Byzantine Empire

"Byzantine" redirects here. For other uses, seeByzantine (disambiguation).

Byzantine Empire
330–1453
The empire in 555 underJustinian I,its greatest extent since the fall of theWestern Roman Empire,withvassalsin pink
Capital	Constantinople(modern-dayIstanbul)
Common languages	LatinandGreek Regional languages
Religion	Christianity(official)
Demonym(s)	Byzantine Roman
Government	Autocracy
Notable emperors
• 306–337	Constantine I
• 379–395	Theodosius I
• 408–450	Theodosius II
• 527–565	Justinian I
• 610–641	Heraclius
• 717–741	Leo III
• 976–1025	Basil II
• 1081–1118	Alexios I
• 1143–1180	Manuel I
• 1261–1282	Michael VIII
• 1449–1453	Constantine XI
Historical era	Late antiquitytoLate Middle Ages
Population
• 457	16,000,000
• 565	26,000,000
• 775	7,000,000
• 1025	12,000,000
• 1320	2,000,000
Currency	Solidus,denarius,andhyperpyron

TheByzantine Empire,also referred to as theEastern Roman Empire,was the continuation of theRoman Empirecentred inConstantinopleduringlate antiquityand theMiddle Ages.The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused thefall of the Westin the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until thefall of Constantinopleto theOttoman Empirein 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in theMediterranean world.The term "Byzantine Empire" was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves as "Romans".Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome toByzantium,theadoption of state Christianity,and the predominance ofGreekinstead ofLatin,modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlierRoman Empireand the laterByzantine Empire.

During the earlierPax Romanaperiod, the western parts of the empire becameincreasingly Latinised,while the eastern parts largely retained their preexistingHellenistic culture.This created a dichotomy between theGreek East and Latin West.These cultural spheres continued to diverge afterConstantine I(r. 324–337) moved the capital to Constantinople and legalisedChristianity.UnderTheodosius I(r. 379–395), Christianity became thestate religion,and other religious practiceswere proscribed.Greek gradually replaced Latin for official use as Latin fell into disuse.

The empire experienced several cycles of decline and recovery throughout its history, reaching its greatest extent after the fall of the west during the reign ofJustinian I(r. 527–565), who briefly reconquered much of Italy and the westernMediterranean coast.Theappearance of plagueand adevastating war with Persiaexhausted the empire's resources; theearly Muslim conqueststhat followed saw the loss of the empire's richest provinces—EgyptandSyria—to theRashidun Caliphate.In 698, Africa was lost to theUmayyad Caliphate,but the empire subsequently stabilised under theIsauriandynasty. The empire was able to expand once more under theMacedonian dynasty,experiencinga two-century-long renaissance.This came to an end in 1071, with the defeat by theSeljuk Turksat theBattle of Manzikert.Thereafter, periods of civil war and Seljuk incursion resulted in the loss of most ofAsia Minor.The empire recovered during theKomnenian restoration,and Constantinople would remain the largest and wealthiest city in Europe until the 13th century.

The empire was largely dismantled in 1204, following theSack of Constantinopleby Latin armies at the end of theFourth Crusade;its former territorieswere then dividedinto competing Greekrump statesandLatin realms.Despite the eventualrecovery of Constantinoplein 1261, the reconstituted empire would wield only regional power during its final two centuries of existence. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans inperennial warsfought throughout the 14th and 15th centuries. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 ultimately brought the empire to an end. Many refugees who had fled the city after its capture settled in Italy and throughout Europe, helping to ignite theRenaissance.The fall of Constantinople is sometimes used to mark the dividing line between the Middle Ages and theearly modern period.

Nomenclature

See also:Roman peopleandNames of the Greeks

The inhabitants of the empire, now generally termed Byzantines, thought of themselves asRomans(Romaioi). Their Islamic neighbours similarly called their empire the "land of the Romans" (Bilād al-Rūm), but the people of medieval Western Europe preferred to call them "Greeks" (Graeci), due to having a contested legacy to Roman identity and to associate negative connotations from ancient Latin literature.The adjective "Byzantine", which derived fromByzantion(Latinised asByzantium), the name of the Greek settlementConstantinoplewas established on, was only used to describe the inhabitants of that city; it did not refer to the empire, which they calledRomanía— "Romanland".

After the empire's fall, early modern scholars referred to the empire by many names, including the "Empire of Constantinople", the "Empire of the Greeks", the "Eastern Empire", the "Late Empire", the "Low Empire", and the "Roman Empire".The increasing use of "Byzantine" and "Byzantine Empire" likely started with the 15th-century historianLaonikos Chalkokondyles,whose works were widely propagated, including byHieronymus Wolf."Byzantine" was used adjectivally alongside terms such as "Empire of the Greeks" until the 19th century.It is now the primary term, used to refer to all aspects of the empire; some modern historians believe that, as an originally prejudicial and inaccurate term, it should not be used.

History

Main article:History of the Byzantine Empire

As the historiographicalperiodizationsof "Roman history","late antiquity",and" Byzantine history "significantly overlap, there is no consensus on a" foundation date "for the Byzantine Empire, if there was one at all. The growth of the study of" late antiquity "has led to some historians setting a start date in the seventh or eighth centuries.Others believe a "new empire" began during changes inc. 300AD.Still others hold that these starting points are too early or too late, and instead beginc. 500.Geoffrey Greatrex believes that it is impossible to precisely date the foundation of the Byzantine Empire.

Early history (pre-518)

Further information:Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties,Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty,andByzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty

Four-way division of theRoman Empireunder theTetrarchysystem established byDiocletian.

In aseries of conflictsbetween the third and first centuriesBC, theRoman Republicgradually established hegemony over theeastern Mediterranean,whileits governmentultimately transformed into the one-person rule ofan emperor.TheRoman Empireenjoyed a period ofrelative stabilityuntilthe third century AD,when a combination of external threats and internal instabilities caused the Roman state to splinter as regional armies acclaimed their generals as "soldier-emperors".One of these,Diocletian(r. 284–305), seeing that the state was too big to be ruled by one man, attempted to fix the problem by instituting aTetrarchy,or rule of four, and dividing the empire into eastern and western halves. Although the Tetrarchy system quickly failed, the division of the empire proved an enduring concept.

Constantine I(r. 306–337) secured sole power in 324. Over the following six years, he rebuilt the city ofByzantiumas acapital city,which was renamedConstantinople.Rome,the previous capital, was further from the important eastern provinces and in a less strategically important location; it was not esteemed by the "soldier-emperors" who ruled from the frontiers or by the empire's population who,having been granted citizenship,considered themselves "Roman".Constantine extensively reformed the empire's military and civil administration and instituted thegold solidusas a stable currency.He favouredChristianity,whichhe had converted toin 312.Constantine's dynastyfoughta lengthy conflictagainstSasanid Persiaand ended in 363 with the death of his son-in-lawJulian.The shortValentinianic dynasty,occupied withwars against barbarians,religious debates, and anti-corruption campaigns, ended in the East with the death ofValensat theBattle of Adrianoplein 378.

Division of the empire after the death of Theodosius I in 395.

The Western Roman Empire

The Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire

Valens's successor,Theodosius I(r. 379–395), restored political stability in the east by allowing theGothsto settle in Roman territory;he also twice intervened in the western half, defeating the usurpersMagnus MaximusandEugeniusin 388 and 394 respectively.Heactively condemned paganism,confirmed the primacy ofNicene ChristianityoverArianism,and establishedChristianity as the Roman state religion.He was the last emperor to rule both the western and eastern halves of the empire;after his death, the West would be destabilised by a succession of "soldier-emperors", unlike the East, where administrators would continue to hold power.Theodosius II(r. 408–450) largely left the rule of the east to officials such asAnthemius,who constructed theTheodosian Wallsto defend Constantinople, now firmly entrenched as Rome's capital.

Theodosius' reign was marked by the theological dispute overNestorianism,which was eventually deemedheretical,and by the formulation of theCodex Theodosianuslaw code.It also saw the arrival ofAttila'sHuns,who ravaged theBalkansand exacted a massivetributefrom the empire; Attila however switched his attention to therapidly-deteriorating western empire,and his people fractured after his death in 453.AfterLeo I(r. 457–474) failed in his468 attempt to reconquerthe west, the warlordOdoacerdeposedRomulus Augustulusin 476, killed his titular successorJulius Neposin 480, and the office of western emperor was formally abolished.

