Jump to content

Donkey

Edit links
Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, seeDonkey (disambiguation).

Donkey
InClovelly,North Devon
Domesticated
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Equidae
Genus: Equus
Species:
E. africanus
Subspecies:
E. a. asinus
Trinomial name
Equus africanus asinus

Thedonkeyis a domesticated equine. It derives from theAfrican wild ass,Equus africanus,and may be classified either as a subspecies thereof,Equus africanus asinus,or as a separatespecies,Equus asinus.[1]: 1 It was domesticated in Africa some5000–7000years ago,[1]: 2 [2]: 3715 [3]and has been used mainly as aworking animalsince that time.

There are more than 40 million donkeys in the world, mostly inunderdevelopedcountries, where they are used principally asdraughtorpack animals.While working donkeys are often associated with those living at or below subsistence, small numbers of donkeys or asses are kept for breeding or as pets in developed countries.

An adult male donkey is ajackorjackass,an adult female is ajennyorjennet,[4][5][6]and an immature donkey of either sex is afoal.[6]Jacks are often mated withfemale horses (mares)to producemules;the less common hybrid of amale horse (stallion)and jenny is ahinny.

Nomenclature

Traditionally, the scientific name for the donkey isEquus asinus asinus,on the basis of theprinciple of priorityused for scientific names of animals. However, theInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclatureruled in 2003 that if the domestic and the wild species are considered subspecies of a common species, the scientific name of the wild species has priority, even when that subspecies was described after the domestic subspecies.[7]This means that the proper scientific name for the donkey isEquus africanus asinuswhen it is considered a subspecies andEquus asinuswhen it is considered a species.[8][7]

At one time, thesynonymasswas the more common term for the donkey. The first recorded use ofdonkeywas in either 1784[9]or 1785.[10][11][12]: 239 While the wordasshascognatesin most otherIndo-European languages,donkeyis anetymologicallyobscure word for which no credible cognate has been identified. Hypotheses on its derivation include the following:

  • perhaps from Spanish for itsdon-like gravity; the donkey was also known as "the King of Spain's trumpeter".[11]
  • perhaps a diminutive ofdun(dull grayish-brown), a typical donkey colour.[10][13]
  • perhaps from the nameDuncan.[10][14]
  • perhaps of imitative origin.[14]

From the 18th century,donkeygradually replacedassandjennyreplacedshe-ass,which is now considered archaic.[15]The change may have come about through a tendency to avoid pejorative terms in speech and may be comparable to the substitution in North American English ofroosterforcock,or that ofrabbitforconey,which was formerlyhomophonicwithcunny(a variation of the wordcunt). By the end of the 17th century, changes in pronunciation of bothassandarsehad caused them to become homophones in some varieties of English.[12]: 239 Other words used for the ass in English from this time includecuddyin Scotland,neddyin southwestern England anddickyin southeastern England;[12]: 239 mokeis documented in the 19th century and may be of Welsh or Romani origin.

Burrois a word for donkey in both Spanish andPortuguese.In the United States, it is commonly applied to theferaldonkeys that live west of theRocky Mountains;[16]it may also refer to any small donkey.[17]: 147 

History

See also:Evolution of the horse
Donkey in an Egyptian painting c. 1298–1235 BC

The genusEquus,which includes all extant equines, is believed to have evolved fromDinohippus,via the intermediate formPlesippus.One of the oldest species isEquus simplicidens,described as zebra-like with a donkey-shaped head. The oldest fossil to date is approximately 3.5 million years old, and was located in the US state of Idaho. The genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World, with the similarly agedEquus livenzovensisdocumented from western Europe and Russia.[18]

Molecular phylogenies indicate the most recent common ancestor of all modern equids (members of the genusEquus) lived ~5.6 (3.9–7.8) mya. Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000-year-old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4.07 Myr before present date for the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 Myr BP.[19]The oldest divergencies are the Asian hemiones (subgenusE. (Asinus),including thekulan,onager,andkiang), followed by the African zebras (subgeneraE. (Dolichohippus),andE. (Hippotigris)). All other modern forms including the domesticated horse (and many fossilPlioceneandPleistoceneforms) belong to the subgenusE. (Equus)which diverged ~4.8 (3.2–6.5) million years ago.[20]

The ancestors of the modern donkey are theNubianandSomaliansubspecies ofAfrican wild ass.[21][22][23]Remains of domestic donkeys dating to the fourth millennium BC have been found inMa'adiin Lower Egypt, and it is believed that the domestication of the donkey was accomplished long after the domestication of cattle, sheep and goats in the seventh and eighth millennia BC. Donkeys were probably first domesticated by pastoral people inNubia,and they supplanted theoxas the chief pack animal of that culture. The domestication of donkeys served to increase the mobility of pastoral cultures, having the advantage over ruminants of not needing time tochew their cud,and were vital in the development of long-distance trade across Egypt. In theDynasty IVera of Egypt, between 2675 and 2565 BC, wealthy members of society were known to own over 1,000 donkeys, employed in agriculture, as dairy and meat animals and as pack animals.[24]In 2003, the tomb of eitherKing NarmerorKing Hor-Aha(two of the first Egyptian pharaohs) was excavated and the skeletons of ten donkeys were found buried in a manner usually used with high ranking humans. These burials show the importance of donkeys to the early Egyptian state and its ruler.[25]

