing of support for the demonstrations. The emergence of the separatists in Donetsk and Luhansk began as a small fringe group of the protesters, independent of Russian control.[60][61]This unrest, however, only evolved into an armed conflict because of Russian military backing for what had been a marginal group as part of theRusso-Ukrainian War.The conflict was thus, in the words of historian Hiroaki Kuromiya, "secretly engineered and cleverly camouflaged by outsiders".[62]

There was limited support for separatism in the Donbas before the outbreak of the war, and little evidence of support for an armed uprising.[63]Russian claims that Russian speakers in the Donbas were being persecuted or even subjected to "genocide"by the Ukrainian government, forcing its hand to intervene, were deemed false.[62][64]

Ukrainian troops in the Donbas, March 2015

Fighting continued through the summer of 2014, and by August 2014, the Ukrainian "Anti-Terrorist Operation" was able to vastly shrink the territory under the control of the pro-Russian forces, and came close to regaining control of the Russo-Ukrainian border.[65]In response to the deteriorating situation in the Donbas, Russia abandoned what has been called its "hybrid war"approach, and begana conventional invasionof the region.[65][66]As a result of the Russian invasion, DPR and LPR insurgents regained much of the territory they had lost during the Ukrainian government's preceding military offensive.[67]

Only this Russian intervention prevented an immediate Ukrainian resolution to the conflict.[68][69][70]This forced the Ukrainian side to seek the signing of a ceasefire agreement.[71]Called theMinsk Protocol,this was signed on 5 September 2014.[72]As this failed to stop the fighting, another agreement, calledMinsk IIwas signed on 12 February 2015.[73]This agreement called for the eventual reintegration of the Donbas republics into Ukraine, with a level of autonomy.[73]The aim of the Russian intervention in the Donbas was to establish pro-Russian governments that, upon reincorporation into Ukraine, would facilitate Russian interference in Ukrainian politics.[74]The Minsk agreements were thus highly favourable to the Russian side, as their implementation would accomplish these goals.[75]

The conflict led to a vast exodus from the Donbas: half the region's population were forced to flee their homes.[76]AUN OHCHRreport released on 3 March 2016 stated that, since the conflict broke out in 2014, the Ukrainian government registered 1.6 million internally displaced people who had fled the Donbas to other parts of Ukraine.[77]Over 1 million were said to have fled elsewhere, mostly to Russia. At the time of the report, 2.7 million people were said to continue to live in areas under DPR and LPR control,[77]comprising about one-third of the Donbas.[78]

Despite the Minsk agreements, low-intensity fighting along the line of contact between Ukrainian government and Russian-controlled areas continued until 2022. Since the start of the conflict there have been 29 ceasefires, each intended to remain in force indefinitely, but none of them stopped the violence.[79][80][81]This led the war to be referred to as a "frozen conflict".[82] On 11 January 2017, the Ukrainian government approved a plan to reintegrate the occupied part of the Donbas and its population into Ukraine.[83]The plan would give Russian-backed political entities partial control of the electorate and has been described byZerkalo Nedelias "implanting a cancerous cell into Ukraine's body."[84]This was never implemented, and was subject to public protest.

A 2018 survey bySociological Group "Rating"of residents of the Ukrainian-controlled parts of the Donbas found that 82% of respondents believed there was no discrimination against Russian-speaking people in Ukraine.[85]Only 11% saw some evidence of discrimination.[85]The same survey also found that 71% of respondents did not support Russia's military intervention to "protect" the Russian-speaking population, with only 9% offering support for that action.[85]Another survey by Rating, conducted in 2019, found that only 23% of those Ukrainians polled supported granting the Donbas autonomous status,[86]whilst 34% supported a ceasefire and "freezing" the conflict, 23% supported military action to recover the occupied Donbas territories, and 6% supported separating these territories from Ukraine.[86]

Full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine

Main article:Eastern Ukraine campaign

On 21 February 2022, Russia officially recognised theindependence of the Donetsk and Luhanskrepublics,[87][88]effectively killing theMinsk agreements.[89]Russia subsequently launched a new,full-scale invasion of Ukraineon 24 February 2022, which Russian presidentVladimir Putinsaid was intended to "protect" the people of the Donbas from the "abuse" and "genocide" of the Ukrainian government.[90][91]However, Putin's claims have been refuted.[92][93]The DPR and LPR joined Russia's operation; the separatists stated that an operation to capture the entirety of Donetsk Oblast and Luhansk Oblast had begun.[94]

On 18 April 2022, thebattle of Donbasbegan, a Russian offensive in mid-2022 within the largereastern Ukraine campaign.[95][96]

Demographics and politics

Districts with a majority of native Russian speakers are shown in red (census 2001).

