Dual loyalty
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Inpolitics,dual loyaltyis loyalty to two separate interests that potentially conflict with each other, leading to aconflict of interest.
Historical examples
[edit]| Separation of church and state in the history of the Catholic Church |
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Other historical examples of actual or perceived "dual loyalty" include the following:
- DuringWorld War II,a number ofUnited Statescitizens ofJapanese,German,andItalianancestry,including some born in the U.S., were confined tointernmentcamps (seeInternment of Japanese Americans).[citation needed]
- Roman Catholicsare subject to thePopeon religious matters. This has often perceived as dual loyalty by powers opposed to theHoly See.[citation needed]
- During theEnglish Reformation,many importantEnglishandScottish Catholics,such asThomas More,Mary, Queen of ScotsandEdmund Campion,were tried and executed for their alleged double loyalty to the Papacy and infidelity to the Crown.[citation needed]
- DuringJohn F. Kennedy's campaign for and brieftenure as U.S. President,some opponents questioned whether a Roman Catholic President of the United States had a divided loyalty with respect to thePapacyandVatican City.[1]
- Chinese Catholicshave been forced by thegovernmentof thePeople's Republic of Chinaof substituting theRoman Catholic Church in Chinaby theChinese Patriotic Catholic Association.[citation needed]
- Jewswho were part of theJewish diasporahave been accused of dual loyalty by theRomansin the 1st century, by theFrenchin theDreyfus Affairin the late 19th century, and inStalin-eraSoviet Unionin the 20th century.[2]Before the creation ofIsrael,Jewishanti-Zionistsused the accusation against other Jews.[3]While today some use the phrase in a "neutral and non-pejorative fashion,"John J. MearsheimerandStephen M. Waltsay this use can obscure the fact that home nations and Israel may have sharp political differences.[4]The 1991Gulf War[2]and the2003 U.S. invasion of Iraqlead to such accusations against Jewishneoconservatives,vocal proponents of war againstIraqwho were alleged by some critics of the Iraq War to have sought to undermine Arab nations hostile to Israel (e.g., by the term "Israel-firster" ).[5]
- The loyalty of many Americans to the U.S. government was called into question during theCold Wardue to allegedCommunistsympathies, resulting in "witch-hunts" of various government officials, celebrities and other citizens (seeMcCarthyism).
- Muslims living inWesterncountries, especially during periods of heightened tensions between Muslim minorities and non-Muslims, such as afterSeptember 11, 2001,or during theJyllands-Posten cartoons controversyof 2005–2006, are sometimes accused of being more loyal to the Muslimummahthan to their country.[6]
- "Dual loyalty" continues to be a concern of critics ofUS immigration policy,particularly in those states which borderMexico.[7]
- TheHindu minorityin themajority-MuslimBangladeshhas often been accused of dual loyalty to the neighbour state ofIndiaby theBangladesh Nationalist Party[8]and even bySheikh Hasina[9][verification needed]who heads the largestpolitical outfitin Bangladesh hailingsecularism.[10]
- TheAhmadiyyamovement in Islam has been accused by some Muslims of dual loyalty to thestate of Israel,or less frequently theHindu-majoritystate of India.[11][12]
- Thegovernmentof theIslamic Republic of Iranhas accused theBaháʼí Faithminority of having loyalty to foreign powers (seeIranian anti-Baháʼí conspiracy theories).[citation needed]
- During theimpeachment of Donald Trumpin 2020, someRepublicanMembers ofCongressaccusedLieutenant-ColonelAlexander Vindmanof dual loyalty towardsUkrainedue to hisUkrainian heritage.[13]
Transnationalist interpretations
[edit]Some scholars refer to a growing trend oftransnationalismand suggest that as societies become moreheterogeneousandmulticultural,the term "dual loyalty" had increasingly become a meaninglessbromide.According to the theory of transnationalism, migration and other factors, including improved global communication, produce new forms of identity that transcend traditional notions of physical and cultural space. Nina Glick Schiller, Linda Basch, and Cristina Blanc-Szanton define a process by which immigrants "link together" their country of origin and their country of settlement.
The transnationalist view is that "dual loyalty" is a potentially-positive expression of multi-culturalism and can contribute to the diversity and strength of civil society. That view is popular in many academic circles, but others are skeptical of the idea. As one paper describes it,
On occasion, these imagined communities conform to the root meaning of transnational, extending beyond loyalties that connect to any specific place of origin or ethnic or national group. Yet what immigration scholars describe as transnationalism is usually its opposite... highly particularistic attachments antithetical to those by-products of globalization denoted by the concept of "transnational civil society" and its related manifestations.[14]
Beyond its usage in particular instances, the terms "dual loyalty" and "transnationalism" continue to be the subject of much debate. As one academic wrote:
Although the events of September 11th may have shaken some assumptions – at least in the United States – about the nature of transnational networks and their capacity to facilitate flows of people, goods, and ideas across borders, the terms "globalization" and "transnationalism" remain relatively stable, albeit frustratingly imprecise additions to the language of social sciences, including anthropology.[15]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^"AmericanPresident.org article on John F. Kennedy".Archived fromthe originalon 2006-10-01.Retrieved2006-03-17.
- ^abLeonard P. Zakim,Janice Ditchek,Confronting Anti-Semitism: a Practical Guide,KTAV Publishing House, Inc., p. 26,2000ISBN0-88125-629-3,9780881256291
- ^Rory Miller,Divided Against Zion: Anti-Zionist Opposition in Britain to a Jewish State in Palestine, 1945–1948,Routledge,pp. 129–135,2000ISBN0-7146-5051-X,9780714650517
- ^John J. Mearsheimer,Stephen M. Walt,The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy,pp. 146–149,Farrar, Straus and Giroux,2007ISBN0-374-17772-4
- ^Dore Gold,Blaming Israel for the Iraq War,Institute for Contemporary Affairs, Jerusalem Issue Brief, Vol. 3, No. 25 3 June 2004.
- ^Postscript 9/11 Media Coverage of Terrorism and ImmigrationArchivedFebruary 17, 2006, at theWayback Machine,Center for Immigration Studies, April 2003.
- ^Linda Chavez,"Mexican law to challenge loyaltiesArchivedNovember 13, 2005, at theWayback Machine,"Abilene Texas News,April 8, 1998.
- ^Bangladesh slammed for persecution of Hindus,Rediff
- ^A Bleak Future for Bangladesh Hindu'sArchivedFebruary 3, 2009, at theWayback Machine,hinduismtoday
- ^The Hindu Minority in Bangladesh: Legally Identified Enemies,Human Rights Documentation Centre
- ^Breach of Faith.Human Rights Watch. p. 14.RetrievedMay 6,2014.
- ^"Ahmadis and the State of Israel".Al Islam.RetrievedMay 6,2014.
- ^Relman, Eliza."Republicans tried to smear Alexander Vindman by implying the US military officer has dual loyalty to Ukraine".Business Insider.Retrieved2020-05-04.
- ^Waldinger, Roger; Fitzgerald, David (March 2004)."Transnationalism in Question"(PDF).American Journal of Sociology.109(5): 1178.doi:10.1086/381916.S2CID143317592.[dead link]
- ^Wagner, Sarah (2002),Putting a Face on Transnationalism: Migration, Identity, and Membership in the Transnational City of Johannesburg(PDF),p. 2, archived fromthe original(PDF)on April 8, 2005.