By the end of the fourth millennium BC, the donkey had spread to Southwest Asia, and the main breeding centre had shifted toMesopotamiaby 1800 BC. The breeding of large, white riding asses madeDamascusfamous[citation needed],while Syrian breeders developed at least three other breeds, including one preferred by women for its easygait.The Muscat or Yemen ass was developed inArabia.By the second millennium BC, the donkey was brought to Europe, possibly at the same time asviticulturewas introduced, as the donkey is associated with the Syrian god of wine,Dionysus.Greeks spread both of these to many of their colonies, including those in what are now Italy, France and Spain; Romans dispersed them throughout their empire.[24]

The first donkeys came to the Americas on ships of theSecond VoyageofChristopher Columbus,and were landed atHispaniolain 1495.[26]The first to reach North America may have been two animals taken to Mexico byJuan de Zumárraga,the first bishop of Mexico, who arrived there on 6 December 1528, while the first donkeys to reach what is now the United States may have crossed theRio GrandewithJuan de Oñatein April 1598.[27]From that time on they spread northward, finding use in missions and mines. Donkeys were documented as present in what today is Arizona in 1679. By theGold Rushyears of the 19th century, the burro was thebeast of burdenof choice of earlyprospectorsin the western United States. By the end of theplacer miningboom, many of them escaped or were abandoned, and aferalpopulation established itself.

Conservation status

About 41 million donkeys were reported worldwide in 2006.[28]China had the most with 11 million, followed by Pakistan,Ethiopiaand Mexico. As of 2017, however, the Chinese population was reported to have dropped to 3 million, with African populations under pressure as well, due to increasing trade and demand for donkey products in China.[29]Some researchers believe the actual number may be somewhat higher since many donkeys go uncounted.[30]The number of breeds and percentage of world population for each of the FAO's world regions was in 2006:[28]

Region No. of breeds % of world pop.
Africa 26 26.9
Asia and Pacific 32 37.6
Europe and the Caucasus 51 3.7
Latin America and the Caribbean 24 19.9
Near and Middle East 47 11.8
United States and Canada 5 0.1
World 185 41 million head
TheBaudet du Poitouis among the largest breeds of donkey
At a livestock market inNiger

In 1997 the number of donkeys in the world was reported to be continuing to grow, as it had steadily done throughout most of history; factors cited as contributing to this were increasing human population, progress in economic development and social stability in some poorer nations, conversion of forests to farm and range land, rising prices of motor vehicles and fuel, and the popularity of donkeys as pets.[30][31] Since then, the world population of donkeys is reported to be rapidly shrinking, falling from 43.7 million to 43.5 million between 1995 and 2000, and to only 41 million in 2006.[28]The fall in population is pronounced in developed countries; in Europe, the total number of donkeys fell from 3 million in 1944 to just over 1 million in 1994.[32]

The Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS) of theFAOlisted 189 breeds of ass in June 2011.[33]In 2000 the number ofbreeds of donkeyrecorded worldwide was 97, and in 1995 it was 77. The rapid increase is attributed to attention paid to identification and recognition of donkey breeds by the FAO's Animal Genetic Resources project.[28]The rate of recognition of new breeds has been particularly high in some developed countries. In France only one breed, the Baudet du Poitou, was recognised until the early 1990s; by 2005, a further six donkey breeds had official recognition.[34]

In developed countries, the welfare of donkeys both at home and abroad has become a concern, and a number of sanctuaries for retired and rescued donkeys have been set up. The largest isThe Donkey SanctuarynearSidmouth,England, which also supports donkey welfare projects in Egypt, Ethiopia, India,Kenya,and Mexico.[35]

In 2017, a drop in the number of Chinese donkeys, combined with the fact that they are slow to reproduce, meant that Chinese suppliers began to look to Africa. As a result of the increase in demand, and the price that could be charged,Kenyaopened three donkey abattoirs. Concerns for donkeys' well-being, however, have resulted in a number of African countries (includingUganda,Tanzania,Botswana,Niger,Burkina Faso,Mali,andSenegal) banning China from buying their donkey products.[36]

In 2019, The Donkey Sanctuary warned that the global donkey population could be reduced by half over the next half decade as the demand forejiaoincreases in China.[37][38]

Characteristics

See also:List of donkey breeds

Donkeys vary considerably in size, depending on both breed and environmental conditions, and heights at thewithersrange from less than 90 centimetres (35 in) to approximately 150 cm (59 in).[1]: 6 Working donkeys in the poorest countries have a life expectancy of 12 to 15 years;[39]in more prosperous countries, they may have a lifespan of 30 to 50 years.[6]