According to the 2001 census, ethnic Ukrainians form 58% of the population of Luhansk Oblast and 56.9% of Donetsk Oblast.Ethnic Russiansform the largest minority, accounting for 39% and 38.2% of the two oblasts respectively.[97]In the present day, the Donbas is a predominatelyRussophone region.According to the 2001 census, Russian is the main language of 74.9% of residents in Donetsk Oblast and 68.8% in Luhansk Oblast.[98]

Residents of Russian origin are mainly concentrated in the larger urban centers. Russian became the main language andlingua francain the course of industrialization, boosted by the immigration of many Russians, particularly fromKursk Oblast,to newly founded cities in the Donbas. A subject of continuing research controversies, and often denied in these two oblasts, is the extent of forced emigration and deaths during the Soviet period, which particularly affected rural Ukrainians during the Holodomor which resulted as a consequence of early Soviet industrialization policies combined with two years of drought throughout southern Ukraine and the Volga region.[99][100]

Nearly all Ukrainian Jews either fled or were murdered inthe Holocaust in Ukraineduring theGerman occupation in World War II.The Donbas is about 6%Muslimaccording to the official censuses of1926and2001.

Prior to the Revolution of Dignity, the politics of the region were dominated by the pro-RussianParty of Regions,which gained about 50% of Donbas votes in the2008 Ukrainian parliamentary election.Prominent members of that party, such as former Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych, were from the Donbas.

Demographic changes inDonetsk Oblast:the upper two columns depict language change over time, the lower two – ethnicity proportions.Russian,Ukrainian,others(according to official censuses in1926,2001).

According to linguistGeorge Shevelov,in the early 1920s the proportion ofsecondary schoolsteaching in the Ukrainian language was lower than the proportion of ethnic Ukrainians in the Donbas[101]– even though the Soviet Union had ordered[when?]that all schools in theUkrainian SSRshould be Ukrainian-speaking (as part of itsUkrainizationpolicy).[102]

Surveys of regional identities in Ukraine have shown that around 40% of Donbas residents claim to have a "Soviet identity".[103]Roman HorbykofSödertörn Universitywrote that in the 20th century, "[a]s peasants from all surrounding regions were flooding its then busy mines and plants on the border of ethnically Ukrainian and Russian territories", "incomplete and archaic institutions" prevented Donbas residents from "acquiring a notably strong modern urban – and also national – new identity".[101]

Religion

Religion in Donbas (2016)[104]

Eastern Orthodoxy(50.6%)
Non-denominationalChristianity(11.9%)
Islam(6%)
Protestantism(2.5%)
Hinduism(0.6%)
Not religious (28.3%)
World War IIVictory Daycelebration inDonetsk,9 May 2016

According to a 2016 survey ofreligion in Ukraineheld by theRazumkov Center,65.0% of the population in the Donbas believe inChristianity(including 50.6% Orthodox, 11.9% who declared themselves to be "simply Christians", and 2.5% who belonged toProtestantchurches).Islamis the religion of 6% of the population of the Donbas andHinduismof the 0.6%, both the religions with a share of the population that is higher compared to other regions of Ukraine. People who declared to be not believers or believers in some other religions, not identifying in one of those listed, were 28.3% of the population.[104]

Economy

Main article:Coal in Ukraine
See also:Economy of Ukraine
Donets Coal Basin
Economy of the Ukrainian Donbas
Donetsk, economic center of Donbas
Poor Collecting CoalbyNikolay Kasatkin:Donbas, 1894

TheGross regional productof Donbas was ₴335 billion (€10 billion) in 2021.[105]

In 2013 (before war) GDP of Donbas was ₴220 billion (€20 billion).[106]

The Donbas economy is dominated byheavy industry,such ascoal miningandmetallurgy.The region takes its name from an abbreviation of the term "Donets Coal Basin" (Ukrainian:Донецький вугільний басейн,Russian:Донецкий угольный бассейн), and while annual extraction of coal has decreased since the 1970s, the Donbas remains a significant producer. The Donbas represents one of the largest coal reserves in Ukraine, with estimated reserves of 60 billion tonnes of coal.[107]