Through a combination of luck, cultural factors, and political decisions, the Eastern empire never suffered from rebellious barbarian vassals and was never ruled by barbarian warlords—the problems which ensured the downfall of the West.Zeno(r. 474–491) convinced the problematicOstrogothkingTheodoricto take control of Italy from Odoacer, which he did; dying with the empire at peace, Zeno was succeeded byAnastasius I(r. 491–518).Although hisMonophysitismbrought occasional issues, Anastasius was a capable administrator and instituted several successful financial reforms including the abolition of thechrysargyron tax.He was the first emperor to die with no serious problems affecting his empire since Diocletian.

518–717

See also:Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynastyandByzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty

EmperorJustinian(left), and the generalBelisarius(right).Mosaics,6th century, from theBasilica of San Vitale,Ravenna, Italy

The reign ofJustinian Iwas a watershed in Byzantine history.Following his accession in 527, the law-code was rewritten as the influentialCorpus Juris Civilisand Justinian produced extensive legislation on provincial administration;he reasserted imperial control over religion and morality through purges of non-Christians and "deviants";and having ruthlessly subduedthe 532 Nika revolthe rebuilt much of Constantinople, including the originalHagia Sophia.Justinian took advantage of political instability in Italy to attempt the reconquest of lost western territories. TheVandal Kingdomin North Africawas subjugated in 534by the generalBelisarius,whothen invaded Italy;theOstrogothic Kingdomwas destroyed in 554.

In the 540s, however, Justinian began to suffer reversals on multiple fronts. Taking advantage of Constantinople's preoccupation with the West,Khosrow Iof theSasanian Empireinvaded Byzantine territory and sackedAntiochin 540.Meanwhile, the emperor's internal reforms and policies began to falter, not helped bya devastating plaguethat killed a large proportion of the population and severely weakened the empire's social and financial stability.The most difficult period of the Ostrogothic war, against their kingTotila,came during this decade, while divisions among Justinian's advisors undercut the administration's response.He also did not fully heal the divisions inChalcedonian Christianity,as theSecond Council of Constantinoplefailed to make a real difference.Justinian died in 565; his reign saw more success than that of any other Byzantine emperor, yet he left his empire under massive strain.

Financially and territorially overextended,Justin II(r. 565–578) was soon at war on many fronts. TheLombards,fearing the aggressiveAvars,conquered much of northern Italy by 572.TheSasanian wars restartedthat year, and continued until the emperorMauricefinally emerged victorious in 591; by that time, the Avars andSlavs had repeatedly invaded the Balkans,causing great instability.Mauricecampaigned extensively in the regionduring the 590s, but although he managed to re-establish Byzantine control up to theDanube,he pushed his troops too far in 602—they mutinied, proclaimed an officer namedPhocasas emperor, and executed Maurice.The Sasanians seized their moment andreopened hostilities;Phocas was unable to cope and soon faceda major rebellionled byHeraclius.Phocas lost Constantinople in 610 and was soon executed, but the destructive civil war accelerated the empire's decline.

Top:theSasanian Empireat its territorial apex underKhosrow II
Bottom:theTheodosian Wallsof Constantinople, critically important during the717–718 siege.

UnderKhosrow II,the Sassanids occupied theLevantand Egypt and pushed into Asia Minor, while Byzantine control of Italy slipped and the Avars and Slavs ran riot in the Balkans.Although Heraclius repelleda siege of Constantinoplein 626 anddefeated the Sassanidsin 627, this was apyrrhic victory.Theearly Muslim conquestssoon saw the conquest ofthe Levant,Egypt,andthe Sassanid Empireby the newly-formed ArabicRashidun Caliphate.By Heraclius' death in 641, the empire had been severely reduced economically as well as territorially—the loss of the wealthy eastern provinces had deprived Constantinople of three-quarters of its revenue.

The next seventy-five years are poorly documented.Arab raids into Asia Minorbegan almost immediately, and the Byzantines resorted to holding fortified centres and avoiding battle at all costs; although it was invaded annually, Anatolia avoided permanent Arab occupation.The outbreak of theFirst Fitnain 656 gave Byzantium breathing space, which it used wisely: some order was restored in the Balkans byConstans II(r. 641–668),who began the administrative reorganisation known as the "theme system",in which troops were allocated to defend specific provinces.With the help of the recently rediscoveredGreek fire,Constantine IV(r. 668–685) repelled the Arab efforts tocapture Constantinople in the 670s,but suffereda reversalagainst theBulgars,who soon establishedan empire in the northern Balkans.Nevertheless, he and Constans had done enough to secure the empire's position, especially as theUmayyad Caliphatewas undergoinganother civil war.

Justinian IIsought to build on the stability secured by his father Constantine but was overthrown in 695 after attempting to exact too much from his subjects; over the next twenty-two years, six more rebellions followed inan era of political instability.The reconstituted caliphate sought to break Byzantium by taking Constantinople, but the newly crownedLeo IIImanaged torepel the 717–718 siege,the first major setback of the Muslim conquests.

718–867

See also:Twenty Years' Anarchy,Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty,Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty,andByzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty

GoldsolidusofLeo III(left), and his son and heir,Constantine V(right)

Leo and his sonConstantine V(r. 741–775), two of the most capable Byzantine emperors, withstood continued Arab attacks, civil unrest, and natural disasters, and reestablished the state as a major regional power.Leo's reign produced theEcloga,a new code of law to succeed that of Justinian II,and continued to reform the "theme system" in order to lead offensive campaigns against the Muslims, culminating ina decisive victory in 740.Constantine overcame an early civil war against his brother-in-lawArtabasdos,made peace with the newAbbasid Caliphate,campaigned successfullyagainst the Bulgars, and continued to make administrative and military reforms.However, due to both emperors' support for theByzantine Iconoclasm,which opposed the use ofreligious icons,they were later vilified by Byzantine historians;Constantine's reign also saw the loss ofRavennato theLombards,and the beginning of a split with theRoman papacy.

In 780, EmpressIreneassumed power on behalf of her sonConstantine VI.Although she was a capable administrator who temporarily resolved the iconoclasm controversy,the empire was destabilized by her feud with her son. The Bulgars and Abbasids meanwhile inflicted numerous defeats on the Byzantine armies, and the papacy crownedCharlemagneas Roman emperor in 800.In 802, the unpopular Irene was overthrown byNikephoros I;he reformed the empire's administration but diedin battle against the Bulgarsin 811.Military defeats and societal disorder, especially the resurgence of iconoclasm, characterised the next eighteen years.

Stability was somewhat restored during the reign ofTheophilos(r. 829–842), who exploited economic growth to complete construction programs, including rebuilding thesea walls of Constantinople,overhaul provincial governance, and wage inconclusive campaigns against the Abbasids.After his death, his empressTheodora,ruling on behalf of her sonMichael III,permanently extinguished the iconoclastic movement;the empire prospered under their sometimes-fraught rule. However, Michael was posthumously vilified by historians loyal to the dynasty of his successorBasil I,who assassinated him in 867 and who was given credit for his predecessor's achievements.

867–1081

Further information:Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynastyandByzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty

The Byzantine Empire,c. 867

Basil I (r. 867–886) continued Michael's policies.His armies campaigned with mixed results in Italy butdefeatedthePaulicians of Tephrike.His successorLeo VI(r. 886–912)compiled and propagated a huge number of written works. These included theBasilika,a Greek translation of Justinian I's law-code which included over 100 new laws of Leo's devising; theTactica,a military treatise; and theBook of the Eparch,which codified Constantinople's trading regulations.In non-literary contexts Leo was less successful: the empirelost in Sicilyandagainst the Bulgarians,while he provoked theological scandal by marrying four times in an attempt to father a legitimate heir.

The early reign of Leo's young heir,Constantine VII,was tumultuous, as his motherZoe,the patriarchNicholas,the powerfulSimeon I of Bulgaria,and other influential figures jockeyed for power.In 920, the admiralRomanos Iused his fleet to secure power, crowning himself and demoting Constantine to the position of junior co-emperor.

Between 1021 and 1022, following years of tensions,Basil IIled a series of victorious campaigns against theKingdom of Georgia,resulting in the annexation of several Georgian provinces to the empire. Basil's successors also annexedBagratid Armeniain 1045. Importantly, both Georgia and Armenia were significantly weakened by the Byzantine administration's policy of heavy taxation and abolishing of the levy. The weakening of Georgia and Armenia played a significant role in the Byzantinedefeat at Manzikertin 1071.

Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe throughout late antiquity and most of the Middle Ages until theFourth Crusadein 1204.