Donkeys are adapted to marginaldesertlands. Unlikewildandferal horses,wild donkeys in dry areas are solitary and do not formharems.Each adult donkey establishes a home range; breeding over a large area may be dominated by one jack.[40]The loud call or bray of the donkey, which typically lasts for twenty seconds[41][42]and can be heard for over three kilometres, may help keep in contact with other donkeys over the wide spaces of the desert.[43]Donkeys have large ears, which may pick up more distant sounds, and may help cool the donkey's blood.[44]Donkeys can defend themselves by biting, striking with the front hooves or kicking with the hind legs. Their vocalization, called a bray, is often represented in English as "hee haw".

Cross on back

Most donkeys have dorsal and shoulder stripes,primitive markingswhich form a distinctive cross pattern on their backs.[45][46]

Breeding

A three-week-old donkey foal

A jenny is normally pregnant for about 12 months, though the gestation period varies from 11 to 14 months,[6][47]and usually gives birth to a single foal. Births of twins are rare, though less so than in horses.[6]About 1.7 percent of donkey pregnancies result in twins; both foals survive in about 14 percent of those.[48]In general jennies have a conception rate that is lower than that of horses (i.e., less than the 60–65% rate for mares).[6]

Although jennies come into heat within 9 or 10 days of giving birth, their fertility remains low, and it is likely the reproductive tract has not returned to normal.[6]Thus it is usual to wait one or two furtheroestrouscycles before rebreeding, unlike the practice with mares. Jennies are usually very protective of theirfoals,and some will not come into estrus while they have a foal at side.[49]The time lapse involved in rebreeding, and the length of a jenny's gestation, means that a jenny will have fewer than one foal per year. Because of this and the longer gestation period, donkey breeders do not expect to obtain a foal every year, as horse breeders often do, but may plan for three foals in four years.[6]

Donkeys can interbreed with other members of the family Equidae, and are commonly interbred with horses. Thehybridbetween a jack and amareis amule,valued as a working and riding animal in many countries. Some large donkey breeds such as theAsino di Martina Franca,theBaudet du Poitouand theMammoth Jackare raised only for mule production. The hybrid between astallionand a jenny is ahinny,and is less common. Like other inter-species hybrids, mules and hinnies are usually sterile.[6]Donkeys can also breed withzebras,in which case the offspring is called azonkey(among other names).

Behaviour

Donkeys have a notorious reputation for stubbornness, but this has been attributed to a much stronger sense ofself-preservationthan exhibited by horses.[50]Likely based on a stronger prey instinct and a weaker connection with humans, it is considerably more difficult to force or frighten a donkey into doing something it perceives to be dangerous for whatever reason. Once a person has earned their confidence they can be willing and companionable partners and very dependable in work.[51]

Although formal studies of theirbehaviourandcognitionare rather limited, donkeys appear to be quite intelligent, cautious, friendly, playful, and eager to learn.[52]

Use

The donkey has been used as a working animal for at least5000years. Of the more than 40 million donkeys in the world, about 96% are inunderdevelopedcountries, where they are used principally as pack animals or for draught work in transport or agriculture. After human labour, the donkey is the cheapest form of agricultural power.[53]They may also be ridden, or used for threshing, raising water, milling and other work.[54]Some cultures that prohibit women from working withoxenin agriculture do not extend this taboo to donkeys.[55]

In developed countries where their use as beasts of burden has disappeared, donkeys are used to sire mules, to guardsheep,[24][56]fordonkey ridesfor children or tourists, and as pets. Donkeys may be pastured or stabled with horses and ponies, and are thought to have a calming effect on nervous horses. If a donkey is introduced to amareandfoal,the foal may turn to the donkey for support after it has been weaned from its mother.[57]

A few donkeys are milked or raisedfor meat.[30]Approximately 3.5 million donkeys and mules are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide.[58]In Italy, which has the highest consumption of equine meat in Europe and where donkey meat is the main ingredient of several regional dishes, about 1,000 donkeys were slaughtered in 2010, yielding approximately 100 tonnes (98 long tons; 110 short tons) of meat.[59]Asses' milkmay command good prices: the average price in Italy in 2009 was €15 per litre,[60]and a price of €6 per 100 ml was reported from Croatia in 2008; it is used for soaps and cosmetics as well as dietary purposes. The niche markets for both milk and meat are expanding.[28]In the past, donkey skin was used in the production ofparchment.[28]In 2017, the UK based charityThe Donkey Sanctuaryestimated that 1.8 million skins were traded every year, but the demand could be as high as 10 million.[36]

Lt. Richard Alexander "Dick" Henderson using a donkey to carry a wounded soldier at theBattle of Gallipoli

