Eastern Orthodox Church

This article is about the Eastern Orthodox Church as an institution. For its religion, doctrine and tradition, seeEastern Orthodoxy.

For other uses of "Orthodox Church", seeOrthodox Church (disambiguation).

For other uses of "Greek Orthodox", seeGreek Orthodox Church.

Not to be confused withOriental Orthodox Churches,Eastern Christianity,orEastern Catholic Churches.

Eastern Orthodox Church
Saint George's Cathedral,Istanbul,Turkey
Classification	Eastern Orthodoxy
Orientation	Eastern Christianity
Scripture	Septuagint,New Testament
Theology	Eastern Orthodox theology
Polity	Episcopal
Governance	Autocephaly
Structure	Communion
Primus inter pares	Bartholomew, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople
Region	PrimarilySoutheastern Europe,Eastern Europe,Northern Asia,Levant,Egypt,Northern America,Near East,Caucasia,Cyprus
Language	Koine Greek,Church Slavonic,and othervernacular
Liturgy	Byzantine RiteandWestern Rite
Founder	Jesus Christ,according tosacred tradition
Origin	1st century Judaea,Roman Empire
Members	230 million
Other name(s)	Orthodox Church, Orthodox Christian Church, Orthodox Catholic Church

Christ Pantocrator,sixth century,Saint Catherine's Monastery,Sinai;the oldest knowniconof Christ, in one of the oldest monasteries in the world.

TheEastern Orthodox Church,officially theOrthodox Catholic Church,and also called theGreek Orthodox Churchor simply theOrthodox Church,is thesecond-largest Christian church,with approximately 230 millionbaptisedmembers. It operates as acommunionofautocephalouschurches, each governed by itsbishopsvia localsynods.The church has no central doctrinal or governmental authority analogous to the head of theCatholic Church(thepope). Nevertheless, theEcumenical Patriarch of Constantinopleis recognised by them asprimus inter pares( "first among equals" ),a title formerly given to the patriarch of Rome. As one of the oldest surviving religious institutions in the world, the Eastern Orthodox Church has played an especially prominent role in the history and culture ofEasternandSoutheastern Europe.

Eastern Orthodox theologyis based on theScripturesandholy tradition,which incorporates the dogmatic decrees of theseven ecumenical councils,and the teaching of theChurch Fathers.The church teaches that it is theone, holy, catholic and apostolicchurchestablished byJesus Christin hisGreat Commission,and that its bishops are thesuccessorsof Christ'sapostles.It maintains that it practises the original Christian faith, as passed down by holy tradition. Itspatriarchates,descending from thepentarchy,and other autocephalous andautonomouschurches, reflect a variety ofhierarchicalorganisation.It recognises seven majorsacraments,of which theEucharistis the principal one, celebratedliturgicallyinsynaxis.The church teaches that throughconsecrationinvokedby apriest,the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. TheVirgin Maryisveneratedin the Eastern Orthodox Church as theGod-bearerand honoured indevotions.

The Churches of Constantinople, Alexandria, Jerusalem, and Antioch—except for some breaks of communion such as thePhotian schismor theAcacian schism—shared communionwith the Church of Rome until theEast–West Schismin 1054. The 1054 schism was the culmination of mounting theological, political, and cultural disputes, particularly over theauthority of the pope,between those churches. Before theCouncil of Ephesusin AD 431, theChurch of the Eastalso shared in this communion, as did the variousOriental Orthodox Churchesbefore theCouncil of Chalcedonin AD 451, all separating primarily overdifferences inChristology.

The Eastern Orthodox Church is the primary religious denomination inRussia,Ukraine,Romania,Greece,Belarus,Serbia,Bulgaria,Georgia,Moldova,North Macedonia,CyprusandMontenegro.Roughly half of Eastern Orthodox Christians live in the post Eastern Bloc countries, mostly in Russia.The communities in the formerByzantine regionsofNorth Africa,theEastern Mediterraneanare among the oldest Orthodox communities from theMiddle East,which are decreasing due to forced migration driven by increasedreligious persecution.Eastern Orthodox communities outsideWestern Asia,Asia Minor,CaucasiaandEastern Europe,including those inNorth America,Western Europe,andAustralia,have been formed throughdiaspora,conversions,andmissionaryactivity.

Name and characteristics

Definition

The Eastern Orthodox Church is defined as theEastern Christianswhich recognise theseven ecumenical councilsand usually are incommunionwith theEcumenical Patriarchate,thePatriarchate of Alexandria,thePatriarchate of Antioch,and thePatriarchate of Jerusalem.The Eastern Orthodox churches "are defined positively by their adherence to thedogmaticdefinitions of the seven [ecumenical] councils, by the strong sense of not being asector adenominationbut simply continuing theChristian church,and, despite their varied origins, by adherence to theByzantine rite".Those churches are negatively defined by their rejection ofpapal immediate and universal supremacy.

The seven ecumenical councils recognised by the Eastern Orthodox churches are:Nicaea I,Constantinople I,Ephesus,Chalcedon,Constantinople II,Constantinople III,andNicaea II.Those churches consider theQuinisext Council"shar[es] the ecumenical authority of Constantinople III."By an agreement that appears to be in place in the [Eastern] Orthodox world, possibly thecouncil held in 879to vindicate thePatriarch Photiuswill at some future date be recognized as the eighth [ecumenical] council "by the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Western Rite Orthodoxyexists both outside and insideEastern Orthodoxy.Within Eastern Orthodoxy, it is practised by avicariateof the Antiochian Orthodox church.

Name

In keeping with the church's teaching on universality and with the Nicene Creed, Eastern Orthodox authorities such asRaphael of Brooklynhave insisted that the full name of the church has always included the term "Catholic",as in" Holy Orthodox Catholic Apostolic Church ".

The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the "Orthodox Catholic Church".It is the name by which the church refers to itselfand which is issued in its liturgical orcanonicaltexts.Eastern Orthodox theologians refer to the church as Catholic.This name and longer variants containing "Catholic" are also recognised and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Eastern Orthodox writers.ThecatechismofPhilaret (Drozdov) of Moscowpublished in the 19th century is titled:The Longer Catechism of the Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church(Russian:Пространный христианский катехизис православныя, кафолическия восточныя Церкви).

From ancient times through the first millennium, Greek was the most prevalent shared language in the demographic regions where theByzantine Empireflourished, and Greek, being the language in which theNew Testamentwas written, was the primary liturgical language of the church. For this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as "Greek" (in contrast to the"Roman" or "Latin" church,which used a Latin translation of the Bible), even before the Great Schism of 1054. After 1054, "Greek Orthodox" or "Greek Catholic" marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople, much as "Catholic" did for communion with theCatholic Church.

In Hungarian, the church is still commonly called "Eastern Greek" (Hungarian:Görögkeleti). This identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Eastern Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. In addition, struggles between Rome and Constantinople to control parts ofSoutheastern Europeresulted in the conversion of some churches to the Catholic Church, which then also used "Greek Catholic" to indicate their continued use of the Byzantine rites. Today, only a minority of Eastern Orthodox adherents use Greek as the language of worship.

"Eastern", then, indicates the geographical element in the church's origin and development, while "Orthodox" indicates the faith, as well as communion with the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.There are additional Christian churches in the east that are in communion with neither the Catholic Church nor the Eastern Orthodox Church, who tend to be distinguished by the category named "Oriental Orthodox".While the Eastern Orthodox Church continues officially to call itself" Catholic ", for reasons ofuniversality,the common title of "Eastern Orthodox Church" avoids casual confusion with the Catholic Church.

Orthodoxy

Emperor Constantinepresents a representation of the city ofConstantinopleas tribute to an enthroned Mary and baby Jesus in this church mosaic (Hagia Sophia,c. 1000).

The first known use of the phrase "the catholic Church" (he katholike ekklesia) occurred in a letter written about AD 110 from one Greek church to another (Ignatius of Antiochto theSmyrnaeans). The letter states: "Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, there is the universal [katholike] Church."Thus, almost from the beginning, Christians referred to the Christian Church as the "one, holy, catholic (from the Greek καθολική, 'according to the whole, universal') and apostolic Church ".The Eastern Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same early church.

A number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim: the RomanCatholic Church,theAnglican Communion,theAssyrian Church,and theOriental Orthodox.In the Eastern Orthodox view, the Assyrians and Orientals left the Orthodox Church in the years following the Third EcumenicalCouncil of Ephesus(431) and the Fourth EcumenicalCouncil of Chalcedon(451), respectively, in their refusal to accept those councils'Christologicaldefinitions. Similarly, the churches in Rome and Constantinople separated in an event known as theEast–West Schism,traditionally dated to the year 1054, although it was more a gradual process than a sudden break.

To all these churches, the claim tocatholicity(universality, oneness with the ancient Church) is important for multiple doctrinal reasons that have more bearing internally in each church than in their relation to the others, now separated in faith. The meaning of holding to a faith that is true is the primary reason why anyone's statement of which church split off from which other has any significance at all; the issues go as deep as the schisms. The depth of this meaning in the Eastern Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word "Orthodox"itself, a union ofGreekorthos( "straight", "correct", "true", "right" ) anddoxa( "common belief", from the ancient verb δοκέω-δοκῶ which is translated "to believe", "to think", "to consider", "to imagine", "to assume" ).

The dual meanings ofdoxa,with "glory" or "glorification" (of God by the church and of the church by God), especially in worship, yield the pair "correct belief" and "true worship". Together, these express the core of a fundamental teaching about the inseparability of belief and worship and their role in drawing the church together with Christ.AllSlavicchurches use the titlePravoslavie(Cyrillic:Православие), meaning "correctness of glorification", to denote what is in EnglishOrthodoxy,while the Georgians use the titleMartlmadidebeli.

The term "Eastern Church" (the geographic east in the East–West Schism) has been used to distinguish it fromwestern Christendom(the geographic West, which at first came to designate the Catholic communion, later also the variousProtestantand Anglican branches). "Eastern" is used to indicate that the highest concentrations of the Eastern Orthodox Church presence remain in the eastern part of the Christian world, although it is growing worldwide. Orthodox Christians throughout the world use various ethnic or national jurisdictional titles, or more inclusively, the title "Eastern Orthodox", "Orthodox Catholic", or simply "Orthodox".

What unites Orthodox Christians is the catholic faith as carried throughholy tradition.That faith is expressed most fundamentally in scripture and worship,and the latter most essentially through baptism and in theDivine Liturgy.

The lines of even this test can blur, however, when differences that arise are not due to doctrine, but to recognition of jurisdiction. As the Eastern Orthodox Church has spread into the west and over the world, the church as a whole has yet to sort out all the inter-jurisdictional issues that have arisen in the expansion, leaving some areas of doubt about what is proper church governance.Moreover, as in the ancient church persecutions, the aftermath ofpersecutions of Christians in communist nationshas complicated some issues of governance that have yet to be completely resolved.