Basil II is considered among the most capable Byzantine emperors and his reign as the apex of the empire in theMiddle Ages.By 1025, the date of Basil II's death, the Byzantine Empire stretched from Armenia in the east toCalabriain southern Italy in the west.Many successes had been achieved, ranging from the conquest of Bulgaria to the annexation of parts of Georgia and Armenia, and thereconquests of Crete,Cyprus,and the important city ofAntioch.These were not temporary tactical gains but long-term reconquests.

The Byzantine Empire then fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the undermining of the theme system and the neglect of the military.Nikephoros II,John Tzimiskes,and Basil II shifted the emphasis of the military divisions (τάγματα,tagmata) from a reactive, defence-oriented citizen army into an army of professional career soldiers, increasingly dependent on foreign mercenaries. Mercenaries were expensive, however, and as the threat of invasion receded in the 10th century, so did the need for maintaining large garrisons and expensive fortifications.Basil II left a burgeoning treasury upon his death, but he neglected to plan for his succession. None of his immediate successors had any particular military or political talent, and the imperial administration increasingly fell into the hands of the civil service. Incompetent efforts to revive the Byzantine economy resulted in severe inflation and a debased gold currency. The army was seen as both an unnecessary expense and a political threat. Several standing local units were demobilised, further augmenting the army's dependence on mercenaries, who could be retained and dismissed on an as-needed basis.

The seizure ofEdessa(1031) by the Byzantines underGeorge Maniakesand the counterattack by theSeljuk Turks

At the same time, Byzantium was faced with new enemies. Its provinces in southern Italy were threatened by theNormanswho arrived in Italy at the beginning of the 11th century. During a period of strife between Constantinople and Rome culminating in theEast-West Schism of 1054,theNormans advancedgradually intoByzantine Italy.Reggio,the capital of the tagma of Calabria, was captured in 1060 byRobert Guiscard,followed byOtrantoin 1068.Bari,the main Byzantine stronghold inApulia,was besieged in August 1068 andfell in April 1071.

About 1053,Constantine IXdisbanded what the historianJohn Skylitzescalls the "Iberian Army", which consisted of 50,000 men, and it was turned into a contemporaryDrungary of the Watch.Two other knowledgeable contemporaries, the former officialsMichael AttaleiatesandKekaumenos,agree with Skylitzes that by demobilising these soldiers, Constantine did catastrophic harm to the empire's eastern defences. The emergency lent weight to the military aristocracy in Anatolia, who in 1068 secured the election of one of their own,Romanos Diogenes,as emperor. In the summer of 1071, Romanos undertook a massive eastern campaign to draw theSeljuksinto a general engagement with the Byzantine army. At theBattle of Manzikert,Romanos suffered a surprise defeat againstSultanAlp Arslanand was captured. Alp Arslan treated him with respect and imposed no harsh terms on the Byzantines.In Constantinople a coup put in powerMichael Doukas,who soon faced the opposition ofNikephoros BryenniosandNikephoros III Botaneiates.By 1081, the Seljuks had expanded their rule over virtually the entire Anatolian plateau from Armenia in the east toBithyniain the west, and had established their capital atNicaea,just 90 kilometres (56 miles) from Constantinople.

Komnenian dynasty and the Crusades

See also:Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty

Depiction ofAlexios I,founder of theKomnenos dynasty

Alexios I and the First Crusade

See also:First Crusade

TheChora Churchin modern Istanbul, dating from theKomnenian period,has some of the finest Byzantine frescoes and mosaics.

TheKomnenian dynastyattained full power underAlexios Iin 1081. From the outset of his reign, Alexios faced a formidable attack from the Normans under Guiscard and his sonBohemund of Taranto,whocaptured DyrrhachiumandCorfuand laid siege toLarissainThessaly.Guiscard's death in 1085 temporarily eased the Norman problem. The following year, the Seljuq sultan died, and the sultanate was split due to internal rivalries. By his own efforts, Alexios defeated thePechenegs,who were caught by surprise and annihilated at theBattle of Levounionon 28 April 1091.

The Byzantine Empire and the SeljukSultanate of Rûmbefore theFirst Crusade(1095–1099)

Having achieved stability in the West, Alexios could turn his attention to the severe economic difficulties and the disintegration of the empire's traditional defences.However, he still did not have enough manpower to recover the lost territories in Asia Minor and to the advance by the Seljuks. At theCouncil of Piacenzain 1095, envoys from Alexios spoke toPope Urban IIabout the suffering of the Christians of the East and underscored that without help from the West, they would continue to suffer under Muslim rule. Urban saw Alexios' request as a dual opportunity to cement Western Europe and reunite theEastern Orthodox Churchwith theRoman Catholic Churchunder his rule.On 27 November 1095, Urban called theCouncil of Clermontand urged all those present to take up arms under the sign of theCrossand launch an armedpilgrimageto recover Jerusalem and the East from the Muslims. The response in Western Europe was overwhelming.Alexios was able to recover a number of important cities, islands and much of western Asia Minor. The Crusaders agreed to become Alexios' vassals under theTreaty of Devolin 1108, which marked the end of the Norman threat during Alexios' reign.

John II, Manuel I, and the Second Crusade

See also:Second Crusade

Amosaicfrom theHagia Sophiaof Constantinople (modern Istanbul), depictingMaryandJesus,flanked byJohn II Komnenos(left) and his wifeIrene of Hungary(right), 12th century

Alexios's sonJohn II Komnenossucceeded him in 1118 and ruled until 1143. John was a pious and dedicated emperor who was determined to undo the damage to the empire suffered at the Battle of Manzikert half a century earlier.Famed for his piety and his remarkably mild and just reign, John was an exceptional example of a moral ruler at a time when cruelty was the norm.For this reason, he has been called the ByzantineMarcus Aurelius.During his twenty-five-year reign, John made alliances with theHoly Roman Empirein the West and decisively defeated the Pechenegs at theBattle of Beroia.He thwarted Hungarian and Serbian threats during the 1120s, and in 1130 he allied himself withLothair III,theGerman Emperoragainst the Norman KingRoger II of Sicily.

In the later part of his reign, John focused his activities on the East, personally leadingnumerous campaigns against the Turksin Asia Minor. His campaigns fundamentally altered the balance of power in the East, forcing the Turks onto the defensive, while retaking many towns, fortresses, and cities across the peninsula for the Byzantines. He defeated theDanishmend EmirateofMeliteneand reconquered all ofCilicia,while forcingRaymond of Poitiers,Prince of Antioch, to recognise Byzantine suzerainty.In an effort to demonstrate the emperor's role as the leader of the Christian world, John marched into theHoly Landat the head of the combined forces of the empire and the Crusader states; yet despite his efforts in leading the campaign, his hopes were disappointed by the treachery of his Crusader allies.In 1142, John returned to press his claims to Antioch, but he died in the spring of 1143 following a hunting accident.

John's chosen heir was his fourth son,Manuel I Komnenos,who campaigned aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and east. In Palestine, Manuel allied with the CrusaderKingdom of Jerusalemand sent a large fleet to participate in a combinedinvasionofFatimid Egypt.Manuel reinforced his position as overlord of the Crusader states, with his hegemony over Antioch and Jerusalem secured by agreement withRaynald,Prince of Antioch, andAmalric of Jerusalem.In an effort to restore Byzantine control over the ports of southern Italy, he sent an expedition to Italy in 1155, but disputes within the coalition led to the eventual failure of the campaign. Despite this military setback, Manuel's armies successfully invaded the southern parts of theKingdom of Hungaryin 1167, defeating the Hungarians at theBattle of Sirmium.By 1168, nearly the whole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuel's hands.Manuel made several alliances with the pope and Western Christian kingdoms, and he successfully handled the passage of the crusaders through his empire.

In the East, Manuel suffered a major defeat in 1176 at theBattle of Myriokephalonagainst the Turks. These losses were quickly recovered, and in the following year Manuel's forces inflicted a defeat upon a force of "picked Turks".The Byzantine commanderJohn Vatatzes,who destroyed the Turkish invaders at theBattle of Hyelion and Leimocheir,brought troops from the capital and was able to gather an army along the way, a sign that the Byzantine army remained strong and that the defensive program of western Asia Minor was still successful.John and Manuel pursued active military policies, and both deployed considerable resources on sieges and city defences; aggressive fortification policies were at the heart of their imperial military policies.Despite the defeat at Myriokephalon, the policies of Alexios, John and Manuel resulted in vast territorial gains, increased frontier stability in Asia Minor, and secured the stabilisation of the empire's European frontiers. Fromc. 1081toc. 1180,the Komnenian army assured the empire's security, enabling Byzantine civilisation to flourish.