In China, donkey meat is considered a delicacy with some restaurants specializing in such dishes, andGuo Li Zhuangrestaurants offer the genitals of donkeys in dishes.Donkey-hide gelatinis produced by soaking and stewing the hide to make a traditional Chinese medicine product.Ejiao,the gelatine produced by boiling donkey skins, can sell for up to $388 per kilogram, at October 2017 prices.[61]

In warfare

During World War IJohn Simpson Kirkpatrick,a British stretcher bearer serving with theAustralian and New Zealand Army Corps,and Richard Alexander "Dick" Henderson of theNew Zealand Medical Corpsused donkeys to rescue wounded soldiers from the battlefield atGallipoli.[62][63]

According to British food writerMatthew Fort,donkeys were used in theItalian Army.The Mountain Fusiliers each had a donkey tocarrytheir gear, and in extreme circumstances the animal could beeaten.[64]

Donkeys have also been used to carry explosives in conflicts that include thewar in Afghanistanand others.[65][66]

Care

Shoeing

A donkey shoe withcalkins
Farriers shoeing a donkey inCyprusin 1900

Donkey hooves are more elastic than those of horses, and do not naturally wear down as fast. Regular clipping may be required; neglect can lead to permanent damage.[6]Working donkeys may need to be shod. Donkey shoes are similar tohorseshoes,but usually smaller and without toe-clips.

Nutrition

Local man watching his donkey graze near theAidarkul Lakean artificial lake in Uzbekistan. Donkeys are particularly well suited for grazing indryland environments.

In their native arid and semi-arid climates, donkeys spend more than half of each day foraging and feeding, often on poor quality scrub.[67]The donkey has a toughdigestive systemin which roughage is efficiently broken down byhind gut fermentation,microbial action in thecaecumandlarge intestine.[67]While there is no marked structural difference between the gastro-intestinal tract of a donkey and that of a horse, the digestion of the donkey is more efficient. It needs less food than a horse or pony of comparable height and weight,[68]approximately 1.5 percent of body weight per day in dry matter,[69]compared to the 2–2.5 percent consumption rate possible for a horse.[70]Donkeys are also less prone tocolic.[71]The reasons for this difference are not fully understood; the donkey may have differentintestinal florato the horse, or a longer gut retention time.[72]

Donkeys obtain most of their energy fromstructural carbohydrates.Some suggest that a donkey needs to be fed onlystraw(preferably barley straw), supplemented with controlled grazing in the summer orhayin the winter,[73]to get all the energy, protein, fat and vitamins it requires; others recommend some grain to be fed, particularly to working animals,[6]and others advise against feeding straw.[16]They do best when allowed to consume small amounts of food over long periods. They can meet their nutritional needs on 6 to 7 hours of grazing per day on average dryland pasture that is not stressed by drought. If they are worked long hours or do not have access to pasture, they require hay or a similar dried forage, with no more than a 1:4 ratio of legumes to grass. They also require salt and mineral supplements, and access to clean, fresh water.[74]In temperate climates the forage available is often too abundant and too rich; over-feeding may cause weight gain and obesity, and lead to metabolic disorders such as founder (laminitis[75]) andhyperlipaemia,[73]or togastric ulcers.[76]

Throughout the world, working donkeys are associated with the very poor, with those living at or below subsistence level.[54]Few receive adequate food, and in general donkeys throughout theThird Worldare under-nourished and over-worked.[77]

Feral populations

Feralburros inRed Rock Canyon

In some areas domestic donkeys have returned to the wild and establishedferalpopulations such as those of the burro of North America and theAsinara donkeyofSardinia,Italy, both of which have protected status.[citation needed]Feral donkeys can also cause problems, notably in environments that have evolved free of any form ofequid,such as Hawaii.[78]In Australia, where there may be 5 millionferal donkeys,[26]they are regarded as an invasive pest and have a serious impact on the environment. They may compete with livestock and native animals for resources, spread weeds and diseases, foul or damage watering holes and cause erosion.[79]

Donkey hybrids

The earliest documented donkey hybrid was thekunga,which was used as a draft animal in the Syrian and Mesopotamian kingdoms of the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE. A cross between a captive maleSyrian wild assand a female domesticated donkey (jenny), they represent the earliest known example of human-directed animal hybridization. They were produced at a breeding center at Nagar (modernTell Brak) and were sold or given as gifts throughout the region, where they became significant status symbols, pulling battle wagons and the chariots of kings, and also being sacrificed to bury with high-status people. They fell out of favor following the introduction of the domestic horse and its donkey hybrid, themule,into the region at the end of the 3rd millennium BCE.[80]