Coal mining in the Donbas is conducted at very deep depths. Lignite mining takes place at around 600 metres (2,000 ft) below the surface, whilst mining for the more valuableanthraciteandbituminous coaltakes place at depths of around 1,800 metres (5,900 ft).[25]Prior to the start of the region's war in April 2014, Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts together produced about 30 percent of Ukraine's exports.[108]

Other industries in the Donetsk region include blast-furnace and steel-making equipment, railway freight-cars, metal-cutting machine-tools, tunneling machines, agricultural harvesters and ploughing systems, railway tracks, mining cars, electric locomotives, military vehicles, tractors and excavators. The region also produces consumer goods like household washing-machines, refrigerators, freezers, TV sets, leather footwear, and toilet soap. Over half its production is exported,[when?]and about 22% is exported to Russia.[109]

In mid-March 2017, Ukrainian presidentPetro Poroshenkosigned a decree on a temporary ban on the movement of goods to and from territory controlled by the self-proclaimed Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic, so since then Ukraine does not buy coal from the Donets Coal Basin.[110]

Shale gasreserves, part of the largerDnieper–Donets basin,[111]are present in the Donbas, most notably theYuzivska gas field.[112]In an effort to reduce Ukrainian dependence on Russian gas imports, the Ukrainian government reached an agreement withRoyal Dutch Shellin 2012 to develop the Yuzivska field.[112]Shell was forced to freeze operations after the outbreak of war in the region in 2014, and officially withdrew from the project in June 2015.[113]

Occupational safety in the coal industry

The coal mines of the Donbas are some of the mosthazardousin the world because of the deep depths of mines, as well as frequentmethane explosions,coal-dust explosions,rock burstdangers, and outdated infrastructure.[114]Even more hazardous illegal coal mines became very common across the region in the late 2000s.[15][115]

Environmental problems

Coal-mining spoil tips along theKalmius riverin Donetsk

Intensive coal-mining andsmeltingin the Donbas have led to severe damage to the local environment. The most common problems throughout the region include:

Additionally, severalchemical waste-disposal sites in the Donbas have not been maintained, and pose a constant threat to the environment. One unusual threat is the result of the Soviet-era1979 project[uk]to test experimentalnuclear mininginYenakiieve.For example, on 16 September 1979, at the Yunkom Mine, known today as the Young Communard mine in Yenakiyeve, a 300kt nuclear test explosion was conducted at 900m to free methane gas or to degasified coal seams into a sandstone oval dome known as theKlivazh[Rift] Site so that methane would not pose a hazard or threat to life.[116]BeforeGlasnost,no miners were informed of the presence of radioactivity at the mine, however.[116]

Culture and religion

Sviatohirsk Lavra
Savur-Mohyla

Sviatohirsk(Holy Mountain City) is the main religious sanctuary of the region. Near the city is located theSviatohirsk Lavra.The monastery was restored following thedissolution of the Soviet Unionand theindependence of Ukraine.In 2004 the monastery was granted the status oflavra.In 1997 area around the monastery was turned into theHoly Mountains National Nature Park.

See also

Notes

  1. ^De jure,some regions underde factoRussianoccupation
  2. ^The Russian word used,самостоятельность,(samostoyatel'nost) (literally "standing by oneself" ), can be translated as either full independence or broad autonomy, which left voters confused about what their ballot actually meant.[59][58]

References

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  6. ^Как далеко зайдет Москва на Донбассе. Срочное обращение Байдена. Первые санкции | ВЕЧЕР | 22.2.22.VoA(in Russian).Voice of America.22 February 2022.Retrieved22 February2022.
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  11. ^"A Russian court document mentioned Russian troops" stationed "in eastern Ukraine. Moscow insists there are none".CBS News. 17 December 2021.Retrieved26 January2022.
  12. ^Тимошенко, Денис (23 June 2018).Донбасс – единственная часть Украины, возникшая из промышленного региона[Donbass is the only part of Ukraine that emerged from an industrial region].Radio Liberty(in Russian).Retrieved7 December2023.
  13. ^"ДОНБАС, РЕГІОН В УКРАЇНІ ТА РОСІЇ".resource.history.org.ua.Retrieved20 June2024.
  14. ^"Euroregion Donbass".Association of European Border Regions. Archived fromthe originalon 16 March 2018.Retrieved12 March2015.
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External links

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