All members of the Eastern Orthodox Church profess the same faith, regardless of race or nationality, jurisdiction or local custom, or century of birth. Holy tradition encompasses the understandings and means by which that unity of faith is transmitted across boundaries of time, geography, and culture. It is a continuity that exists only inasmuch as it lives within Christians themselves.It is not static, nor an observation of rules, but rather a sharing of observations that spring both from within and also in keeping with others, even others who lived lives long past. The church proclaims the Holy Spirit maintains the unity and consistency of holy tradition to preserve the integrity of the faith within the church, as given in the scriptural promises.

Orthodoxy asserts that its shared beliefs, and its theology, exist within holy tradition and cannot be separated from it, and that their meaning is not expressed in mere words alone;that doctrine cannot be understood unless it is prayed;and that it must also be lived in order to be prayed, that without action, the prayer is idle, empty, and in vain, and therefore the theology of demons.

Catholicity

Aniconof SaintJohn the Baptist,14th century,North Macedonia

The Eastern Orthodox Church considers itself to be both orthodox and catholic.The doctrine of theCatholicity of the Church,as derived from theNicene Creed,is essential to Eastern Orthodoxecclesiology.The termCatholicity of the Church(GreekΚαθολικότης τῆς Ἐκκλησίας) is used in its original sense, as a designation for the universality of the Christian Church, centred around Christ. Therefore, the Eastern Orthodox notion of catholicity is not centred around any singular see, unlike the Catholic Church which has one earthly centre.

Due to the influence of the Catholic Church in the west, where theEnglish languageitself developed, the words "catholic" and "catholicity" are sometimes used to refer to that church specifically. However, the more prominent dictionary sense given for general use is still the one shared by other languages, implying breadth and universality, reflecting comprehensive scope.In a Christian context, the Christian Church, as identified with the original church founded by Christ and his apostles, is said to be catholic (or universal) in regard to its union with Christ in faith.

Just as Christ is indivisible, so are union with him and faith in him, whereby the Christian Church is "universal", unseparated, and comprehensive, including all who share that faith. Orthodox bishopKallistos Warehas called that "simple Christianity".That is the sense of early andpatristicusage wherein the church usually refers to itself as the "Catholic Church",whose faith is the "Orthodox faith". It is also the sense within the phrase "one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church", found in theNicene Creed,and referred to in Orthodox worship, e.g. in the litany of the catechumens in the Divine Liturgy.

With the mutual excommunications of the East–West Schism in 1054,the churches in Rome and Constantinople each viewed the other as having departed from thetrue church,leaving a smaller but still-catholic church in place. Each retained the "Catholic" part of its title, the "RomanCatholic Church "(or Catholic Church) on the one hand, and the"OrthodoxCatholic Church "on the other, each of which was defined in terms of inter-communion with either Rome or Constantinople. While the Eastern Orthodox Church recognises what it shares in common with other churches, including the Catholic Church, it sees catholicity in terms of complete union in communion and faith, with the Church throughout all time, and the sharing remains incomplete when not shared fully.

History

Main article:History of the Eastern Orthodox Church

Early Church

An early Christian "Ichthys"(fish) inscription from ancientEphesus

Pauland theApostlestravelled extensively throughout theRoman Empire,including Asia Minor,establishing churches in major communities,with the first churches appearing inJerusalemand theHoly Land,then inAntioch,Ethiopia,Egypt,Rome,Alexandria,Athens,Thessalonica,Illyricum,andByzantium,which centuries later would become prominent as theNew Rome.Christianityencountered considerable resistance in the Roman Empire,mostly because its adherents refused to comply with the demands of the Roman state—often even when their lives were threatened—by offering sacrifices to the pagan gods. Despite persecution, skepticism, and initial social stigma, the Christian Church spread, particularly following theconversion of Emperor Constantine Iin AD 312.

By thefourth century,Christianity was present in numerous regions well beyond the Levant. A number of influential schools of thought had arisen, particularly theAlexandrianandAntiochianphilosophical approaches. Other groups, such as theArians,had also managed to gain influence. However, their positions caused theological conflicts within the church, thus prompting theEmperor Constantineto call for a great ecumenical synod in order to define the church's position against the growing, often widely diverging, philosophical and theological interpretations of Christianity. He made it possible for this council to meet not only by providing a location, but by offering to pay for the transportation of all the existing bishops of the church. Most modern Christian churches regard this synod, commonly called theFirst Council of Nicaeaor more generally theFirst Ecumenical Council,as of major importance.

Ecumenical councils

Main article:First seven Ecumenical Councils

See also:State church of the Roman Empire

Anicondepictingthe Emperor Constantineand thebishopsof the First Council of Nicaea (325) holding theNiceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381

Several doctrinal disputes from the fourth century onwards led to the calling ofecumenical councils.In the Orthodox Church, an ecumenical council is the supreme authority that can be invoked to resolve contested issues of the faith. As such, these councils have been held to resolve the most important theological matters that came to be disputed within the Christian Church. Many lesser disagreements were resolved through local councils in the areas where they arose, before they grew significant enough to require an ecumenical council.

There are seven councils authoritatively recognised as ecumenical by the Eastern Orthodox Church:

1. TheFirst Ecumenical Councilwas convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine atNicaeain 325 and presided over by the PatriarchAlexander of Alexandria,with over 300 bishops condemning the view ofAriusthat the Son is a created being inferior to the Father.
2. TheSecond Ecumenical Councilwas held at Constantinople in 381, presided over by the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, with 150 bishops, defining the nature of the Holy Spirit against those asserting His inequality with the other persons of the Trinity.
3. TheThird Ecumenical Councilis that of Ephesus in 431, presided over by the Patriarch of Alexandria, with 250 bishops, which affirmed that Mary is truly "Birthgiver" or "Mother" of God (Theotokos), contrary to the teachings ofNestorius.
4. TheFourth Ecumenical Councilis that of Chalcedon in 451, Patriarch of Constantinople presiding, 500 bishops, affirmed that Jesus is truly God and truly man, without mixture of the two natures, contrary toMonophysiteteaching.
5. TheFifth Ecumenical Councilis the second of Constantinople in 553, interpreting the decrees of Chalcedon and further explaining the relationship of the two natures of Jesus; it also condemned the alleged teachings ofOrigenon the pre-existence of the soul, etc.
6. TheSixth Ecumenical Councilis the third of Constantinople in 681; it declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of theMonothelites.
7. TheSeventh Ecumenical Councilwas called under the Empress RegentIrene of Athensin 787, known as the second of Nicaea. It supports thevenerationoficonswhile forbidding their worship. It is often referred to as "The Triumph of Orthodoxy".

There are also two other councils which are considered ecumenical by some Eastern Orthodox:

• TheFourth Council of Constantinoplewas called in 879. It restoredPhotiusto hisSee in Constantinopleand condemned any alteration of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381.
• TheFifth Council of Constantinoplewas actually a series of councils held between 1341 and 1351. It affirmed thehesychastictheology ofGregory Palamasand condemned the philosopherBarlaam of Calabria.

Other major councils

In addition to these councils, there have been a number of other significant councils meant to further define the Eastern Orthodox position. They are the Synods of Constantinople, in1484,1583,1755,1819, and1872,theSynod of Iașiin 1642, and the Pan-OrthodoxSynod of Jerusalem in 1672.Another council convened inJune 2016to discuss many modern phenomena, other Christian confessions, Eastern Orthodoxy's relation with other religions and fasting disciplines.

Roman/Byzantine Empire

Main articles:State church of the Roman EmpireandEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople

TheHagia Sophia,the largest church in the world and patriarchal basilica ofConstantinoplefor nearly a thousand years, later converted into amosque,then a museum, then back to a mosque

Constantinopleis generally considered to be the centre and the "cradle of OrthodoxChristian civilisation".From the mid-5th century to the early 13th century, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe.EasternChristian culturereached its golden age during the high point of theByzantine Empireand continued to flourish in Ukraine and Russia, after thefall of Constantinople.Numerousautocephalouschurches were established in Europe: Greece, Georgia, Ukraine, as well as in Russia and Asia.

In the 530s theChurch of the Holy Wisdom(Hagia Sophia) was built inConstantinopleunder EmperorJustinian I.Beginning with subsequentByzantine architecture,Hagia Sophia became the paradigmaticOrthodox church formand its architectural style was emulated byOttoman mosquesa thousand years later.Being theepiscopal seeof theecumenical patriarch of Constantinople,it remained the world's largest cathedral for nearly a thousand years, untilSeville Cathedralwas completed in 1520.Hagia Sophiahas been described as "holding a unique position in theChristian world",and architectural andcultural iconofByzantineandEastern Orthodox civilisation,and it is considered the epitome ofByzantine architectureand is said to have "changed the history of architecture".

Early schisms

There are the "Nestorian"churches resulted from the reaction of theCouncil of Ephesus(431), which are the earliest surviving Eastern Christian churches that keep the faith of only the first two ecumenical councils, i.e., theFirst Council of Nicaea(325) and theFirst Council of Constantinople(381) as legitimate. "Nestorian" is an outsider's term for a tradition that predated the influence ofNestorius,the origin of which might lie in certain sections of theSchool of Antiochor via Nestorius' teachersTheodore of MopsuestiaorDiodore of Tarsus.The modern incarnation of the "Nestorian Church"is commonly referred to as" the Assyrian Church "or fully as theAssyrian Church of the East.

The church in Egypt (Patriarchate of Alexandria) split into two groups following theCouncil of Chalcedon(451), over a dispute about the relation between the divine and human natures ofJesus.Eventually this led to each groupanathematisingthe other. Those that remained in communion with the other patriarchs (by accepting the Council of Chalcedon) are known today as theGreek Orthodox Church of Alexandria,where the adjective "Greek" refers to their ties to the Greek-speaking culture of the Byzantine Empire.

Those who disagreed with the findings of the Council of Chalcedon were the majority in Egypt. Today they are known as theCoptic Orthodox Church,having maintained a separate patriarchate. The Coptic Orthodox Church is currently the largest Christian church in Egypt and in the whole Middle East. There was also a similar, albeit smaller scale, split inSyria(Patriarchate of Antioch), which resulted in the separation of theSyriac Orthodox Churchfrom theByzantine Patriarchate of Antioch.