A male donkey (jack) crossed with a female horse produces amule,while a male horse crossed with a jenny produces ahinny.Horse–donkeyhybridsare almost alwayssterilebecause of a failure of their developing gametes to complete meiosis.[81]The lower progesterone production of the jenny may also lead to earlyembryonic loss.In addition, there are reasons not directly related to reproductive biology. Due to differentmatingbehavior, jacks are often more willing to cover mares than stallions are to breed jennies. Further, mares are usually larger than jennies and thus have more room for the ensuing foal to grow in the womb, resulting in a larger animal at birth. It is commonly believed that mules are more easily handled and also physically stronger than hinnies, making them more desirable for breeders to produce.[citation needed]

The offspring of azebra–donkey cross is called a zonkey,zebroid,zebrass, or zedonk;[82]zebra muleis an older term, but still used in some regions today. The foregoing terms generally refer to hybrids produced by breeding a male zebra to a female donkey.Zebra hinny, zebretandzebrinnyall refer to the cross of a female zebra with a male donkey. Zebrinnies are rarer than zedonkies because female zebras in captivity are most valuable when used to produce full-blooded zebras.[83]There are not enough female zebras breeding in captivity to spare them for hybridizing; there is no such limitation on the number of female donkeys breeding.

See also

References

  1. ^abcValerie Porter, Lawrence Alderson, Stephen J.G. Hall, D. Phillip Sponenberg (2016).Mason's World Encyclopedia of Livestock Breeds and BreedingArchived2020-08-06 at theWayback Machine(sixth edition). Wallingford: CABI.ISBN9781780647944.
  2. ^Stine Rossel, Fiona Marshall, Joris Peters, Tom Pilgram, Matthew D. Adams, David O'Connor (2008).Domestication of the Donkey: Timing, Processes, and IndicatorsArchived2022-01-31 at theWayback Machine.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.105(10): 3715–3720.(subscription required).
  3. ^Evelyn T. Todd, Laure Tonasso-Calvière, Loreleï Chauvey, Stéphanie Schiavinato, Antoine Fages, Andaine Seguin-Orlando, Pierre Clavelet al.(2022).The genomic history and global expansion of domestic donkeys.Science.377(6611): 1172–1180.doi:10.1126/science.abo3503.(subscription required).
  4. ^[n.a.] (2005)Oxford American Dictionaries(computer application) Apple Computer. s.v. "Jennet (1)"
  5. ^Woolf, Henry (ed.)|title= (1980)Webster's New Collegiate DictionarySpringfield MA: MerriamISBN0-87779-398-0.s.v. "Jennet (2)"
  6. ^abcdefghijk"The Donkey".Government of Alberta: Agriculture and Rural Development. 1990. Archived fromthe originalon November 16, 2012.RetrievedSeptember 1,2010.
  7. ^abInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (2003)."Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved. Opinion 2027 (Case 3010)".Bull. Zool. Nomencl.60(1): 81–84.Archivedfrom the original on 2012-06-09.Retrieved2018-01-13.
  8. ^Grubb, P.(2005)."Order Perissodactyla".InWilson, D.E.;Reeder, D.M (eds.).Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference(3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 629–630.ISBN978-0-8018-8221-0.OCLC62265494.
  9. ^Fairman, Tony (1994). "How the ass became a donkey".English Today.10(4): 32.doi:10.1017/S0266078400007860.ISSN0266-0784.S2CID144914684.,cited in: Isabel de la Cruz Cabanillas, Cristina Tejedor Martínez (2002). "The horse family: on the evolution of the field and its metaphorization process", in Javier E. Díaz Vera,A changing world of words: Studies in English historical lexicography, lexicology and semanticsArchived2016-12-24 at theWayback Machine.Amsterdam: Rodopi.ISBN978-90-420-1330-8p.239
  10. ^abc"Donkey"OED Online (subscription required). Retrieved May 2008.
  11. ^abGrose, Francis (1785)A Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar TongueArchived2013-06-04 at theWayback MachineLondon: For S. Hooper. s.v. "Donkey".
  12. ^abcIsabel de la Cruz Cabanillas, Cristina Tejedor Martínez (2002). "The horse family: on the evolution of the field and its metaphorization process", in Javier E. Díaz Vera,A changing world of words: Studies in English historical lexicography, lexicology and semanticsArchived2016-12-24 at theWayback Machine.Amsterdam: Rodopi.ISBN978-90-420-1330-8p.239
  13. ^Merriam-Webster UnabridgedArchived2013-02-10 at theWayback Machine(MWU). (Online subscription-based reference service ofMerriam-Webster,based on Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002.) Headworddonkey.Retrieved September 2007.