This allowed the Western provinces to achieve an economic revival that continued until the close of the century. It has been argued that Byzantium under the Komnenian rule was more prosperous than at any time since the Persian invasions of the 7th century. During the 12th century, population levels rose and extensive tracts of new agricultural land were brought into production. Archaeological evidence from both Europe and Asia Minor shows a considerable increase in the size of urban settlements, together with a notable upsurge in new towns. Trade was also flourishing; the Venetians, theGenoeseand others opened up the ports of the Aegean to commerce, shipping goods from the Crusader states and Fatimid Egypt to the west and trading with the empire via Constantinople.

Decline and disintegration

Main article:Decline of the Byzantine Empire

Angelid dynasty

Main article:Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty

Manuel's death on 24 September 1180 left his 11-year-old sonAlexios II Komnenoson the throne. Alexios was highly incompetent in the office, and with his motherMaria of Antioch's Frankish background, his regency was unpopular.Eventually,Andronikos I Komnenos,a grandson of Alexios I, overthrew Alexios II in a violentcoup d'état.After eliminating his potential rivals, he had himself crowned as co-emperor in September 1183. He eliminated Alexios II and took his 12-year-old wifeAgnes of Francefor himself.

Andronikos began his reign well; in particular, the measures he took to reform the government of the empire have been praised by historians. According to the historianGeorge Ostrogorsky,Andronikos was determined to root out corruption: under his rule, the sale of offices ceased; selection was based on merit, rather than favouritism; and officials were paid an adequate salary to reduce the temptation of bribery. In the provinces, Andronikos's reforms produced a speedy and marked improvement.Gradually, however, Andronikos's reign deteriorated. The aristocrats were infuriated against him, and to make matters worse, Andronikos seemed to have become increasingly unbalanced; executions and violence became increasingly common, and his reign turned into a reign of terror.Andronikos seemed almost to seek the extermination of the aristocracy as a whole. The struggle against the aristocracy turned into wholesale slaughter, while the emperor resorted to ever more ruthless measures to shore up his regime.

Despite his military background, Andronikos failed to deal withIsaac Komnenosof Cyprus,Béla III of HungarywhoreincorporatedCroatian territories into Hungary, andStephen Nemanja of Serbiawho declared his independence from the Byzantine Empire. Yet, none of these troubles compared toWilliam II of Sicily's invasion force of 300 ships and 80,000 men, arriving in 1185 andsacking Thessalonica.Andronikos mobilised a small fleet of 100 ships to defend the capital, but other than that he was indifferent to the populace. He was finally overthrown whenIsaac II Angelos,surviving an imperial assassination attempt, seized power with the aid of the people and had Andronikos killed.

The reign of Isaac II, and more so that of his brotherAlexios III,saw the collapse of what remained of the centralised machinery of Byzantine government and defence. Although the Normans were driven out of Greece, in 1186 theVlachsand Bulgars began a rebellion that led to the formation of theSecond Bulgarian Empire.The internal policy of the Angeloi was characterised by the squandering of the public treasure and fiscal maladministration. Imperial authority was severely weakened, and the growing power vacuum at the centre of the empire encouraged fragmentation. There is evidence that some Komnenian heirs had set up a semi-independent state inTrebizondbefore 1204.According to the historianAlexander Vasiliev,"the dynasty of the Angeloi, Greek in its origin,... accelerated the ruin of the Empire, already weakened without and disunited within."

Fourth Crusade and aftermath

Further information:Fourth Crusade,Frankokratia,andByzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty

The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople,byEugène Delacroix(1840)

In 1198,Pope Innocent IIIbroached the subject of a new crusade throughlegatesandencyclicalletters.The stated intent of the crusade was to conquerEgypt,the centre of Muslim power in the Levant. The Crusader army arrived atVenicein the summer of 1202 and hired the Venetian fleet to transport them to Egypt. As a payment to the Venetians, they captured the (Christian) port ofZarainDalmatia,which was a vassal city of Venice, it had rebelled and placed itself under Hungary's protection in 1186.Shortly afterward,Alexios IV Angelos,son of the deposed and blinded Emperor Isaac II, made contact with the Crusaders. Alexios offered to reunite the Byzantine church with Rome, pay the Crusaders 200,000 silver marks, join the crusade, and provide all the supplies they needed to reach Egypt.

The partition of the empire following theFourth Crusade,c. 1204

The crusaders arrived at Constantinople in the summer of 1203 andquickly attacked,starting a major fire that damaged large parts of the city, and briefly seized control. Alexios III fled from the capital, and Alexios Angelos was elevated to the throne as Alexios IV along with his blind father Isaac. Alexios IV and Isaac II were unable to keep their promises and were deposed byAlexios V.The crusaders againtook the city on 13 April 1204,and Constantinople was subjected to pillage and massacre by the rank and file for three days. Many priceless icons, relics and other objects later turned up inWestern Europe,a large number in Venice. According to chroniclerNiketas Choniates,a prostitute was even set up on the patriarchal throne.When order had been restored, the crusaders and the Venetians proceeded to implement their agreement;Baldwin of Flanderswas elected emperor of a newLatin Empire,and the VenetianThomas Morosiniwas chosen as patriarch. The lands divided up among the leaders included most of the former Byzantine possessions.Although Venice was more interested in commerce than conquering territory, it took key areas of Constantinople, and theDogetook the title of "Lord of a Quarter and Half a Quarter of the Roman Empire".

After the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin crusaders, two Byzantine successor states were established: theEmpire of Nicaeaand theDespotate of Epirus.A third, theEmpire of Trebizond,was created afterAlexios I of Trebizond,commanding theGeorgianexpedition inChaldiaa few weeks before the sack of Constantinople, found himselfde factoemperor and established himself in Trebizond. Of the three successor states, Epirus and Nicaea stood the best chance of reclaiming Constantinople. The Nicaean Empire struggled to survive the next few decades, however, and by the mid-13th century it had lost much of southern Anatolia.The weakening of theSultanate of Rûmfollowing theMongol invasion in 1242–1243allowed manybeyliksandghazisto set up their own principalities in Anatolia, weakening the Byzantine hold on Asia Minor.Two centuries later, one of the Beys of these beyliks,Osman I,would establish theOttoman Empirethat would eventually conquer Constantinople.However, the Mongol invasion also gave Nicaea a temporary respite from Seljuk attacks, allowing it to concentrate on the Latin Empire to its north.

The Empire of Nicaea, founded by theLaskarid dynasty,managed torecapture Constantinoplein 1261 and defeatEpirus.This led to a short-lived revival of Byzantine fortunes underMichael VIII Palaiologos,but the war-ravaged empire was ill-equipped to deal with the enemies that surrounded it. To maintain his campaigns against the Latins, Michael pulled troops from Asia Minor and levied crippling taxes on the peasantry, causing much resentment.Massive construction projects were completed in Constantinople to repair the damage of the Fourth Crusade, but none of these initiatives were of any comfort to the farmers in Asia Minor suffering raids from Muslim ghazis.

Rather than holding on to his possessions in Asia Minor, Michael chose to expand the empire, gaining only short-term success. To avoid another sacking of the capital by the Latins, he forced the Church to submit to Rome, again a temporary solution for which the peasantry hated Michael and Constantinople.The efforts ofAndronikos IIand later his grandsonAndronikos IIImarked Byzantium's last genuine attempts to restoring the glory of the empire. However, the use of mercenaries by Andronikos II often backfired, with theCatalan Companyravaging the countryside and increasing resentment towards Constantinople.

Fall

Main articles:Byzantine–Ottoman warsandFall of Constantinople

Thesiege of Constantinoplein 1453, depicted in a 15th-century French miniature

The situation became worse for Byzantium during the civil wars after Andronikos III died. Asix-year-long civil wardevastated the empire, allowing the Serbian rulerStefan Dušanto overrun most of the empire's remaining territory and establish aSerbian Empire.In 1354, an earthquake atGallipolidevastated the fort, allowing theOttomans(who were hired as mercenaries during the civil war byJohn VI Kantakouzenos) to establish themselves in Europe.By the time the Byzantine civil wars had ended, the Ottomans had defeated the Serbians and subjugated them as vassals. Following theBattle of Kosovo,much of the Balkans became dominated by the Ottomans.