Those who disagreed with the Council of Chalcedon are sometimes called "Oriental Orthodox"to distinguish them from the"Eastern Orthodox",who accepted the Council of Chalcedon. Oriental Orthodox are also sometimes referred to as" non-Chalcedonians ", or" anti-Chalcedonians ". The Oriental Orthodox Church denies that it is monophysite and prefers the term"miaphysite",to denote the" united "nature of Jesus (two natures united into one) consistent with Cyril's theology:" The term union... signifies the concurrence in one reality of those things which are understood to be united "and" the Word who is ineffably united with it in a manner beyond all description "(Cyril of Alexandria,On the Unity of Christ). This is also defined in theCopticliturgy, where it is mentioned "He made it [his humanity] one with his divinity without mingling, without confusion and without alteration", and "His divinity parted not from his humanity for a single moment nor a twinkling of an eye."They do not accept the teachings ofEutyches,orEutychianism.Both the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches formally believe themselves to be the continuation of the true church.

Conversion of the South and East Slavs

Further information:Christianisation of BulgariaandChristianisation of Kievan Rus'

In the ninth and tenth centuries, Christianity made great inroads into pagan Europe, includingBulgaria(864) and laterKievan Rus'(988). This work was made possible byCyril and MethodiusofThessaloniki,two brothers chosen byByzantine emperor Michael IIIto fulfil the request ofRastislav of Moraviafor teachers who could minister to the Moravians in their own language. Cyril and Methodius began translating thedivine liturgy,other liturgical texts, and theGospelsalong with some otherscriptural textsinto local languages; with time, as these translations were copied by speakers of other dialects, the hybrid literary languageChurch Slavonicwas created. Originally sent to convert the Slavs ofGreat Moravia,Cyril and Methodius were forced to compete withFrankishmissionaries from the Roman diocese; theirdiscipleswere driven out of Great Moravia in AD 886 and emigrated toBulgaria.

The baptism ofPrincess OlgainConstantinople,a miniature from theRadziwiłł Chronicle

After theChristianisation of Bulgariain 864,the disciplesofCyril and MethodiusinBulgaria,the most important beingClement of OhridandNaum of Preslav,were of great importance to the Orthodox faith in theFirst Bulgarian Empire.In a short time they managed to prepare and instruct the futureBulgarianclergy into the biblical texts and in AD 870 theFourth Council of Constantinoplegranted the Bulgarians the oldest organisedautocephalousSlavic Orthodox Church, which shortly thereafter became Patriarchate. The success of theconversion of the Bulgariansfacilitated the conversion of theEast Slavs.A major event in this effort was the development of theCyrillic scriptinBulgaria,at thePreslav Literary Schoolin the ninth century; this script, along with the liturgicalOld Church Slavonic,also calledOld Bulgarian,was declared official inBulgariain 893.

The work of Cyril and Methodius and their disciples had a major impact on theSerbsas well.They accepted Christianity collectively along familial and tribal lines, a gradual process that occurred between the seventh and ninth centuries. In commemoration of their baptisms, each Serbian family or tribe began to celebrate an exclusively Serbian custom calledSlava (patron saint)in a special way to honour the saint on whose day they received the sacrament ofbaptism.It is the most solemn day of the year for all Serbs of the Orthodox faith and has played a role of vital importance in the history of the Serbian people. Slava remains a celebration of the conversion of the Serbian people, which the church blessed and proclaimed a church institution.

The missionaries to the East andSouth Slavshad great success in part because they used the people's native language rather thanGreek,the predominant language of the Byzantine Empire, orLatin,as the Roman priests did.Perhaps the greatest legacy of their efforts is the Russian Orthodox Church, which is the largest of the Orthodox churches.

Great Schism (1054)

Main article:East–West Schism

In the 11th century, what was recognised as theGreat Schismtook place betweenRomeandConstantinople,which led to separation between the Church of the West, the Catholic Church, and the Eastern Byzantine churches, now the Orthodox.There were doctrinal issues like thefilioqueclause and the authority of the RomanPopeinvolved in the split, but these were greatly exacerbated by political factors of both Church and state, and by cultural and linguistic differences between Latins and Greeks. Regardingpapal supremacy,the Eastern half grew disillusioned with the Pope's centralisation of power, as well as his blatant attempts of excluding the Eastern half in regard to papal approvals. It had previously been the case that the emperor would have a say when a new Pope was elected, but towards the high Middle Ages, the Christians in Rome were slowly consolidating power and removing Byzantine influence. However, even before this exclusionary tendency from the West, well before 1054, the Eastern and Western halves of the Church were in perpetual conflict, particularly during the periods of Easterniconoclasmand thePhotian schism.

Latin Crusaderssacking the city of Constantinople,the capital of the Eastern Orthodox controlledByzantine Empire,in 1204

The final breach is often considered to have arisen after the capture and sacking of Constantinople by theFourth Crusadein 1204; the final break with Rome occurred circa 1450. The sacking ofChurch of Holy Wisdomand establishment of theLatin Empireas a seeming attempt to supplant the OrthodoxByzantine Empirein 1204 is viewed with some rancour to the present day. In 2004,Pope John Paul IIextended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204, which had also been strongly condemned by the Pope at the time,Innocent III;the apology was formally accepted byPatriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople.However, many items stolen during this time, such asholy relicsand riches, are still held in various European cities, particularlyVenice.

Reunion was attempted twice, at the 1274Second Council of Lyonand the 1439Council of Florence.The Council of Florence briefly reestablished communion between East and West, which lasted until after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. In each case, however, the councils were rejected by the Orthodox people as a whole, and the union of Florence also became very politically difficult after Constantinople came under Ottoman rule. However, in the time since, several local Orthodox Christian churches have renewed union with Rome, known as theEastern Catholic Churches.Recent decades have seen a renewal of ecumenical spirit and dialogue between the Catholic and Orthodox churches.

Greek Church under Ottoman rule

Main articles:Christianity in the Ottoman EmpireandHistory of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire

The Byzantine Empire never fully recovered from the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Over the next two centuries, it entered a precipitous decline in both territory and influence. In 1453, a much-diminished Byzantine Empire fell to theOttoman Empire,ending what was once the most powerful state in the Orthodox Christian world, if not in allChristendom.By this timeEgypt,another major centre of Eastern Christianity, had been underMuslimcontrol for some seven centuries; most Eastern Orthodox communitiesacross southeastern Europegradually came under Ottoman rule by the 16th century.

Under the Ottomans, theGreek Orthodox Churchacquired substantial power as an autonomousmillet.The ecumenical patriarch was the religious and administrative ruler of theRûm,an Ottoman administrative unit meaning "Roman", which encompassed allOrthodox subjects of the Empireregardless of ethnicity. While legally subordinate to Muslims andsubject to various restrictions,the Orthodox community was generally tolerated until the rise of nationalist movements in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and left to govern its own internal affairs, both religiously and legally. Until the empire's dissolution in the early 20th century, Orthodox Christians would remain the largest non-Muslim minority, and at times among the wealthiest and most politically influential.

Greek Orthodox massacred during theGreek Genocidein Smyrna in 1922

During the period 1914–1923 in Asia Minor (Anatolia) theGreek Genocidetook place by the Ottomans as a result of theGreeks invading Turkeyand the ensuingGreco-Turkish War (1919–1922).During the Greek Genocide, many Orthodox Christians were persecuted and killed. The culmination of the martyrdom was theAsia Minor Catastrophewith the killing of a large number of Orthodox. Among them, 347 clergymen of the Smyrna region andMetropolitan of Smyrna Chrysostomoswere tortured and killed. The period 1923–1924 was followed by the obligatorypopulation exchange between Greece and Turkey.

Russian Orthodox Church in the Russian Empire

Uspenski Cathedral,a main cathedral of theFinnish Orthodox ChurchinHelsinki, Finland,was builtunder Imperial Russia.

By the time most Orthodox communities came under Muslim rule in the mid 15th century, Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia, which had maintained close cultural and political ties with the Byzantine Empire; roughly two decades after the fall of Constantinople,Ivan III of RussiamarriedSophia Palaiologina,a niece of the last Byzantine EmperorConstantine XI,and styled himself Tsar ( "Caesar" ) orimperator.In 1547, his grandsonIvan IV,a devout Orthodox Christian, cemented the title as "Tsar of All Rus", establishing Russia's first centralised state with divinely appointed rulers. In 1589, the Patriarchate of Constantinople granted autocephalous status to Moscow, the capital of what was now the largest Orthodox Christian polity; the city thereafter referred to itself as theThird Rome—the cultural and religious heir of Constantinople.

Until 1666, when Patriarch Nikon was deposed by thetsar,theRussian Orthodox Churchhad been independent of the State.In 1721, the first Russian Emperor,Peter I,abolished completely the patriarchate and effectively made the church a department of the government, ruled by amost holy synodcomposed of senior bishops and lay bureaucrats appointed by the Emperor himself. Over time, Imperial Russia would style itself a protector and patron of all Orthodox Christians, especially those within the Ottoman Empire.

For nearly 200 years, until theBolsheviks'October Revolutionof 1917, the Russian Orthodox Church remained, in effect, a governmental agency and an instrument of tsarist rule. It was used to varying degrees in imperial campaigns ofRussification,and was even allowed to levytaxesonpeasants.The church's close ties with the state came to a head under Nicholas I (1825–1855), who explicitly made Orthodoxy acore doctrine of imperial unity and legitimacy.The Orthodox faith became further tied to Russian identity and nationalism, while the church was further subordinated to the interests of the state. Consequently, Russian Orthodox Church, along with the imperial regime to which it belonged, came to be presented as anenemy of the peopleby theBolsheviksand other Russian revolutionaries.

Eastern Orthodox churches under Communist rule

See also:Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union

1931 demolition of theCathedral of Christ the SaviourinMoscow

The rebuilt Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, currently the second tallest Orthodox church

After theOctober Revolutionof 1917, part of the clergy of the Russian Orthodox Church fled abroad to escapeBolshevikpersecutions, founding anindependent church in exile,which reunified with its Russian counterpart in 2007.Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers along withexecutionincludedtorture,being sent toprison camps,labour campsormental hospitals.In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.

After Nazi Germany's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941,Joseph Stalinrevived the Russian Orthodox Church to intensify patriotic support for the war effort. By 1957 about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active. However, in 1959,Nikita Khrushchevinitiated his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced the closure of about 12,000 churches. It is estimated that 50,000 clergy had been executed between the revolution and the end of the Khrushchev era. Members of the church hierarchy were jailed or forced out, their places taken by docile clergy, many of whom had ties with the KGB. By 1985 fewer than 7,000 churches remained active.

Albaniawas the only state to have declared itselfofficially fully atheist.In some other Communist states such as Romania, theRomanian Orthodox Churchas an organisation enjoyed relative freedom and even prospered, albeit under strict secret police control. That, however, did not rule out demolishing churches and monasteries as part of broadersystematisation(urban planning), and state persecution of individual believers. As an example of the latter, Romania stands out as a country which ran aspecialised institutionwhere many Orthodox (along with people of other faiths) were subjected topsychological punishmentor torture andmind controlexperimentation in order to force them give up their religious convictions. However, this was only supported by one faction within the regime, and lasted only three years. The Communist authorities closed down the prison in 1952, and punished many of those responsible for abuses (twenty of them were sentenced to death).