  14. ^abHoughton Mifflin(2000).The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language(4th ed.). Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin. p.535.ISBN978-0-395-82517-4.
  15. ^"Eselin".German-English Dictionary.Archivedfrom the original on 2015-09-23.Retrieved2015-08-25.
  16. ^abBurro careArchived2012-02-04 at theWayback MachineU.S. Department of the Interior: Bureau of Land Management. Accessed February 2012.
  17. ^Henry Woolf (editor) (1980).Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary.Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam.ISBN0877793980.
  18. ^Azzaroli, A. (1992)."Ascent and decline of monodactyl equids: a case for prehistoric overkill"(PDF).Ann. Zool. Finnici.28:151–163.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2020-03-29.Retrieved2018-08-29.
  19. ^Orlando, L.; Ginolhac, A.; Zhang, G.; Froese, D.; Albrechtsen, A.; Stiller, M.; Schubert, M.; Cappellini, E.; Petersen, B.; et al. (4 July 2013). "RecalibratingEquus evolutionusing the genome sequence of an early Middle Pleistocene horse ".Nature.499(7456): 74–8.Bibcode:2013Natur.499...74O.doi:10.1038/nature12323.PMID23803765.S2CID4318227.
  20. ^Weinstock, J.; et al. (2005)."Evolution, systematics, and phylogeography of Pleistocene horses in the New World: a molecular perspective".PLOS Biology.3(8): e241.doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030241.PMC1159165.PMID15974804.
  21. ^J. Clutton-BrookA Natural History of Domesticated Mammals1999.
  22. ^Albano Beja-Pereira, "African Origins of the Domestic DonkeyArchived2012-11-28 at theWayback Machine",inScience,2004
  23. ^Birgitta Kimura, Fiona B. Marshall, Shanyuan Chen, Sónia Rosenbom, Patricia D. Moehlman, Noreen Tuross, Richard C. Sabin, Joris Peters, Barbara Barich, Hagos Yohannes, Fanuel Kebede, Redae Teclai, Albano Beja-Pereira, Connie J. Mulligan (2011).Ancient DNA from Nubian and Somali wild ass provides insights into donkey ancestry and domestication.Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.278(1702).doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.0708.
  24. ^abcOlsen, Sandra L. (1995)Horses through timeBoulder, Colorado: Roberts Rinehart Publishers for Carnegie Museum of Natural History.ISBN978-1-57098-060-2.Cited atDonkeyArchived2017-10-11 at theWayback MachineInternational Museum of the Horse. Retrieved February 2012.
  25. ^"Egyptian Tomb Holds First Known Domesticated Donkeys".Fox News Network. March 11, 2008. Archived fromthe originalon 2011-02-07.RetrievedNovember 1,2011.
  26. ^abRoots, Clive (2007)DomesticationArchived2016-11-16 at theWayback MachineWestport: Greenwood PressISBN978-0-313-33987-5p.179
  27. ^Brookshier, Frank (1974)The BurroArchived2014-07-08 at theWayback MachineNorman: University of Oklahoma Press.
  28. ^abcdefWaltraud Kugler; Hans-Peter Grunenfelder; Elli Broxham (2008).Donkey Breeds in Europe: Inventory, Description, Need for Action, Conservation; Report 2007/2008(PDF).St. Gallen, Switzerland: Monitoring Institute for Rare Breeds and Seeds in Europe. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2 September 2009.
  29. ^Leithead, Alastair (2017-10-07)."Donkeys face 'biggest ever crisis'".BBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 2020-02-08.Retrieved2017-10-07.
  30. ^abcPaul Starkey, Malcolm Starkey (1997). "Regional and world trends in donkey populations".Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa. Archived 15 September 2003.
  31. ^Blench, R. 2000.The History and Spread of Donkeys in Africa.Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA)
  32. ^Paul Starkey (1997) "Donkey Work", in Elisabeth Svendsen (ed.),The Professional Handbook of the Donkey,3rd edition. London: Whittet Books.ISBN978-1-873580-37-0.pp.183–206.
  33. ^"DAD-IS — Domestic Animal Diversity Information System".Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.Archivedfrom the original on March 2, 2000.RetrievedJune 1,2011.
  34. ^Bérard, Laurence; Marie Cegarra; Marcel Djama; Sélim Louafi; Philippe Marchenay; Bernard Roussel; François Verdeaux (2005)Biodiversity and Local Ecological Knowledge in France[permanent dead link]Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique; Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement; Institut du Développement Durable et des Relations Internationales; Institut Français de la Biodiversité.ISBN2-915819-06-8p.109. Retrieved February 2012.
  35. ^"Home".The Donkey Sanctuary.Archivedfrom the original on May 26, 2021.RetrievedJune 1,2011.