Constantinople by this stage was underpopulated and dilapidated. The population of the city had collapsed so severely that it was now little more than a cluster of villages separated by fields. On 2 April 1453,Sultan Mehmed's army of 80,000 men and large numbers of irregulars laid siege to the city.Despite a desperate last-ditch defence of the city by the massively outnumbered Christian forces (c. 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreign),Constantinople finally fell to the Ottomans after a two-month siege on 29 May 1453. The final Byzantine emperor,Constantine XI Palaiologos,was last seen casting off his imperial regalia and throwing himself into hand-to-hand combat after the walls of the city were taken.

Geography

Main article:Outline of the Byzantine Empire § Geography of the Byzantine Empire

The Empire was centred in what is nowGreeceandTurkeywithConstantinopleas its capital.In the 5th century, it controlled the eastern basis of the Mediterranean running east fromSingidunum(modernBelgrade) in a line through theAdriatic Seaand south toCyrene, Libya.This encompassed most of theBalkans,all of modern Greece, Turkey,Syria,Palestine;North Africa, primarily with modernEgyptandLibya;theAegean islandsalong withCrete,CyprusandSicily,and a small settlement inCrimea.

The landscape of the Empire was defined by the fertile fields ofAnatolia,long mountain ranges and rivers such as theDanube.In the north and west were the Balkans, the corridors between the mountain ranges ofPindos,theDinaric Alps,theRhodopesand theBalkans.In the south and east were Anatolia, thePontic Mountainsand theTaurus-Anti-Taurusrange, which served as passages for armies, while theCaucasus mountainslay between the Empire and its eastern neighbours.

Roman roadsconnected the Empire by land, with theVia Egnatiarunning from Constantinople to the Albanian coast throughMacedoniaand theVia Traianato Adrianople (modernEdirne), Serdica (modernSofia) and Singidunum.By water, Crete, Cyprus and Sicily were key naval points and the main ports connecting Constantinople were Alexandria, Gaza,Caesareaand Antioch.TheAegean seawas considered an internal lake within the Empire.

Government

Thethemes,c. 750

Thethemes,c. 950

Governance

See also:Roman emperor,Coronation of the Byzantine emperor,andByzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy

The emperor was the centre of the whole administration of the Empire, who the legal historian Kaius Tuori has said was "above the law, within the law, and the law itself"; with a power that is difficult to defineand which does not align with our modern understanding of the separation of powers.The proclamations of the crowds of Constantinople, and the inaugurations of the patriarch from 457, would legitimise the rule of an emperor.Thesenatehad its own identity but would become an extension of the emperor's court, becoming largely ceremonial.

The reign of Phocas (r. 602–610) was the first military overthrow since the third century, his reign also being one of 43 emperors violently removed.The historianDonald Nicolstates that there were nine dynasties between Heraclius in 610 and 1453, however, for only 30 of those 843 years was the Empire not ruled by men linked by blood or kinship which was largely due to the practice of co-emperorship.

As a result of the Diocletianic–Constantinian reforms, the Empire was organised intoPraetorian prefecturesand the army was separated from the civil administration.From the 7th century onwards, the prefectures became provinces and were later divided into districts calledthematagoverned by a military commander called astrategoswho oversaw the civil and military administration.

In earlier times, cities had been a collection of self-governing communities with central government and church representatives, whereas the emperor focused on defense and foreign relations.The Arab destruction primarily changed this due to constant war and their regular raids, with a decline in city councils and the local elites that supported them.The historianRobert Browningstates that due to the Empire's fight for survival, it developed into one centre of power, with Leo VI (r. 886–912) during his legal reforms formally ending the rights of city councils and the legislative authority of the senate.

Diplomacy

Main article:Byzantine diplomacy

See also:Foreign relations of the Byzantine Empire

According to the historianDimitri Obolensky,the preservation of civilisation in eastern Europe was due to the skill and resourcefulness of the Empire's diplomacy, and that imperial diplomacy is one of its lasting contributions to the history of Europe.The Empire's longevity has been said to be due to its aggressive diplomacy in negotiating treaties, the formation of alliances, and partnerships with the enemies of its enemies, notably seen with theTurks against the Persiansor riffs between states like theUmayyads in Spainand theAghlabids in Siciliy.Diplomacy often involved long-term embassies, hosting foreign royals as potential hostages or political pawns, and overwhelming visitors with displays of wealth and power (with deliberate efforts that word of it would travel).Other tools in diplomacy included political marriages, bestowing titles, bribery, differing levels of persuasion, and leveraging intelligence as attested in the ‘Bureau of Barbarians’ from the 4th century and which is likely the first foreign intelligence agency.

The embassy ofJohn the Grammarianin 829, between the emperorTheophilosand the Abbasid caliphAl-Ma'mun

Ancient historianMichael Whitbyclaims diplomacy in the Empire following Theodosius I (r. 379–395) contrasted sharply with that of theRoman Republic,emphasizing peace as a strategic necessity.Even when it had more resources and less threats in the 6th century, the costs of defense were enormous;foreign affairs had become more multi-polar, complex and interconnected;further the challenges in protecting the empire's primarily agricultural income as well as numerous aggressive neighbours made avoiding war a preferred strategy.Between the 4th and 8th centuries, diplomats leveraged the Empire's status asOrbis Romanusand sophistication as a state, which influenced the formation of new settlements on former Roman territories.Byzantine diplomacy drew fledgling states into dependency, creating a network of international and inter-state relations (theoikouménē) dominated by the Empire, utilising Christianity as a tool.This network focused on treaty-making, welcoming new rulers into the family of kings, and assimilating social attitudes, values, and institutions into whatEvangelos Chrysoshas called a "Byzantine Caliphate".Diplomacy with the Muslim states, however, differed and centred on war-related matters such as hostages or the prevention of hostilities.

Italian sketch of EmperorJohn VIIIduring his visit inFerraraandFlorencein 1438

The primary objective of diplomacy was survival, not conquest, and it was fundamentally defensive or asDimitri Obolenskyhas claimed "defensive imperialism", shaped by the Empire's strategic location and limited resources.HistorianJames Howard-Johnstonstates a change in policies by emperors in the 9th and early 10th centuries was the basis for future activity.This change involved halting, reversing, and attacking Muslim power; cultivating relations with Armenians and Rus; and subjugating the Bulgarians.Telemachos Lounghis notes that diplomacy with the West became more challenging from 752/3 and later with the Crusades, as the balance of power shifted.HistorianAlexander Kazhdanclaims the number and nature of the Empire's neighbours also changed significantly, making theLimitrophesystem(satellite states) and the principle of unbalanced power less effective and eventually abandoned.This meant by the 11th century, the Empire had changed this core diplomatic principle to one of equality, and Byzantine diplomacy evolved instead to solicit and utilise the emperor's presence.

Complex diplomatic manoeuvring is howMichael Palaiologosmanaged to recover Constantinople in 1261 and its statecraft is what allowed the weakened Empire to act like a great power of the past in the 13–14th centuries.The historianNikolaos Oikonomidesstates that the Constantinople patriarch elevated the emperor's credibility, during this challenging time as the Empire battled militant Islam geographically and Latin Christians economically; and ultimately, it was its efficient foreign relations that kept the state alive in this late era and not anything else.

Law

Main article:Byzantine law

Roman lawhas its origins in theTwelve Tablesand evolved mainly through the annualPraetorian Edictand the opinions of educated specialists calledJurists.Hadrian (r. 117–138) made the Praetorian Edict permanent and ruled that if all the Jurists agreed on a legal point, it would be considered law.The law eventually became confusing due to conflicting sources, and it was not clear what it should be.Efforts were made to reduce the confusion, such as two private collections collating the imperial constitutions since Hadrian's reign, theCodicesGregorianusand theHermogenianus,which were developed during the reign of Diocletian (r. 284–305).

Eventually, an official reform of Roman law was initiated by the East, when Theodosius II (r. 402–450) elevated five Jurists to the role of principal authorities and compiled the legislation issued since Constantine's reign into theCodex Theodosianus.This work was completed by what is collectively known today as theCorpus Juris Civilis,when Justinian I (r. 527–565) commissioned a complete standardisation of imperial decrees since Hadrian's reign, and also incorporated a comprehensive collection of Jurists' opinions, resolving conflicts to create a final authority.This work was not restricted in its scope to justcivil law,but also covered the power of the emperor, the organisation of the Empire and other matters now classified aspublic law.After 534, Justinian would legislate theNovellae (New Laws)in Greek as well, which legal historian Bernard Stolte proposes as a convenient breaking point to demarcate the end of Roman law and the start of Byzantine law. This division is proposed largely due to the legal heritage of Western Europe coming mostly from law written in Latin as transmitted through theCorpus Juris Civilis.