Post-Communism to 21st century

Since thedissolution of the Soviet Union,and the subsequentFall of Communistgovernments across theOrthodox world,there has been marked growth in Christian Orthodoxy, particularly in Russia. According to thePew Research Religion & Public Life Project,between 1991 and 2008, the share of Russian adults identifying as Orthodox Christian rose from 31 per cent to 72 per cent, based on analysis of three waves of data (1991, 1998 and 2008) from theInternational Social Survey Programme(ISSP), a collaborative effort involving social scientists in about 50 countries.

Pew research conducted in 2017 found a doubling in the global Orthodox population since the early 20th century, with the greatest resurgence in Russia.In the former Soviet Union—where the largest Orthodox communities live—self-identified Orthodox Christians generally report low levels of observance and piety: In Russia, only 6% of Orthodox Christian adults reported attending church at least weekly, 15% say religion is "very important" in their lives, and 18% say they pray daily; other former Soviet republics display similarly low levels of religious observance.

Moscow–Constantinople schisms

1996

Main article:1996 Moscow–Constantinople schism

Since 1923, theOrthodox Church of Estoniaseparated from theRussian Orthodox Churchdue to the imprisonment ofPatriarch Tikhon of Moscow,and the church in theRepublic of Estoniafalling out of communication with the Russian Church. They petitioned to be placed under direct control of theEcumenical Patriarch of Constantinople,operating as an autonomous church. In 1944 theSoviet Unionannexed Estonia and outlawed the Orthodox Church of Estonia, forcefully bringing their churches back under the control of the Moscow Patriarch. However, the church's Primate, Metropolitan Aleksander, fled toSwedenwith 21 clergymen and 8,000 followers and established a synod there operating there throughout theCold War.

In 1993, the synod of the Orthodox Church of Estonia in Exile was re-registered and on 20 February 1996,Bartholomew I of Constantinoplerestored the church's position as subordinate to Constantinople, not Moscow.Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow,who had been born in Estonia, rejected this loss of territory, and severed ties with Patriarch Bartholomew on February 23, removing his name from the diptychs. The two sides would then negotiate inZürich,and a settlement was reached on 16 May 1996. In it, the ethnically Estonian population of Estonia would be under the jurisdiction of theEstonian Apostolic Orthodox Church,while the ethnically Russian population of Estonia would be under the jurisdiction of theEstonian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate.After signing the document the Russian Church restored communion with the Ecumenical Patriarchate.

2018

Main article:2018 Moscow–Constantinople schism

Since theBaptism of Rus'in 867 the Orthodox church in Ukraine was led by theMetropolitan of Kiev and all Rus'who was subordinate to theEcumenical Patriarch of Constantinopleand was largely governed by thePolish-Lithuanian Commonwealthsince the territory was conquered in theGalicia–Volhynia Wars,ending in 1392. Poland-Lithuania lost the territory to Russia as part of the peace deal of theGreat Northern Warin 1654. In 1686Dionysius IV of Constantinopletransferred the territory to thePatriarch of Moscow and all Rus'.In 1924, Orthodox churches in Ukraine besides the Metropolitan of Kyiv were placed under the jurisdiction of thePolish Orthodox Churchby the Ecumenical Patriarch as an autonomous church, however, the Russian Church never agreed to nor recognised this transfer, mostly due toPatriarch Tikhon of Moscowand most of the Russian Church's leaders being imprisoned by Soviet officials.TheSoviet Union,initially, had a policy of repression against the Orthodox Church, regardless of its denomination. However, after the start of theNazi Invasion of the Soviet Union,Joseph Stalintransformed the Russian Church into a propaganda tool to intensify patriotic support for the war effort. Following Soviet victory in the war, various autonomous and Independent Orthodox churches around eastern Europe were forcefully integrated or reintegrated into the Russian Church, including the church in Ukraine. Many of the church's leaders at this time were installed and closely monitored by theNKVDto ensure the church's support for the Soviet Union.

This situation led to the rise of rival, anti-Russian and anti-Soviet churches within Ukraine, including theUkrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church(UAOC), founded in 1917 which declared itself the restored autonomous church that existed prior to 1686 but had been eradicated within Soviet Ukraine by the 1930s. The church was largely supported by Ukrainian émigrés and diaspora, and was restored as a legally recognised church by the Ukrainian government in 1991.In 1992, theUkrainian Orthodox Church – Kyiv Patriarchate(UOC-KP) came into existence, being founded by members of the Russian Churchdefrockedfor insubordination, alongside support with the Ukrainian émigré community. The church submitted a request for Ukrainian autocephaly at its founding synod in Kyiv in 1992.These churches were competing with theUkrainian Orthodox Church(UOC-MP), the Russian Church in Ukraine.

On 11 October 2018, theHoly Synod of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinoplerevoked the Russian Church's letter of issue, allowing them to ordain the Metropolitan of Kyiv, re-established astauropegionin Kyiv, and lifted the Russian Church's excommunication of members of the UAOC and the UOC-KP. In response, on 15 October, theHoly Synod of the Russian Orthodox Churchsevered all ties with theEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinopleand barred all members of the Russian Church from receiving communion or sacraments from any churches with ties to the Ecumenical Patriarchate.On 15 December 2018, the UAOC and UOC-KP voted to merge in theUnification council of the Eastern Orthodox churches of Ukraine,forming the restoredOrthodox Church of Ukraine,withEpiphanius I of Ukraine,of the UOC-KP, becoming the first primate of the unified church.On 5 January 2019, Bartholomew I signed the officialtomosthat grantedautocephalyto the Orthodox Church of Ukraine.

In addition to severing ties with the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the Russian Church has also severed communion with ArchbishopIeronymos II of Athensprimate of theChurch of Greece,Patriarch Theodore IIof Alexandria,and ArchbishopChrysostomos IIofCyprus.In response to the severing of ties with the Ecumenical Patriarchate, theArchdiocese of Russian Orthodox Churches in Western Europe(AROCWE), voted to dissolve itself, although the vote failed, it resulted in a split in AROCWE, with several churches leaving to form the "Vicariate of Russian Tradition of the Metropolis of France", whileJohn (Renneteau),head of the AROCWE, personally joined the Russian Church.Additionally, during theRussian invasion of Ukraine,the UOC-MP severed all ties with the Russian Church.

Organisation and leadership

Main article:Eastern Orthodox Church organization

See also:Canon law of the Eastern Orthodox Church

A timeline showing the main autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches, from an Eastern Orthodox point of view, up to 2022

TheCanonical territoriesof the main autocephalous and autonomous Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions as of 2022

Orthodox church inLa Coruña,Galicia,(Spain).

The Eastern Orthodox Church is a fellowship ofautocephalous(Ancient Greek:αὐτοκέφαλος;"self-headed" ) churches, with theecumenical patriarch of Constantinoplerecognised as havingprimus inter paresstatus. The patriarch of Constantinople has the honour of primacy, but his title is onlyfirst among equalsand he has no real authority over churches other than the Constantinopolitan church. Rather, his role is limited to defined prerogatives interpreted by the ecumenical patriarch.At times, though, the office of the ecumenical patriarch has been accused of Constantinopolitan or Easternpapism.

The Eastern Orthodox Church considersJesus Christto be the head of the Church and the Church to be his body. It is believed that Church authority and thegrace of Godis directly passed down to Orthodoxbishopsand otherclergythrough thelaying on of hands—a practice started by theNew Testament apostles—and that this unbroken historical link is an essential element of thetrue church(Acts 8:17;1 Timothy 4:14;Hebrews 6:2) The Eastern Orthodox Church asserts thatapostolic successionrequires apostolic faith, and bishops without apostolic faith, who are inheresy,forfeit their claim to apostolic succession.Orthodox churches differentiate themselves from other Christian churches by practising "ritualandliturgy... rich in mystery and symbolism, "similar to their views on the sacraments.

The Eastern Orthodox communion is organised into several regional churches, which are either autocephalous or lower-rankingautonomous( "self-governing" ) church bodies unified intheologyand worship. These include the fourteen autocephalous churches of theConstantinople,Alexandria,Antioch,Jerusalem,Georgia,Cyprus,Bulgaria,Serbia,Russia,Greece,Poland,Romania,Albania,and theCzech Republic and Slovakia,which were officially invited to thePan-Orthodox Councilof 2016;theOrthodox Church in Americaformed in 1970; the autocephalousOrthodox Church of Ukrainecreated in 2019; theMacedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric,granted autocephaly by the Serbian Orthodox Church in 2022;and a number of autonomous churches.Each church has a rulingbishopand aholy synodto administer its jurisdiction and lead the Eastern Orthodox Church in the preservation and teaching of the apostolic andpatristictraditions and church practices.

Each bishop has a territory (see) over which he governs.His main duty is to make sure the traditions and practices of the Eastern Orthodox Church are preserved. Bishops are equal in authority and cannot interfere in the jurisdiction of another bishop. Administratively, these bishops and their territories are organised into various autocephalous groups orsynodsof bishops who gather together at least twice each year to discuss the state of affairs within their respective sees. While bishops and their autocephalous synods have the ability to administer guidance in individual cases, their actions do not usually set precedents that affect the entire Eastern Orthodox Church. Bishops are almost always chosen from the monastic ranks and must remain unmarried.

Church councils

Oldest extant manuscript of theNicene Creed,dated to the fifth Century

The ecumenical councils followed a democratic form, with each bishop having one vote. Though present and allowed to speak before the council, members of theImperial Roman/Byzantinecourt, abbots, priests, deacons, monks and laymen were not allowed to vote. The primary goal of these great synods was to verify and confirm the fundamental beliefs of theGreat Christian Churchas truth, and to remove as heresy any false teachings that would threaten the Christian Church. Thepope of Romeat that time held the position ofprimus inter pares( "first among equals" ) and, while he was not present at any of the councils, he continued to hold this title until theEast–West Schismof 1054.

Other councils have helped to define the Eastern Orthodox position, specifically theQuinisext Council,the Synods ofConstantinople,879–880,1341, 1347, 1351,1583, 1819, and1872,theSynod of Iași,1642, and the Pan-OrthodoxSynod of Jerusalem,1672; thePan-Orthodox Council,held in Greece in 2016, was the only such Eastern Orthodox council in modern times.

According to Eastern Orthodox teaching the position of "first among equals" gives no additional power or authority to the bishop that holds it, but rather that this person sits as organisational head of a council of equals (like a president).