  36. ^abLeithead, Alastair (7 October 2017)."Why are donkeys facing their 'biggest ever crisis'?".BBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 7 October 2017.Retrieved7 October2017.
  37. ^Murray, Jessica (November 20, 2019)."World's donkeys being 'decimated' by demand for Chinese medicine".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on November 27, 2019.RetrievedNovember 28,2019.
  38. ^Lesté-Lasserre, Christa (December 12, 2019)."Chinese trade in hides has led to global donkey massacre".Science.Archivedfrom the original on January 12, 2020.RetrievedJanuary 24,2020.
  39. ^The Donkey - Description and DiagramArchived2012-10-25 at theWayback MachineThe Donkey Society of New South Wales. Retrieved February 2012.
  40. ^Jane French (1997) "Social Behaviour", in Elisabeth Svendsen (ed.),The Professional Handbook of the Donkey,3rd edition. London: Whittet Books.ISBN978-1-873580-37-0.pp.127–165.
  41. ^EA Canacoo; FK Avornyo (1998). "Daytime activities of donkeys at range in the coastal savanna of Ghana".Applied Animal Behaviour Science.60(2–3): 229–234.doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(98)00167-1.
  42. ^G Whitehead; J French; P Ikin (1991). "Welfare and veterinary care of donkeys".In Practice.
  43. ^"Adaption of Donkeys".BioWeb.Archivedfrom the original on May 22, 2015.RetrievedMay 4,2015.
  44. ^"Donkey Facts".Mike's Donkeys.Archived fromthe originalon May 19, 2015.RetrievedMay 4,2015.
  45. ^Nancy Castle."Look-A-Like Collages".Dun Look-A-Likes.Dun Central Station. Archived fromthe originalon October 12, 2008.Retrieved2008-06-26.
  46. ^"About Donkeys".Donkey Breed Society.Retrieved2022-10-13.
  47. ^"Sewell, Sybil E." Foaling out the Donkey Jennet ",Alberta Donkey and Mule.Web page accessed March 4, 2008 "(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on August 25, 2015.RetrievedAugust 25,2015.
  48. ^"Twins and Donkeys".Rams Horn Studio.Archivedfrom the original on January 26, 2015.RetrievedMay 4,2015.
  49. ^"Rachau, Jeanine A." Gestation and Foaling of Donkeys "".Archived fromthe originalon 2009-04-12.Retrieved2015-08-25.
  50. ^"ABC.net.au".ABC.net.au. Archived fromthe originalon 2010-08-12.RetrievedSeptember 1,2010.
  51. ^"Training Donkeys".Harts Horsemanship.Archivedfrom the original on June 1, 2015.RetrievedMay 4,2015.
  52. ^World, Livestock Of The."About Donkeys | Breeds of Donkeys".livestockoftheworld.Archived fromthe originalon February 2, 2017.RetrievedJanuary 23,2017.
  53. ^Pearson, R.A.; E. Nengomasha; R. Krecek (1999)"The challenges in using donkeys for work in Africa"Archived2012-11-23 at theWayback Machine,in P. Starkey; P. KaumbuthoMeeting the challenges of animal traction.Resource book of the Animal Traction Network of Southern Africa, Harare, Zimbabwe. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.
  54. ^abAluja, Aline S. de; Francisco López; Graciela Tapia Pérez (2004)Estimación del peso corporal en burros del Centro de México a partir de la circunferencia torácicaArchived2018-11-07 at theWayback Machine(Spanish-language version of A. S. de Aluja, G. Tapia Pérez, F. López and R. A. Pearson "Live Weight Estimation of Donkeys in Central México from Measurement of Thoracic Circumference",Tropical Animal Health and Production,37,Supplement 1: 159–171, DOI 10.1007/s11250-005-9007-0)
  55. ^World Bank,Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,International Fund for Agricultural Development(2009).Gender in agriculture sourcebook.World Bank Publications. p. 290.ISBN978-0-8213-7587-7.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-03-04.Retrieved2020-10-09.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  56. ^Dohner, Janet Vorwald (2007).Livestock Guardians: Using Dogs, Donkeys and Llamas to Protect Your Herd.Storey Publishing.ISBN978-1-58017-695-8.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-03-04.Retrieved2020-10-09.
  57. ^"Donkeys".Young People's Trust for the Environment. Archived fromthe originalon 2011-07-26.RetrievedJune 1,2011.
  58. ^"FAOSTAT".fao.org.Archivedfrom the original on 2018-10-30.Retrieved2019-10-25.
  59. ^Tavola AMR13 – Bestiame macellato a carni rosse – (Gennaio – Dicembre) – Anno 2010Archived2012-04-26 at theWayback Machine(in Italian) Istat — Istituto Nazionale di Statistica. Retrieved December 2011. "Table AMR13: Livestock slaughtered for red meat, January–December 2010"
  60. ^"Il Prezzo Del Latte Di Asina"(in Italian). 2009.Archivedfrom the original on September 14, 2011.RetrievedJune 1,2011.The price of asses' milk