The researcher Zachary Chitwood claims that theCorpus Juris Civiliswas inaccessible in Latin, particularly in the Empire's provinces.There was also a stronger association of Christianity with the law, after people questioned how the law was developed and used following the 7th century Islamic conquests.Together, this created the backdrop for Leo III (r. 717–741) to develop theEcloga,'with a greater view of humanity'.The three so-calledleges speciales(the Farmers’ Law, the Seamen’s Law, and the Soldiers’ Law) were derived from theEcloga,which Zachary Chitwood claims were likely used on a daily basis in the provinces as companions to theCorpus Juris Civilis.The Macedonian dynasty started their reform attempts with theProcheironand theEisagogeto replace theEclogadue to its associations withiconoclasm,but also noteworthy because they show an effort to define the emperor's power according to the prevalent laws.Leo VI (r. 886–912) achieved thecomplete codificationof Roman law in the Greek language with theBasilika,a monumental work consisting of 60 books, and that became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law.TheHexabiblos,published in 1345 by a jurist, was a law book in six volumes compiled from a wide range of Byzantine legal sources.

The Roman and Byzantine law codes form the basis of the modern world's civil law tradition, underlying the legal system of Western and Eastern Europe, Latin America, African nations like Ethiopia, the countries that followCommon law,with ongoing debates about its impact on Islamic countries.As an example, theHexabibloswas the basis of Greece's civil code until the mid-20th century.Historians used to think that "there was no continuity between Roman and Byzantine law", but this view has now changed due to new scholarship.

Flags and insignia

Main article:Byzantine flags and insignia

The Chi-Rho cross with a wreath, above Roman soldiers, symbolising a representation of the resurrection of Christ c. 350

Constantine (r. 306–337) introduced theLabarum,initially for the army, which was a pole with a transverse bar forming a cross, with the monogram of Christ, also known as theChi Rho.It later came to represent the emperor and was used by his successors for legitimisation and is known to have had usage up until the reign of Nikephoros II Phokas (r. 963–969).By the late fourth and early fifth centuries, the Chi Rho Christogram, themonogrammatic crossalso known as the tau-rho, and the cross were the most prominent Christian signs that could be seen, with the labarum-cross becoming the main banner during theTheodosian period.

Art historian Andrea Babuin claims that theRoman Eaglewas a symbol that was in continuous usage by the military until the 6th century, with one or two eagles likely representing the emperor through all reigns.Heraldic flag'swould later be adopted, but the lack of evidence makes it a challenge to confidently identify what was the most prominent.HistorianAlexandre Solovievconsiders theDouble-headed eagleto be an emblem of theKomnenoi,and the tetragrammatic cross of thePalaiologoi.The double-headed eagle is more confidently attested as a symbol of the emperor in the late era when Andronikos II Palaiologos used it in 1301, but Babuin also says that it never was exclusive to the Empire as other contemporary empires also used it.The tetragrammatic cross was a state symbol during the Palaiologoi, which has a four-fold symmetrical representation of the Greek letterBeta(also interpreted asfiresteels), with continued debate by historians on what it means.

Military

Army

Main articles:Eastern Roman army,Byzantine army,andByzantine army (Komnenian era)

In the 5th century the East was fielding five armies of ~20,000 each in two army branches: stationary frontier units (limitanei) and mobile forces (comitatenses).The historianAnthony Kaldellisclaims that the fiscally stretched Empire could only handle one major enemy at a time in the 6th century.The Islamic conquests between 634 and 642 led to significant changes, transforming the 4th-7th centuries field forces into provincialised militia-like units with a core of professional soldiers.The state shifted the burden of supporting the armies onto local populations and during Leo VI (r. 886–912) wove them into the tax system, with provinces evolving into military regions known asthemata.Despite many challenges, the historianWarren Treadgoldstates that the field forces of the Eastern Empire between 284 and 602 were the best in the western world, while the historianAnthony Kaldellisbelieves that during the conquest period of theMacedonian dynasty(r. 867–1056), they were the best in the empire's history.

The military structure would diversify to include militia-like soldiers tied to regions, professional thematic forces (tourmai), and imperial units mostly based in Constantinople (tagmata).Foreign mercenaries also increasingly became employed, including the better-knowntagmaregiment, theVarangians,that guarded the emperor.The defence-orientated thematic militias were gradually replaced with more specialised offensive field armies but also to counter the generals who would rebel against the emperor.When the Empire was expanding, the state began to commute thematic military service for cash payments: in the 10th century, there were 6,000 Varangians, another 3,000 foreign mercenaries and when including paid and unpaid citizen soldiers, the army on paper was 140,000 (an expeditionary force was 15,000 soldiers and field armies seldom were more than 40,000).

The thematic forces faded into insignificance—the government relying on thetagmata,mercenaries and allies instead—and which led to a neglect in defensive capability.Mercenary armies would further fuel political divisions and civil wars that led to a collapse in the Empire's defence and resulting in significant losses such as Italy and the Anatolian heartland in the 11th century.Major military and fiscal reforms under the emperors of the Komnenian dynasty after 1081 re-established a modest-sized, adequately compensated and competent army.However, the costs were not sustainable and the structural weaknesses of the Komnenian approach—namely, the reliance on fiscal exemptions calledpronoia—unraveled after the end of the reign of Manuel I (r. 1143–1180).

Navy

Main article:Byzantine Navy

The navy dominated the eastern Mediterranean and were active also on the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmara, and the Aegean.Imperial naval forces were restructured to challenge Arab naval dominance in the 7th century, and would later cede its own dominance to theVenetiansandGenoansin the 11th century.The navy's patrols, in addition to chains of watchtowers and fire signals that warned inhabitants of threats, created the coastal defense for the Empire and were the responsibility of three themes (Cibirriote,Aegean Sea,Samos) and an imperial fleet that consisted of mercenaries like the Norsemen and Russians that later became Varangians.

A new type of war galley, thedromon,appeared early in the sixth century.A multi-purpose variant, thechelandia,appeared during the reign ofJustinian II(r. 685–711) and could be used to transport cavalry.The galleys were oar-driven, designed for coastal navigation, and are estimated to be able to operate for up to four days at a time.They were equipped with apparatus to deliverGreek firein the 670s, and whenBasil I(r. 867–886) developed professional marines, this combination kept a check on Muslim raiding through piracy.Thedromonwere the most advanced galleys on the Mediterranean, until the 10th century development of adromoncalled agaleaiand which supersededdromonswith the development of a late 11th century Western (Southern Italian) variant.

Late era (1204–1453)

Main article:Byzantine army (Palaiologan era)

The rulers of theEmpire of Nicaeathat retook the capital and thePalaiologosthat ruled until 1453, built on the Komnenian foundation initially with four types of military units—the Thelematarii (volunteer soldiers),Gasmouloiand the Southern Peloponnese Tzacones/Lakones (marines), and Proselontes/Prosalentai (oarsmen)—but similarly could not sustain funding a standing force, largely relying on mercenaries as soldiers and fiscal exemptions topronoiarswho provided a small force of mostly cavalry.The Fleet was disbanded in 1284 and attempts were made to build it back later but theGenoesesabotaged the effort.The historianJohn Haldonclaims that over time, the distinction between field troops and garrison units eventually disappeared as resources were strained.The frequent civil wars further drained the Empire, now increasingly instigated by foreigners such as the Serbs and Turks to win concessions, and the emperors were dependent on mercenaries to keep control all the while dealing with the impact of theBlack Death.The strategy of employing mercenary Turks to fight civil wars was repeatedly used by emperors and always led to the same outcome: subordination to the Turks.

Society

Demography

Main article:Population of the Byzantine Empire

From the rule ofDiocletian(r. 284–305) until the East's peak following Justinian's recovery of western territories in 540, the population could have been as high as 27 million, but would fall to as low as 12 million in 800.Plague and loss of territories to the Arab Muslim invaders significantly impacted the Empire, but it recovered, and by the near end of theMacedonian dynastyin 1025, the population is estimated to have been as high as 18 million.A few decades after the recapture of Constantinople in 1282, the Empire's population was in the range of 3–5 million; by 1312, the number had dropped to 2 million.By the time the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, there were only 50,000 people in the city, which was one-tenth of its population in its prime.