One of the decisions made by theFirst Council of Constantinople(the second ecumenical council, meeting in 381) and supported by later such councils was that the Patriarch of Constantinople should be given equal honour to the Pope of Rome since Constantinople was considered to be the "New Rome".According to the thirdcanonof the second ecumenical council: "Because [Constantinople] is new Rome, the bishop of Constantinople is to enjoy the privileges of honor after the bishop of Rome".

The 28th canon of the fourth ecumenical council clarified this point by stating: "For the Fathers rightly granted privileges to the throne of Old Rome because it was the royal city. And the One Hundred and Fifty most religious Bishops (i.e. the second ecumenical council in 381) actuated by the same consideration, gave equal privileges to the most holy throne of New Rome, justly judging that the city which is honoured with the Sovereignty and the Senate, and enjoys equal privileges with the old imperial Rome, should in ecclesiastical matters also be magnified as she is."

Because of the schism, the Eastern Orthodox no longer recognise the primacy of the pope of Rome. The patriarch of Constantinople therefore, like the Pope before him, now enjoys the title of "first among equals".

Adherents

Further information:Eastern Orthodoxy by country

Percentage distribution of Eastern Orthodox Christians by country

The most reliable estimates currently available number Eastern Orthodox adherents at around 220 million worldwide,making Eastern Orthodoxy the second largest Christiancommunionin the world after theCatholic Church.

According to the 2015 Yearbook of International Religious Demography, as of 2010, the Eastern Orthodox population was 4% of the global population, declining from 7.1% in 1910. The study also found a decrease in proportional terms, with Eastern Orthodox Christians making up 12.2% of the world's total Christian population in 2015 compared to 20.4% a century earlier.A 2017 report by thePew Research Centerreached similar figures, noting that Eastern Orthodoxy has seen slower growth and less geographic spread than Catholicism and Protestantism, which were driven bycolonialismandmissionaryactivity across the world.

Over two-thirds of all Eastern Orthodox members are concentrated inSoutheast Europe,Eastern EuropeandRussia,with significant minorities inCentral Asiaand theLevant.However, Eastern Orthodoxy has become more globalised over the last century, seeing greater growth inWestern Europe,the Americas,and parts of Africa; churches are present in the major cities of most countries.Adherents constitute the largest single religiouscommunityin Russia—which is home to roughly half the world's Eastern Orthodox Christians—and are the majority in Ukraine,Romania,Belarus,Greece,Serbia,Bulgaria,Moldova,Georgia,North Macedonia,Cyprus,andMontenegro;communities also dominate the disputed territories ofAbkhazia,South OssetiaandTransnistria.Significant Eastern Orthodox minorities exist inBosnia and Herzegovina,Latvia,Estonia,Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Lebanon,Albania,Syria,and many other countries.

Eastern Orthodox Christianity is the fastest growing religion in certain Western countries, primarily through labour migration from Eastern Europe, and to a lesser degree conversion.Ireland saw a doubling of its Eastern Orthodox population between 2006 and 2011.Spain and Germany have thelargest communities in Western Europe,at roughly 1.5 million each, followed by Italy with around 900,000 and France with between 500,000 and 700,000.

In theAmericas,four countries have over 100,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians: Canada, Mexico, Brazil, and the United States; all but the latter had fewer than 20,000 at the turn of the 20th century.The U.S. has seen its community more than quadruple since 1910, from 460,000 to 1.8 million as of 2017;consequently, the number of Eastern Orthodox parishes has been growing, with a 16% increase between 2000 and 2010.

Turkey, which for centuries once had one of the largest Eastern Orthodox communities, saw its overall Christian population fall from roughly one-fifth in 1914 to 2.5% in 1927.This was predominantly due to thedissolution of the Ottoman Empire,which saw most Christian territories become independent nations. The remaining Christian population was reduced further by large-scale genocides against theArmenian,Greek,Assyrian communities;subsequentpopulation exchanges between Greece and Turkeyand Bulgaria and Turkey; and associatedemigration of Christiansto foreign countries (mostly in Europe andthe Americas).Today, only 0.2% of Turkey's population represent eitherJewsor variousChristian denominations(320,000).

Theology

Main article:Eastern Orthodox Christian theology

Trinity

Eastern Orthodox Christians believe in theTrinity,three distinct, divine persons (hypostases), without overlap ormodalityamong them, who each have the same divineessence(ousia,Greek: οὐσία)—uncreated, immaterial, andeternal.These three persons are typically distinguished by their relation to each other. TheFatheris eternal and not begotten and does not proceed from any, theSonis eternal and begotten of the Father, and theHoly Spiritis eternal and proceeds from the Father.Orthodox doctrine regarding the Trinity is summarised in theNicene Creed.

Eastern Orthodox Christians believe in amonotheisticconception of God(God is only one), which is bothtranscendent(wholly independent of, and removed from, the material universe) andimmanent(involved in the material universe).

In discussing God's relationship to his creation, Eastern Orthodox theologydistinguishesbetween God's eternal essence, which is totally transcendent, and hisuncreated energies,which is how he reaches humanity.The God who is transcendent and the God who touches mankind are one and the same.That is, these energies are not something that proceed from God or that God produces, but rather they are God himself: distinct, yet inseparable from God's inner being.This view is often calledPalamism.

In understanding theTrinityas "one God in three persons", "three persons" is not to be emphasised more than "one God", and vice versa. While the three persons are distinct, they are united in one divine essence, and their oneness is expressed in community and action so completely that they cannot be considered separately. For example, their salvation of mankind is an activity engaged in common: "Christ became man by the good will of the Father and by the cooperation of the Holy Spirit. Christ sends the Holy Spirit who proceeds from the Father, and the Holy Spirit forms Christ in our hearts, and thus God the Father is glorified." Their "communion of essence" is "indivisible". Trinitarian terminology—essence, hypostasis, etc.—are used "philosophically", "to answer the ideas of the heretics", and "to place the terms where they separate error and truth."The words do what they can do, but the nature of the Trinity in its fullness is believed to remain beyond man's comprehension and expression, a holy mystery that can only be experienced.

Sin, salvation, and the incarnation

John of Damascus

When Eastern Orthodox Christians refer to fallen nature they are not saying that human nature has become evil in itself. Human nature is still formed in the image of God; humans are still God's creation, and God has never created anything evil, but fallen nature remains open to evil intents and actions. It is sometimes said among Eastern Orthodox that humans are "inclined to sin"; that is, people find some sinful things attractive. It is the nature of temptation to make sinful things seem the more attractive, and it is the fallen nature of humans that seeks or succumbs to the attraction. Orthodox Christians reject theAugustinian positionthat the descendants of Adam and Eve are actually guilty of the original sin of their ancestors.

Since the fall of man, then, it has been mankind's dilemma that no human can restore his nature to union with God's grace; it was necessary for God to effect another change in human nature. Eastern Orthodox Christians believe that Christ Jesus was both God and Man absolutely and completely, having two natures indivisibly: eternally begotten of the Father in his divinity, he was born in his humanity of a woman, Mary, by her consent, through descent of the Holy Spirit. He lived on earth, in time and history, as a man. As a man he also died, and went to the place of the dead, which isHades.But being God, neither death nor Hades could contain him, and he rose to life again, in his humanity, by the power of the Holy Spirit, thus destroying the power of Hades and of death itself.

Through Christ's destruction of Hades' power to hold humanity hostage, he made the path to salvation effective for all the righteous who had died from the beginning of time—saving many, including Adam and Eve, who are remembered in the church as saints.

Resurrection of Christ

A 17th-centuryRussian Orthodoxicon of the Resurrection

The Eastern Orthodox Church understands the death and resurrection of Jesus to be real historical events, as described in the gospels of theNew Testament.

Christian life

Church teaching is that Eastern Orthodox Christians, through baptism, enter a new life of salvation through repentance whose purpose is to share in the life of God through the work of the Holy Spirit. The Eastern Orthodox Christian life is a spiritual pilgrimage in which each person, through theimitation of Christandhesychasm,cultivates the practice of unceasing prayer. Each life occurs within the life of the church as a member of thebody of Christ.It is then through the fire of God's love in the action of the Holy Spirit that each member becomes more holy, more wholly unified with Christ, starting in this life and continuing in the next.The church teaches that everyone, being born in God's image, is called totheosis,fulfilment of the image in likeness to God. God the creator, having divinity by nature, offers each person participation in divinity by cooperatively accepting His gift of grace.

The Eastern Orthodox Church, in understanding itself to be theBody of Christ,and similarly in understanding the Christian life to lead to the unification in Christ of all members of his body, views the church as embracing all Christ's members, those now living on earth, and also all those through the ages who have passed on to the heavenly life. "In general," Eastern Orthodox Christianity sees the Church "as a purely mystical body, the understanding of which cannot be attained through the development of a rational ornatural theology."

The church includes the Christian saints from all times, and also judges, prophets and righteous Jews of the first covenant, Adam and Eve, even the angels and heavenly hosts.In Eastern Orthodox services, the earthly members together with the heavenly members worship God as one community in Christ, in a union that transcends time and space and joins heaven to earth. This unity of the church is sometimes called thecommunion of the saints.

Eastern Orthodox Order of Saint Benedict

TheOrder of Saint Benedictis an affiliation of monastics of the Eastern Orthodox Church who strive to live according to theRule of St Benedict.The equivalent monastic order in theCatholic Churchis known as theOrder of Saint Benedict,abbreviated as OSB.

Within the United States, theAntiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of North Americahas at least one Benedictine monastery.

Several Benedictine monastic houses,sketesand hermitages fit within the Russian Orthodox Church outside of Russia, all of which arestavropegialdirectly under the Metropolitan. An oblate programme exists for Orthodox laity Saint Benedict Russian Orthodox Church in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.

Virgin Mary and other saints

Our Lady of Tinosis the majorMarian shrinein Greece.

TheTheotokos of Vladimir,one of the most venerated of Orthodox Christian icons of theVirgin Mary

The Eastern Orthodox Church believes death and the separation of body and soul to be unnatural—a result of theFall of Man.They also hold that the congregation of the church comprises both the living and the dead. All persons currently in heaven are considered to besaints,whether their names are known or not. There are, however, those saints of distinction whom God has revealed as particularly good examples. When a saint is revealed and ultimately recognised by a large portion of the church a service of official recognition (glorification) is celebrated.

This does not "make" the person a saint; it merely recognises the fact and announces it to the rest of the church. A day is prescribed for the saint's celebration, hymns composed and icons created. Numerous saints are celebrated on each day of the year. They are venerated (shown great respect and love) but not worshipped, for worship is due God alone (this view is also held by theOriental OrthodoxandCatholic churches). In showing the saints this love and requesting their prayers, the Eastern Orthodox manifest their belief that the saints thus assist in the process of salvation for others.