  61. ^Köhle, Natalie (2018-04-09). "Feasting on Donkey Skin".China Story Yearbook 2017: Prosperity.ANU Press.doi:10.22459/csy.04.2018.05b.ISBN978-1-76046-202-4.
  62. ^Simpson and his donkeyArchived2014-07-24 at theWayback MachineRetrieved January 2012.
  63. ^Anzac Heirs: A selfless lifetime of serviceArchived2012-11-17 at theWayback Machine.The New Zealand Herald,22 April 2010.
  64. ^Fort, Matthew (June 2005).Eating Up Italy: Voyages on a Vespa.HarperPerennial.ISBN978-0-00-721481-5.
  65. ^Evans, Michael (April 30, 2009)."Donkey 'suicide' bombing is latest tactic against patrols".The Times.Archivedfrom the original on May 19, 2009.RetrievedJuly 1,2011.
  66. ^Ganor, Boaz (November 15, 1991)."Syria and Terrorism".Survey of Arab Affairs.Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs.Archivedfrom the original on June 8, 2011.RetrievedJuly 1,2011.
  67. ^abFiona Taylor (1997) "Nutrition", in Elisabeth Svendsen (ed.),The Professional Handbook of the Donkey,3rd edition. London: Whittet Books.ISBN978-1-873580-37-0.pp.93–105.
  68. ^Smith, David; Stephanie Wood (2008) "Donkey Nutrition", in Elisabeth Svendsen; James Duncan; David HadrillThe Professional Handbook of the Donkey,4th edition. Yatesbury: Whittet Books. p.10.
  69. ^S Wood, D Smith and C Morris. "Seasonal variation of digestible energy requirements of mature donkeys in the UK".Proceedings Equine Nutrition Conference.Hanover, Germany. 1–2 October 2005: page 39-40.
  70. ^Hall, Marvin H. and Patricia M. Comerford. "Pasture and Hay for Horses – Argonomy facts 32", 1992 University of Pennsylvania, Cooperative Extension Service.Archived2017-10-10 at theWayback MachineWeb site accessed February 14, 2007.
  71. ^Elisabeth Svendsen (editor) (1997)The Professional Handbook of the Donkey,3rd edition. London: Whittet Books.ISBN978-1-873580-37-0.p.208.
  72. ^Smith, DG; Pearson, RA (November 2005)."A review of the factors affecting the survival of donkeys in semi-arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa"(PDF).Trop Anim Health Prod.37(Suppl 1): 1–19.doi:10.1007/s11250-005-9002-5.PMID16335068.S2CID20777559.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2020-07-29.Retrieved2019-08-29.
  73. ^abWhat should you feed your donkeys?Archived2011-11-18 at theWayback MachineThe Donkey Sanctuary, 2010. Retrieved February 2012.
  74. ^Aganga, A.A., et al."Feeding donkeys"Livestock Research for Rural Development12 (2) 2000. Department of Animal Science and Production, Botswana College of Agriculture. Web site accessed July 4, 2009.
  75. ^"Feeding Your Donkey"Web site accessed July 4, 2009.
  76. ^Burden, F. A.; Gallagher, J.; Thiemann, A. K.; Trawford, A. F. (2008)."Necropsy survey of gastric ulcers in a population of aged donkeys: prevalence, lesion description and risk factors".Animal.3(2): 287–293.doi:10.1017/S1751731108003480.PMID22444232.S2CID13800072.
  77. ^Elisabeth Svendsen (1997) "Donkeys Abroad", in Elisabeth Svendsen (ed.),The Professional Handbook of the Donkey,3rd edition. London: Whittet Books.ISBN978-1-873580-37-0.pp.166–182.
  78. ^Lucas-Zenk, Carolyn (August 21, 2011)."When Donkeys Fly".West Hawaii Today.Archivedfrom the original on May 16, 2012.RetrievedAugust 21,2011.
  79. ^"Feral horse (Equus caballus) and feral donkey (Equus asinus) "(PDF).Australian Government: Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. 2011. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on June 3, 2011.RetrievedJune 1,2011.
  80. ^Bennett, E. Andrew; Weber, Jill; Bendhafer, Wejden; Chaplot, Sophie; Peters, Joris; Schwartz, Glenn M.; Grange, Thierry; Geigl, Eva-Maria (2022)."The genetic identity of the earliest human-made hybrid animals, the kungas of Syro-Mesopotamia".Science Advances.8(2): eabm0218.Bibcode:2022SciA....8..218B.doi:10.1126/sciadv.abm0218.PMC8759742.PMID35030024.S2CID245963400.
  81. ^Li, X. C.; Barringer, B. C.; Barbash, D. A. (2009)."The pachytene checkpoint and its relationship to evolutionary patterns of polyploidization and hybrid sterility".Heredity.102(1): 24–30.doi:10.1038/hdy.2008.84.PMID18766201.S2CID2176510.
  82. ^"American Donkey and Mule Society: Zebra Hybrids".Lovelongears.Archivedfrom the original on April 20, 2010.RetrievedSeptember 1,2010.
  83. ^"All About Zebra Hybrids".Archived fromthe originalon 27 October 2009.RetrievedSeptember 1,2010.

External links

  • The dictionary definition ofdonkeyat Wiktionary
  • The dictionary definition ofbrayat Wiktionary
  • Media related toEquus asinusat Wikimedia Commons
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Donkey&oldid=1231823180"