Education

Further information:Byzantine university,Byzantine rhetoric,andUniversity of Constantinople

Education was voluntary and required financial means to attend, with the most literate people being the ones associated with the church.Reading, writing, and arithmetic were foundational subjects taught in primary education whereas Secondary school focused on thetriviumandquadriviumas their curriculum.TheImperial University of Constantinople,sometimes known as theUniversity of the Palace Hall of Magnaura(Greek:Πανδιδακτήριον τῆς Μαγναύρας), was an educational institution that could trace its origins to 425AD, when Emperor Theodosius II had established thePandidakterion(Medieval Greek:Πανδιδακτήριον).The Pandidakterion was re-established in 1046 byConstantine IX Monomachoswho created the Departments of Law (Διδασκαλεῖον τῶν Νόμων) and Philosophy (Γυμνάσιον).

Transition into an Eastern Christian empire

Further information:Anti-paganism policies of the early Byzantine Empire

Thegranting of citizenshipin 212 to all free men residing in its territories transformed the multi-lingual Roman Empire, expanding citizenship to a vast majority of its population and leading to a shift towards societal uniformity, particularly in its citizens' religious practices.Diocletian's reforms significantly altered governmental structure, reach and taxation, and these reforms also had the effect of downgrading the first capital, Rome.TheConstantinandynasty's support for Christianity, as well as the elevation of Constantinople as an imperial seat, further solidified this transformation.

In the late 4th century, when the majority of the Empire's citizens were pagan,Theodosiusbuilt on previous emperors' bans and enacted many laws restricting pagan activities; but it would not be untilJustinianin 529 when conversions would be enforced.The confiscation of pagan treasures, diversion of funds, and legal discrimination led to the decline of paganism, resulting in events like the closure of schools of philosophy and the end of theAncient Olympics.Christianity was also aided by the prevalence of Greek, and Christianity's debates further increased the importance of Greek, making the emergent church dependent on branches ofHellenic thoughtsuch asNeoplatonism.Despite the transition, the historian Anthony Kaldellis views Christianity as "bringing no economic, social, or political changes to the state other than being more deeply integrated into it".

Slavery

Further information:Slavery in the Byzantine Empire

During the third century, 10–15% of the population was enslaved (numbering around 3 million in the east).Youval Rotman calls the changes to slavery during this period "different degrees of unfreedom".Previous roles fulfilled by slaves became high-demand free market professions (like tutors), and the state encouraged thecoloni,tenants bound to the land, as a new legal category between freemen and slaves.From 294, but not completely, the enslavement of children was forbidden;Honorius(r. 393–423) would begin to free enslaved people who were prisoners of war, and from the 9th century onwards, emperors would free the slaves of conquered people.Christianity as an institution had no direct impact, but by the 6th century it was a bishop's duty to ransom Christians, there were established limits on trading them, and state policies which prohibited the enslavement of Christians shaped Byzantine slave-holding from the 8th century onwards.However, slavery persisted due to a steady source of non-Christians with prices remaining stable until 1300, when prices for adult slaves, particularly females, started rising.

Socio-economic

Agriculture was the main basis of taxation and the state sought to bind everyone to land for productivity.Most land consisted of small and medium-sized lots around villages, with family farms serving as the primary source of agriculture.Thecoloni,once referred to as proto-serfs, were free citizens; however, their status remains a subject of historical debate.

The Ekloge in 741 made marriage a Christian institution and no longer a private contract, and the institution's development correlated with the increased rights of slaves and the change in power relations.Marriage was considered an institution to sustain the population, transfer property rights, support the elderly of the family; and the EmpressTheodorahad additionally said that it was needed to restrict sexualhedonism.Women usually married at ages 15–20, and were used as a way to connect men and create economic benefit among families.The average family had 2 children, with mortality rates around 40–50%.Divorce could be done by mutual consent but would be restricted over time, for example, only being allowed if a married person was joining a convent.

Inheritance rights were well developed, including for all women.The historian Anthony Kaldellis claims that these rights may have been what prevented the emergence of large properties and a hereditary nobility capable of intimidating the state.The prevalence of widows (estimated at 20%) meant that women often controlled family assets as heads of households and businesses, contributing to the rise of some empresses to power.Women were major taxpayers, landowners, and petitioners to the imperial court, primarily seeking resolution for property-related disputes in the latter capacity.

Women

Further information:Women in the Byzantine Empire

Although women shared the same socio-economic status as men, they faced legal discrimination and had limitations in economic opportunities and vocations.Prohibited from serving as soldiers or holding political office, and restricted from serving asdeaconessesin the Church from the 7th century onwards, women were mostly assigned household responsibilities that were "labour-intensive".They worked in professions, such as in the food and textile industry, as medical staff, in public baths, had a heavy presence in retail, and were practicing members of artisan guilds.They also worked in disreputable occupations: entertainers, tavern keepers, and prostitutes; a class where some saints and empresses allegedly originated from.Prostitution was widespread, and attempts were made to limit it, especially during Justinian's reign under the influence of Theodora.Women participated in public life, engaging in social events and protests.Women's rights would not be better in comparable societies, Western Europe or America until the 19th century.

Language

Further information:Languages of the Roman Empire

Left: The Mudil Psalter, the oldest completepsalterin the Coptic language (Coptic Museum,Egypt,Coptic Cairo)
Right: TheJoshua Roll,a 10th-century illuminated Greek manuscript possibly made in Constantinople (Vatican Library,Rome)

Distribution of Greek dialects in Anatolia in the late Byzantine Empire through to 1923.Demoticin light grey.Ponticin orange.Cappadocianin green. Green dots indicate Cappadocian Greek-speaking villages in 1910.

There was never an official language of the Empire, however, Latin and Greek were the main languages.During the early years of the Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek had been useful to pass the requirements to be an educated noble, and knowledge of Latin was useful for a career in the military, government, or law.In the east, Greek was the dominant language, a legacy of theHellenistic period.Greek was also the language of the Christian Church and trade.

Most early emperors were bilingual but had a preference for Latin in the public sphere for political reasons, a practice that first started during thePunic Wars.Classical languages expert Bruno Rochette claims Latin had experienced a period of spread from the second centuryBC onwards, and especially so in the western provinces, but not as much in the eastern provinces with a change due to Diocletian's reforms: there was a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the west, and Latin was asserted as the language of power in the east.

Despite this, Greek's influence gradually grew in the government, beginning whenArcadiusin 397AD allowed judges to issue decisions in Greek,Theodosius IIin 439 expanded its use in legal procedures, the first law in Greek was issued in 448, and whenLeo Ilegislated in the language in the 460s.Justinian I'sCorpus Juris Civilis,a compilation of mostly Roman jurists, was written almost entirely in Latin; however, the laws issued after 534, from Justinian'sNovellae Constitutionesonwards, were in both Greek and Latin, which marks the year when the government also officially began to use the former language.

HistorianNikolaos Oikonomidesstates that Greek for a time becamediglossicwith the spoken language, known asKoine(later,Demotic Greek), used alongside an older written form (Attic Greek) untilKoinewon out as the spoken and written standard.Latin fragmented into the incipientRomance languagesin the 8th century, following the collapse of the Western Empire after the Muslim invasions broke the connection between speakers.During the reign of Justinian (r. 527–565), Latin disappeared in the east, though it may have lingered in the military untilHeraclius(r. 610–641).HistorianSteven Runcimanclaims contact with Western Europe in the 10th century revived Latin studies, and by the 11th century, knowledge of Latin was no longer unusual in Constantinople.

Many other languages are attested in the Empire, not just in Constantinople but also at its frontiers.They includeSyriac,Coptic,Slavonic,Armenian,Georgian,Illyrian,Thracian,andCeltic;these were typically the languages of the lower strata of the population and the illiterate, who were the vast majority.The Empire was a multi-lingual state, but Greek bound everyone, and the forces of assimilation would lead to the diversity of its peoples' languages declining over time.

Economy

Main article:Byzantine economy

Further information:Byzantine silkandSino-Roman relations

Following the split of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires, the West fell victim to political instability, social unrest, civil war, and invasions from foreign powers. In contrast, the Byzantines remained comparatively stable, allowing for the growth of a flourishing and resilient economy.Institutional stability, such as the presence of alegal system,and the maintenance of infrastructure created a secure environment for economic growth.In the 530s, the territory of the empire encompassed both a massive population of around 30 million people and a wide array of natural resources.The Byzantines had access to resources such as abundantgold minesin the Balkans or the fertile fields of Egypt.Large sections of the Byzantine population lived within the many urbanized settlements inherited from the previously unified Roman Empire. Constantinople, the capital of the empire, was the largest city in the world at the time; it housed at least 400,000 people.These cities continued to grow during the 6th century, with evidence of massive construction projects suggesting that the Byzantine treasury remained strong.During the 5th and 6th centuries, rural development continued alongside urban development; the number of documented agricultural settlements increased significantly during this period.Although thereconquests of North AfricaandItalyby Justinian I were expensive and draining campaigns, they reopened Mediterranean trade routes and parts of the Roman west were reconnected with the east.