Pre-eminent among the saints is theVirgin Mary(commonly referred to asTheotokosorBogoroditsa:"Mother of God"). InEastern Orthodox theology,the Mother of God is the fulfilment of the Old Testament archetypes revealed in theArk of the Covenant(because she carried the New Covenant in the person of Christ) and theburning bushthat appeared beforeMoses(symbolising the Mother of God's carrying of God without being consumed).

The Eastern Orthodox believe that Christ, from the moment of his conception, was both fully God and fully human. Mary is thus called theTheotokosorBogoroditsaas an affirmation of the divinity of the one to whom she gave birth. It is also believed that her virginity was not compromised in conceiving God-incarnate, that she was not harmed and that she remained forever a virgin. Scriptural references to "brothers" of Christ are interpreted as kin, given that the word "brother" was used in multiple ways, as was the term "father". Due to her unique place in salvation history, Mary is honoured above all other saints and especially venerated for the great work that God accomplished through her.

The Eastern Orthodox Church regards the bodies of all saints as holy, made such by participation in the holy mysteries, especially the communion of Christ's holy body and blood, and by the indwelling of the Holy Spirit within the church. Indeed, that persons and physical things can be made holy is a cornerstone of the doctrine of theIncarnation,made manifest also directly by God in Old Testament times through his dwelling in the Ark of the Covenant. Thus, physical items connected with saints are also regarded as holy, through their participation in the earthly works of those saints. According to church teaching and tradition, God himself bears witness to this holiness of saints'relicsthrough the many miracles connected with them that have been reported throughout history since biblical times, often including healing from disease and injury.

Eschatology

Main article:Christian eschatology

Last Judgment:12th-centuryByzantinemosaic fromTorcelloCathedral

Orthodox Christians believe that when a person dies the soul is temporarily separated from the body. Though it may linger for a short period on Earth, it is ultimately escorted either to paradise (Abraham's bosom) or the darkness ofHades,following theTemporary Judgment.Orthodox do not accept the doctrine ofPurgatory,which is held by Catholicism. The soul's experience of either of these states is only a "foretaste" —being experienced only by the soul—until theFinal Judgment,when the soul and body will be reunited.

The Eastern Orthodox believe that the state of the soul in Hades can be affected by the love and prayers of the righteous up until the Last Judgment.For this reason the Church offers a specialprayer for the deadon the third day, ninth day, fortieth day, and the one-year anniversary after the death of an Orthodox Christian. There are also several days throughout the year that are set aside for general commemoration of the departed, sometimes including nonbelievers. These days usually fall on a Saturday, since it was on a Saturday that Christ lay in theTomb.

The Eastern Orthodox believe that after the Final Judgment:

• All souls will be reunited with theirresurrected bodies.
• All souls will fully experience their spiritual state.
• Having been perfected, the saints will forever progress towards a deeper and fuller love of God, which equates with eternal happiness.

Bible

David glorified by the women of Israelfrom theParis Psalter,example of theMacedonian art (Byzantine)(sometimes called theMacedonian Renaissance)

The official Bible of the Eastern Orthodox Church contains theSeptuaginttext of theOld Testament,with theBook of Danielgiven in the translation byTheodotion.ThePatriarchal Textis used for theNew Testament.Orthodox Christians hold that the Bible is a verbal icon of Christ, as proclaimed by the7th ecumenical council.They refer to the Bible asholy scripture,meaning writings containing the foundational truths of the Christian faith as revealed by Christ and theHoly Spiritto its divinely inspired human authors. Holy scripture forms the primary and authoritative written witness ofholy traditionand is essential as the basis for all Orthodox teaching and belief.

Once established as holy scripture, there has never been any question that the Eastern Orthodox Church holds the full list of books to be venerable and beneficial for reading and study,even though it informally holds some books in higher esteem than others, the four gospels highest of all. Of the subgroups significant enough to be named, the "Anagignoskomena"(ἀναγιγνωσκόμενα," things that are read ") comprises ten of the Old Testament books rejected in theProtestant canon,but deemed by the Eastern Orthodox worthy to be read in worship services, even though they carry a lesser esteem than the 39 books of theHebrew canon.The lowest tier contains the remaining books not accepted by either Protestants or Catholics, among them,Psalm 151.Though it is a psalm, and is in the book of psalms, it is not classified as being within the Psalter (the first 150 psalms).

In a very strict sense, it is not entirely orthodox to call the holy scripture the "Word of God". That is a title the Eastern Orthodox Church reserves for Christ, as supported in the scriptures themselves, most explicitly in the first chapter of the gospel of John. God's Word is not hollow, like human words. "God said, 'let there be light'; and there was light."

The Eastern Orthodox Church does not subscribe to the Protestant doctrine ofsola scriptura.The church has defined what Scripture is; it also interprets what its meaning is.Christ promised: "When He, the Spirit of truth, has come, He will guide you into all truth".

Scriptures are understood to contain historical fact, poetry, idiom, metaphor, simile, moral fable, parable, prophecy andwisdom literature,and each bears its own consideration in its interpretation. While divinely inspired, the text still consists of words in human languages, arranged in humanly recognisable forms. The Eastern Orthodox Church does not oppose honest critical and historical study of the Bible.

Liturgy

Main articles:Byzantine Rite,Eastern Orthodox worship,andWestern Rite Orthodoxy

FrescoofBasil the Great,in the church ofSaint Sophia,Ohrid.The saint is shownconsecratingtheGiftsduring theDivine Liturgywhich bears his name.

Church calendar

Lesser cycles also run in tandem with the annual ones. A weekly cycle of days prescribes a specific focus for each day in addition to others that may be observed.

Each day of the Weekly Cycle is dedicated to certain special memorials. Sunday is dedicated toChrist's Resurrection;Monday honours the holy bodiless powers (angels, archangels, etc.); Tuesday is dedicated to the prophets and especially the greatest of the prophets,John the Forerunner and Baptist of the Lord;Wednesday is consecrated to the Cross and recalls Judas' betrayal; Thursday honours the holy apostles and hierarchs, especiallyNicholas, Bishop of Myra in Lycia;Friday is also consecrated to the Cross and recalls the day of the Crucifixion; Saturday is dedicated to All Saints, especially theMother of God,and to the memory of all those who have departed this life in the hope of resurrection and eternal life.

Church services

Main article:Canonical hours § Byzantine Rite usage

Music and chanting

Chanters singing on theklirosat theChurch of St. George,Patriarchate of Constantinople

The church has developed eight modes or tones (seeOctoechos) within which a chant may be set, depending on the time of year, feast day, or other considerations of theTypikon.There are numerous versions and styles that are traditional and acceptable and these vary a great deal between cultures.

Traditions

Art and architecture

Main article:Eastern Orthodox church architecture

An illustration of the traditional interior of an Orthodox church

TheArchdiocesan Cathedral of the Holy Trinityon New York City'sUpper East Sideis the largest Orthodox Christian church in theWestern Hemisphere.

Local customs

Shards of pottery vases on the street, after being thrown from the windows of nearby houses. AHoly Saturdaytradition inCorfu.

Locality is also expressed in regional terms of churchly jurisdiction, which is often also drawn along national lines. Many Orthodox churches adopt a national title (e.g.Albanian Orthodox,Bulgarian Orthodox,Antiochian Orthodox,Georgian Orthodox,Greek Orthodox,Romanian Orthodox,Russian Orthodox,Serbian Orthodox,Ukrainian Orthodox,etc.) and this title can identify which language is used in services, which bishops preside, and which of the typica is followed by specificcongregations.In the Middle East, Orthodox Christians are usually referred to asRum( "Roman" ) Orthodox, because of their historical connection with theEastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.

Holy mysteries (sacraments)

TheByzantine Riteis used for the administration of the "Holy mysteries" or seven sacraments inEastern Orthodox Christianity;among these areHoly Communion(the most direct connection),baptism,Chrismation,confession,unction,matrimony,andordination,as well asblessings,exorcisms,and other occasions.

While the Catholic Church numbers seven sacraments, and many Protestant groups list two (baptism and the Eucharist) or even none, the Eastern Orthodox do not limit the number. However, for the sake of convenience,catechismsof the Eastern Orthodox Church will often speak of the "seven great mysteries". The term "sacrament" also properly applies to other sacred actions such asmonastictonsureor the blessing ofholy water,and involvesfasting,almsgiving,or an act as simple as lighting a candle,burning incense,praying or asking God's blessing on food.

Baptism

An Eastern Orthodox baptism

Baptismis the mystery which transforms the old and sinful person into a new and pure one; the old life, the sins, any mistakes made are gone and a clean slate is given. Through baptism a person is united to theBody of Christby becoming a member of the Eastern Orthodox Church. During the service,wateris blessed. The catechumen is fully immersed in the water three times in the name of the Trinity. This is considered to be a death of the "old man" by participation in the crucifixion and burial of Christ, and a rebirth into new life in Christ by participation in his resurrection.

An Eastern Orthodox baptism of an adult

Properly, the mystery of baptism is administered by bishops and priests; however,in emergencies any Eastern Orthodox Christian can baptise.

Chrismation

Chrismation(sometimes calledconfirmation) is the mystery by which a baptised person is granted the gift of theHoly Spiritthrough anointing with HolyChrism.It is normally given immediately after baptism as part of the same service, but is also used to receive lapsed members of the Eastern Orthodox Church.As baptism is a person's participation in the death and resurrection of Christ, so Chrismation is a person's participation in the coming of the Holy Spirit atPentecost.

A baptised and chrismated Eastern Orthodox Christian is a full member of the church and may receive the Eucharist regardless of age.

The creation of Chrism may be accomplished by any bishop at any time, but usually is done only once a year, often when a synod of bishops convenes for its annual meeting. Some autocephalous churches get their chrism from others. Anointing with it substitutes for the laying-on of hands described in theNew Testament,even when an instrument such as a brush is used.

Holy Communion (Eucharist)

Eucharistic elements prepared for the Divine Liturgy

Holy Communionis given only to baptised and chrismated Eastern Orthodox Christians who have prepared by fasting, prayer and confession. The priest will administer the gifts with a spoon, called a "cochlear", directly into the recipient's mouth from the chalice.From baptism young infants and children are carried to the chalice to receive holy communion.

Marriage

Main article:Marriage in the Eastern Orthodox Church

The wedding of TsarNicholas II of Russia

From the Eastern Orthodox perspective, marriage is one of the holy mysteries or sacraments. As well as in many other Christian traditions, for example in Catholicism, it serves to unite a woman and a man in eternal union and love before God, with the purpose of following Christ and his Gospel and raising up a faithful, holy family through their holy union.The church understands marriage to be the union of one man and one woman, and certain Orthodox leaders have spoken out strongly in opposition to the civil institution ofsame-sex marriage.

Greek Orthodox wedding

Jesus said that "when they rise from the dead, they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like angels in heaven" (Mk 12:25). For the Orthodox Christian this passage should not be understood to imply that Christian marriage will not remain a reality in the Kingdom, but points to the fact that relations will not be "fleshy", but "spiritual".Love between wife and husband, as an icon of relationship between Christ and church, is eternal.

The church does recognise that there are rare occasions when it is better that couples do separate, but there is no official recognition of civil divorces. For the Eastern Orthodox, to say that marriage is indissoluble means that it should not be broken, the violation of such a union, perceived as holy, being an offence resulting from either adultery or the prolonged absence of one of the partners. Thus, permitting remarriage is an act of compassion of the church towards sinful man.

Holy orders

Eastern Orthodoxsubdeaconbeing ordained to thediaconate.Thebishophas placed hisomophorionand right hand on the head of the candidate and is reading thePrayer ofCheirotonia.

Widowed priests anddeaconsmay not remarry and it is common for such members of the clergy to retire to a monastery (seeclerical celibacy). This is also true of widowed wives of clergy, who do not remarry and become nuns when their children are grown. Only men are allowed to receiveholy orders,althoughdeaconesseshad both liturgical and pastoral functions within the church.

In 2016, the Holy Synod of theGreek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandriavoted to reinstate thefemale diaconate;in the following year, it ordained six sub-deaconesses in theDemocratic Republic of Congo.In 2024 the Patriarchate ordained its first female deacon, Angelic Molen, in Zimbabwe, making her the first female deacon in the Eastern Orthodox Church.This move was met with criticism from other autocephalous Orthodox church leaders, such as theAntiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America'sMetropolitan Saba Esber,and Archpriest John Whiteford of theROCOR,who criticized the move as being politically motivated and did not accurately reflect the historical use of deaconesses in the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Interfaith relations

The consecration ofReginald Heber Welleras an Anglican bishop at theCathedral of St. Paul the Apostlein theEpiscopal Diocese of Fond du Lac,with Anthony Kozlowski of thePolish National Catholic ChurchandTikhon, then Bishop of the Aleutians and Alaska(along with his chaplainsJohn KochurovandSebastian Dabovich) of theRussian Orthodox Churchpresent

Pope FrancisandEcumenical Patriarch Bartholomew Iin theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre,Jerusalem, 2014

Relations with other Christians

In 1920, the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, published an encyclical "addressed 'To all the Churches of Christ, wherever they may be', urging closer co-operation among separated Christians, and suggesting a 'League of Churches', parallel to the newly foundedLeague of Nations".This gesture was instrumental in the foundation of theWorld Council of Churches(WCC);as such, almost all Eastern Orthodox churches are members of the WCC and "Orthodox ecclesiastics and theologians serve on its committees".Kallistos Ware,a British metropolitan bishop of the Orthodox Church, has stated thatecumenism"is important for Orthodoxy: it has helped to force the various Orthodox churches out of their comparative isolation, making them meet one another and enter into a living contact with non-Orthodox Christians."

Hilarion Alfeyev,then the Metropolitan of Volokolamsk and head of external relations for the Moscow Patriarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church, stated that Orthodox andEvangelical ProtestantChristians share the same positions on "such issues asabortion,thefamily,andmarriage"and desire" vigorous grassroots engagement "between the twoChristian communionson such issues.

In that regard, the differences between the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox communions have not been improved in any relevant way. Dogmatic andliturgicalpolarities have been significant, even and especially in recent times. A pertinent point of contention between the monarchically papal, administratively centralised Catholic Church and the decentralised confederation of Orthodox churches is the theological significance of theVirgin Mary.During his visit toGeorgiain October 2016,Pope Franciswas snubbed by most Orthodox Christians as he led mass before a practically emptyMikheil Meskhi StadiuminTbilisi.

The Oriental Orthodox Churches are not incommunionwith the Eastern Orthodox Church, despite their similar names. Slow dialogue towards restoring communion between the two churches began in the mid-20th century,and, notably, in the 19th century, when the Greek Patriarch in Egypt had to absent himself from the country for a long period of time; he left his church under the guidance of the CopticPope Cyril IV of Alexandria.

In 2019, the Primate of theOCUMetropolitan of Kyiv and All UkraineEpiphaniusstated that "theoretically" theOrthodox Church of Ukraineand theUkrainian Greek Catholic Churchcould in the future unite into a united church around the Kyiv throne.In 2019, the Primate of the UGCC,Major Archbishop of Kyiv-GaliciaSviatoslav,stated that every effort should be made to restore the original unity of the Kyivan Church in its Orthodox and Catholic branches, saying that the restoration of Eucharistic communion betweenRomeandConstantinopleis not a utopia.

Notwithstanding certain overtures by both Catholic and Eastern Orthodox leaders, the majority of Orthodox Christians, as well as Catholics, are not in favour of communion between their churches, with only a median of 35 per cent and 38 per cent, respectively, claiming support.

Relations with Islam

TheConstantinople Massacre of April 1821:a religious persecution of the Greek population ofConstantinopleunder the Ottomans. PatriarchGregory V of Constantinoplewas executed.

According toBat Ye'or,Christians under Islamic ruleweredenied equality of rightssince they were forced to pay thejizyapoll tax.

In 2007, MetropolitanAlfeyevexpressed the possibility of peaceful coexistence between Islam andChristianityin Russia, as the two religions have never had religious wars in Russia.

Constituencies

See also:List of the current autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches and their dependencies

The variousautocephalousand autonomoussynodsof the Eastern Orthodox Church are distinct in terms of administration and local culture, but for the most part exist infull communionwith one another. In addition, some schismatic churches not in any communion exist, with all three groups identifying as Eastern Orthodox.

ThePan-Orthodox Council,Kolymvari, Crete, Greece, June 2016

Another group of non-mainstream Eastern Orthodox Christians are referredTrue OrthodoxyorOld Calendarists;they are those who, without authority from their parent churches, have continued to use the oldJulian calendar,and split from their parent church.

TheRussian Orthodox Church Outside Russia(ROCOR) hasunited in 2007 with the Moscow Patriarchate;these two churches had separated from each other in the 1920s due to the subjection of the latter to the hostileSoviet regime.

Another group called theOld Believers,separated in 1666from the official Russian Orthodox Church as a protest against church rite reforms introduced byPatriarch Nikon of Moscow.

Main communion

Cathedral of Evangelismos,Alexandria

The Eastern Orthodox Church is acommunionof 15autocephalous—that is, administratively completely independent—regional churches,plus theOrthodox Church in Americaand twoUkrainianOrthodox Churches.The Orthodox Church in America is recognised as autocephalous only by the Russian, Bulgarian, Georgian, Polish and Czech-Slovak churches. In December 2018, representatives of two unrecognised Ukrainian Orthodox churches, along with twometropolitansof the recognised, but self-declared autocephalousUkrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate,proclaimed the formation of the unified Orthodox Church of Ukraine.On 5 January 2019, the Orthodox Church of Ukraine received itstomosof autocephaly (decree which defines the conditions of a church's independence) from the Ecumenical Patriarchate and thus received a place in thediptych.

Patriarchate of PećinKosovo,the seat of theSerbian Orthodox Churchfrom the 14th century, when its status was upgraded into a patriarchate

Each church has defined geographical boundaries of its jurisdiction and is ruled by its council of bishops or synod presided by a senior bishop–itsprimate(or first hierarch). The primate may carry the honorary title of patriarch, metropolitan (in the Slavic tradition) or archbishop (in the Greek tradition).

Each regional church consists of constituenteparchies(or dioceses) ruled by a bishop. Some churches have given an eparchy or group of eparchies varying degrees ofautonomy(self-government). Such autonomous churches maintain varying levels of dependence on theirmother church,usually defined in atomosor other document of autonomy.

Below is a list of the 15 autocephalous Orthodox churches forming the main body of Orthodox Christianity, all of which are titled equal to each other, but the Ecumenical Patriarchate is titled thefirst among equals.Based on the definitions, the list is in the order of precedence and Alpha betical order where necessary, with some of their constituent autonomous churches and exarchates listed as well. The liturgical title of the primate is in italics.

• Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople(Archbishop of Constantinople-New Rome and First Among Equals Patriarch)
  • AutonomousOrthodox Church of Finland(Archbishop of Helsinki and All Finland,formerlyArchbishop of Karelia and All Finland)
  • Self-governing OrthodoxChurch of Crete(Archbishop of Crete)
  • Self-governingmonastic community of Mount Athos
  • Self-governingOrthodox Church of Korea(Metropolitan of Seoul and All Korea)
• Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria(the Pope and Patriarch of the Great City ofAlexandria,Libya,Pentapolis,Ethiopia,all the land ofEgypt,and all Africa)
• Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch(Patriarch of Antioch and all the East)
• Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem(Patriarch of the Holy City of Jerusalem and all Holy Land, Syria, Arabia, beyond the Jordan River, Cana of Galilee, and Sacred Zion)
  • AutonomousChurch of Mount Sinai(Archbishop of Choreb, Sinai, and Raitha)
• Russian Orthodox Church(Patriarch of Moscow and all Russia)
  • AutonomousOrthodox Church in Japan(Archbishop of Tokyo and Metropolitan of All Japan)
  • Exarchate of Belarus(Metropolitan of Minsk and Slutsk, Patriarchal Exarch of All Belarus)
  • Self-governingRussian Orthodox Church Outside Russia(Metropolitan of Eastern America and New York, First Hierarch of the Russian church abroad)
• Serbian Orthodox Church(Archbishop of Peć, Metropolitan of Belgrade and Karlovci, and Serbian Patriarch)
• Bulgarian Orthodox Church(Metropolitan of Sofia and Patriarch of All Bulgaria)
• Romanian Orthodox Church(Archbishop of Bucharest, Metropolitan of Muntenia and Dobrudja, Locum Tenens of the Throne of Caesarea of Cappadocia, and Patriarch of Romania)
  • AutonomousRomanian Orthodox Metropolis of the Americas(Romanian Orthodox Archbishop of the United States of America and Romanian Orthodox Metropolitan of the Americas)
• Georgian Orthodox Church(Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, the Archbishop of Mtskheta-Tbilisi and Metropolitan bishop of Abkhazia and Pitsunda)
• Church of Cyprus(Archbishop of New Justiniana and all Cyprus)
• Church of Greece(Archbishop of Athens and all Greece)
• Albanian Orthodox Church(Archbishop of Tirana, Durres and all Albania)
• Polish Orthodox Church(Metropolitan of Warsaw and all PolandorArchbishop of Warsaw and Metropolitan of All Poland)
• Orthodox Church of the Czech Lands and Slovakia(Archbishop of Prague, the Metropolitan of Czech lands and Slovakia or the Archbishop of Presov, the Metropolitan of Czech lands and Slovakia)
• Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric(Metropolitan of Skopje and Archbishop of Ohrid and Macedonia and of Justiniana Prima)

Within the main body of Eastern Orthodoxy there are unresolved internal issues as to the autonomous or autocephalous status or legitimacy of the following Orthodox churches, particularly between those stemming from the Russian Orthodox or Constantinopolitan churches:

• Orthodox Church in America(Archbishop of Washington, Metropolitan of All America and Canada) – Autocephaly not recognised by the Ecumenical Patriarchate.
• Self-governingEstonian Apostolic Orthodox Church(Metropolitan of Tallinn and all Estonia) – Recognised only by the Ecumenical Patriarchate, opposed only by the Russian Orthodox Church.
• Self-governingEstonian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate(Metropolitan of Tallinn and all Estonia) – Not recognised by the Ecumenical Patriarchate.
• AutonomousBessarabian Orthodox Churchin Moldova (Archbishop of Chișinău, Metropolitan of Bessarabia and Exarch of the Territories) of the Romanian Orthodox Church – Territory claimed by the Russian Orthodox Church.
• AutonomousMoldovan Orthodox Church(Metropolitan of Chișinău and all Moldova) of the Russian Orthodox Church – Jurisdiction disputed by the Romanian Orthodox Church.
• Orthodox Church of Ukraine(Metropolitan of Kyiv and All Ukraine) – Recognised by the Ecumenical Patriarchate, Church of Greece, Church of Cyprus, and Patriarchate of Alexandriaas of October 2020, opposed by the Russian, Antiochian, Czech and Slovak, Serbian and Polish Orthodox Churches, and the Orthodox Church in America.
• Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate),self-governing by declaration which later was approved and recognised by the Georgian Orthodox Church– jurisdiction disputed with theOrthodox Church of Ukraine,which nearly all Churches continued to recognise as part of ROC.
• Latvian Orthodox Church(Metropolitan of Riga and all Latvia) holding autocephaly prior to 1941, forcibly integrated in 1941 as a result of theSoviet occupation and annexation of the Baltic statesto become a self-governing part of theRussian Orthodox Church,with the Ecumenical Patriarchate accepting this situation in 1978; in 2022, the Latvian Parliament (theSaeima) declared the restoration of autocephaly of the LOC from the ROC, due to security reasons.

Traditionalist groups

True Orthodox

Main article:Eastern Orthodox Church organization § True Orthodox

True Orthodoxyhas been separated from the mainstream communion over issues of ecumenism and calendar reform since the 1920s.The movement rejects the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, the Moscow Patriarchate, and all churches which are in communion with them, accusing them of heresy and placing themselves under bishops who do the same thing. They adhere to the use of theJulian calendar,claiming that thecalendar reform in the 1920sis in contradiction with the ecumenical councils. There is no official communion of True Orthodox; and they often are local groups and are limited to a specific bishop or locality.

Old calendarists

Main article:Old Calendarists

Old Believers

Main article:Old Believers § Old Believer churches

TraditionalPaschalprocession byRussian Orthodox Old-Rite Church

Old Believersare groups which do not accept the liturgical reforms which were carried out within the Russian Orthodox Church byPatriarch Nikon of Moscowin the 17th century. Although all of the groups of Old Believers emerged as a result of opposition to the Nikonian reforms, they do not constitute a single monolithic body. Despite their emphasis on invariable adherence to the pre-Nikonian traditions, the Old Believers feature a great diversity of groups which profess different interpretations of church tradition and they are often not in communion with each other (some groups even practise re-baptism before admitting a member of another group into their midst).

Churches not in communion with other churches

Main article:Organization of the Eastern Orthodox Church § Churches that are not recognised despite wanting to

Churches with irregular or unresolved canonical status are entities that have carried outepiscopal consecrations outside of the norms of canon lawor whose bishops have been excommunicated by one of the 14 autocephalous churches. These include nationalist and other schismatic bodies such as theAbkhazian Orthodox Church.

See also

• Byzantine art
• Byzantine literature
• Byzantine dress
• Byzantine music
• Chalcedonian Christianity
• Christianization of Bulgaria
• Ecclesiastical differences between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church
• Theological differences between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church
• Emanation (Eastern Orthodoxy)
• Greek Orthodox Christianity in Lebanon
• History of Christianity
• History of Christian theology
• History of Eastern Orthodox Christian theology
• Interparliamentary Assembly on Orthodoxy
• List of Eastern Orthodox churches in Australia
• List of Eastern Orthodox Christians
• Moscow–Constantinople schism (2018)
• Timeline of Orthodoxy in Greece (33–717)

References

Sources

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• De Vie, D. Charles (1945),The Eastern Orthodox-Catholic Church and the Anglican Church: Their Union,Tufts University,OCLC190830032,archived fromthe originalon 3 September 2015,retrieved2 June2014
• Diamond, Larry Jay; Plattner, Marc F.; Costopoulos, Philip J., eds. (2005),World Religions and Democracy,Johns Hopkins University and the National Endowment for Democracy,ISBN978-0-8018-8080-3,OCLC58807255
• Edwards, Mark J. (2009).Catholicity and Heresy in the Early Church.Farnham: Ashgate Publishing.ISBN9780754662914.
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• Archimandrite George (2006),Theosis: The True Purpose of Human Life(PDF)(4th ed.), Mount Athos, Greece: Holy Monastery of St. Gregorios,ISBN978-960-7553-26-3,retrieved2 June2014
• Greek Orthodox Church (1875),The marriage service of the Holy Orthodox Catholic Church,trans. from Greek by Rev. Athanasius Richardson, London: A.R. Mowbray & Co.,retrieved2 June2014
• Harakas, Stanley S. (1987),The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers,Minneapolis: Light & Life Publishing Company,ISBN978-0-937032-56-5
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• Hierotheos, Metropolitan of Nafpaktos (1998),The Mind of the Orthodox Church,Levadia, Greece: Birth of the Theotokos Monastery,ISBN978-960-7070-39-5
• Leith, John H. (1982),Creeds of the Churches(3rd ed.), Westminster: John Knox Press,ISBN978-0-8042-0526-9,retrieved2 June2014
• Losch, Richard R. (2002),The Many Faces of Faith: A Guide to World Religions and Christian Traditions,Wm. B. Eerdmans,ISBN978-0-8028-0521-8,retrieved2 June2014
• Meyendorff, John(1966).Orthodoxy and Catholicity.New York: Sheed & Ward.
• Meyendorff, John(1975) [1969].Christ in Eastern Christian Thought(2nd ed.). Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press.ISBN9780913836279.
• Meyendorff, John(1978).Living Tradition: Orthodox Witness in the Contemporary World.Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press.ISBN9780913836279.
• Meyendorff, John(1982).The Byzantine Legacy in the Orthodox Church.Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press.ISBN9780913836903.
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Tertiary reference works

• American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language(5th ed.), Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014,ISBN978-0-547-04101-8,retrieved28 May2014
• Columbia Encyclopedia(6th ed.), Columbia Univ. Press, June 2000,ISBN978-0-7876-5015-5,retrieved2 June2014
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• Encyclopedia of Christianity,vol. 3, Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2003,ISBN978-0-8028-2415-8,retrieved28 May2014
• Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East & North Africa(2nd ed.), Macmillan Reference US, 2004,ISBN978-0-02-865769-1,archived fromthe originalon 2 June 2014,retrieved28 May2014
• Encyclopedia of World Religions,Concord Pub., 2006,ISBN978-1-60136-000-7,retrieved28 May2014
• Encyclopedia of World Religions(revised ed.), Infobase Publishing, 2007,ISBN978-0-8160-6141-9,retrieved30 May2014
• Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions,Merriam-Webster, 1999,ISBN978-0-87779-044-0,retrieved30 May2014
• Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary,archived fromthe originalon 31 May 2014,retrieved30 May2014
• Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church(3rd rev. ed.), Oxford University Press, 2005,ISBN978-0-19-280290-3

Further reading

See also:Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613) § Religion,andBibliography of Russian history (1613–1917) § Religion

• Adeney, Walter F. (1908).The Greek and Eastern Churches(PDF).New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
• Buxhoeveden, Daniel; Woloschak, Gayle, eds. (2011).Science and the Eastern Orthodox Church(1st ed.). Farnham: Ashgate.ISBN9781409481614.
• Dvornik, Francis(1948).The Photian Schism: History and Legend.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Erickson, John H.(1991).The Challenge of Our Past: Studies in Orthodox Canon Law and Church History.Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press.ISBN9780881410860.
• Erickson, John H.(1992)."The Local Churches and Catholicity: An Orthodox Perspective".The Jurist.52:490–508.
• Fairbairn, Donald(2002).Eastern Orthodoxy through Western Eyes.Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press.ISBN9780664224974.
• FitzGerald, Thomas (2007)."Eastern Christianity in the United States".The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity.Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 269–279.ISBN9780470766392.
• Hussey, Joan M.(1986).The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire.Oxford: Clarendon Press.ISBN9780198269014.
• Krindatch, Alexei D. ed.,Atlas of American Orthodox Christian Churches(Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2011)online.
• Lossky, Vladimir(1957).The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church(1st ed.). London: J. Clarke.ISBN9780227675366.
• Mascall, Eric Lionel(1958).The Recovery of Unity: A Theological Approach.London: Longmans.
• McGuckin, John Anthony(2008).The Orthodox Church: An Introduction to its History, Doctrine, and Spiritual Culture(1st ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.ISBN9781405150668.
• McGuckin, John Anthony,ed. (2011).The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity.Vol. 1. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN9781405185394.
• McGuckin, John Anthony,ed. (2011).The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity.Vol. 2. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN9781405185394.
• Obolensky, Dimitri(1974) [1971].The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe, 500–1453.London: Cardinal.ISBN9780351176449.
• Ostrogorsky, George(1956).History of the Byzantine State.Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
• Paraskevas, J. E.; Reinstein, F. (1969).The Eastern Orthodox Church: A Brief History.Washington: El Greco Press.
• Runciman, Steven(1968).The Great Church in Captivity: A Study of the Patriarchate of Constantinople from the Eve of the Turkish Conquest to the Greek War of Independence(1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521071888.
• Scouteris, Constantine,A Brief Outline of the Orthodox Church, Ἐκκλησιαστικός Φάρος, 65 (2004), pp. 60–75.

• Orthodox Dictionaryat Kursk Root Hermitage of the Birth of the Most Holy Theotokos
• An Online Orthodox Catechismpublished by theRussian Orthodox Church
• "Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century".Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project.8 November 2017.

External links

• A repository with scientific papers on various aspects of the Byzantine Orthodox Church in English and in German