GoldensolidusofJustinian I(527–565) excavated in India probably in the south, an example ofIndo-Roman tradeduring the period.British Museum,London

ThePlague of Justiniancaused significant demographic decline, negatively affecting the production and demand of the Byzantine economy; consequently, the Imperial treasury took a substantial hit. Economic downturn was worsened by conflicts with theSlavs,Avars,andSassanids.Heraclius waged numerous campaigns to fend off the mounting threats to the empire, recovering the wealthy provinces ofSyria,Egypt, andPalestine.However, these short-term fortunes were quickly reversed following theArab conquests.Beginning in the 630s, the Arab wars with the Romans halved Byzantine territory, including rich provinces such as Egypt.These collective disasters led to severe economic deterioration, culminating in large-scale deurbanization and impoverishment throughout the empire.Demographic and urban decline sparked the destruction of trade routes, with trade reaching its lowest point by the 8th century.Isaurian reforms and Constantine V's repopulation, public works, and tax measures marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204 despite territorial contraction.From the 10th century until the end of the 12th, the Byzantine Empire projected an image of luxury; travellers were impressed by the wealth accumulated in the capital.

The Fourth Crusade led to the disruption of Byzantine manufacturing and the commercial dominance of the Western Europeans in theeastern Mediterranean,both events which amounted to an economic catastrophe for the empire.ThePalaiologoitried to revive the economy, but the late Byzantine state could not gain full control of either foreign or domestic economic forces. Eventually, Constantinople also lost its influence on themodalitiesof trade, price mechanisms, control over the outflow of precious metals and, according to some scholars, even over the minting of coins.

The government attempted to exercise formal control over interest rates and to set the parameters for the activity of theguildsandcorporations,where they held special interests. The emperor and his officials intervened at times of crises to ensure the stockpiling of provisions for the capital and to keep the prices of cereals affordable. Finally, the government often collected a part of the economic surplus through taxation, and put it back into circulation through either redistribution in the form of salaries to state officials or in the form of investment in public works.

One of the economic foundations of Byzantium was trade, fostered by the maritime character of the empire. Textiles must have been by far the most important item of export;silkswere certainly imported into Egypt and appeared also in Bulgaria and the West.The state strictly controlled internal and international trade, and retained the monopoly of issuingcoinage,maintaining a durable and flexible monetary system adaptable to the needs of trade.

Daily life

Clothing

Main article:Byzantine dress

Byzantine dress changed considerably over the thousand years of the Empire, but was essentially conservative.Popular Byzantine dress remained attached to itsclassical Greekroots, with most changes and different styles being evident only in the upper strata of Byzantine society, however, always with the influence of the Hellenic environment. The Byzantines preferred colour and pattern, and made and exported very richly patterned cloth, especiallyByzantine silk,woven and embroidered for the upper classes, andresist-dyedandprintedfor the lower. A different border or trimming round the edges was very common, and many single stripes down the body or around the upper arm are seen, often denotingclass or rank.

Cuisine

Main article:Byzantine cuisine

Byzantine cuisine still relied heavily on the Greco-Roman fish-sauce condimentgaros,but it also contained foods still familiar today, such as the cured meatpastirma(known as "paston" in Byzantine Greek),baklava(known askoptoplakousκοπτοπλακοῦς),tiropita(known as plakountas tetyromenous or tyritas plakountas),and the famed medieval sweet wines (MalvasiafromMonemvasia,Commandariaand the eponymousRumney wine).Retsina,wine flavoured with pine resin, was also drunk, as it still is in Greece today."To add to our calamity the Greek wine, on account of being mixed with pitch, resin, and plaster was to us undrinkable", complainedLiutprand of Cremona,who was the ambassador sent to Constantinople in 968 by the German Holy Roman EmperorOtto I.The garos fish sauce condiment was also not much appreciated by the unaccustomed; Liutprand of Cremona described being served food covered in an "exceedingly bad fish liquor".The Byzantines also used a soy sauce-like condiment,murri,a fermented barley sauce, which, like soy sauce, providedumamiflavouring to their dishes.

Recreation

See also:Sports before 1001and1001 to 1600 in sports

A game ofτάβλι (tabula)played by theByzantineemperorZenoin 480 and recorded byAgathiasinc. 530because of a very unlucky dice throw for Zeno (red), as he threw 2, 5 and 6 and was forced to leave eight pieces alone.

Byzantines were avid players oftavli(Byzantine Greek:τάβλη), a game known in English asbackgammon,which is still popular in former Byzantine realms and still known by the same name in Greece.Byzantine nobles were devoted to horsemanship, particularlytzykanion,now known aspolo.The game came from Sassanid Persia, and a Tzykanisterion (stadium for playing the game) was built by Theodosius II inside theGreat Palace of Constantinople.Emperor Basil I excelled at it; Emperor Alexander died from exhaustion while playing, Emperor Alexios I Komnenos was injured while playing withTatikios,and John I of Trebizond died from a fatal injury during a game.Other than Constantinople and Trebizond, other Byzantine cities also featuredtzykanisteria,most notablySparta,Ephesus,andAthens,an indication of a thriving urban aristocracy.The game was introduced to the West by crusaders, who had developed a taste for it particularly during the pro-Western reign of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos.Chariot races were popular and held at hippodromes across the empire. There were four major factions in chariot racing, differentiated by the colour of the uniform which they wore; the colours were also worn by their supporters. These factions were the Blues (Veneti), the Greens (Prasini), the Reds (Russati), and the Whites (Albati).

Arts

Architecture

Main article:Byzantine architecture

TheHagia Sophia(Istanbul,Turkey), 537, byAnthemius of TrallesandIsidore of Miletus

Influences fromByzantine architecture,particularly in religious buildings, can be found in diverse regions ranging from Egypt and Arabia toRussiaand Romania. Byzantine architecture is known for the use ofdomes,andpendentivearchitecture was invented in the Byzantine Empire. In contrast to thebasilicaplans favored in medieval Western European churches, Byzantine churches usually had more centralized ground plans, such as thecross-in-squareplan deployed in many Middle Byzantine churches.They also often featured marble columns,cofferedceilings and sumptuous decoration, including the extensive use ofmosaicswith golden backgrounds. Byzantine architects used marble mostly as interior cladding, in contrast to the structural roles it had for the Ancient Greeks. They used mostly stone and brick, and also thinalabastersheets for windows. Mosaics were used to cover brick walls and any other surface where fresco would not resist. Notable examples of mosaics from the proto-Byzantine era are at theHagios DemetriosinThessaloniki(Greece), theBasilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovoand theBasilica of San Vitale,both in Ravenna (Italy), and the Hagia Sophia inIstanbul.Christian liturgies were held in the interior of the churches, the exterior usually having little to no ornamentation.

Christ as theGood Shepherd;c.425–430; mosaic; width:c.3 m;Mausoleum of Galla Placidia(Ravenna,Italy)

Diptych Leaf with a Byzantine Empress; 6th century; ivory with traces of gilding and leaf; height: 26.5 cm (10.4 in);Kunsthistorisches Museum(Vienna,Austria)

Art

Further information:Byzantine art

Constantine's sponsorship produced an exuberant burst of Christian art and architecture, frescoes and mosaics for church walls, and hieroglyphic type drawings.While classical and Christian culture did coexist into the seventh century, Christian imagery gradually replaced classical images, which had undergone a short revival underJulian the Apostateand in the Theodosian renaissance.

Collier;late 6th–7th century; gold, anemerald,asapphire,amethystsandpearls;diameter: 23 cm (9.1 in); from aConstantinopolitanworkshop;Antikensammlung Berlin(Berlin,Germany)

In the 720s, the Byzantine EmperorLeo IIIbanned the pictorial representation of Christ, saints, and biblical scenes. Bishops, the army and the civil service supported the emperors, while monks, sometimes at the cost of their lives, and the western papacy, refused to participate, leading to further separation between the East and West.Lasting for over one hundred years, this ban led to nearly all figurative religious art being destroyed.It wasn't until the tenth and early eleventh centuries that Byzantine culture fully recovered and Orthodoxy was again manifested in art.

SurvivingByzantine artis mostly religiousand, with exceptions during certain periods, is highly conventional, following traditional models that translate carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms. Painting infresco,illuminated manuscriptsand on wood panels and mosaics, especially in earlier periods, were the main media, and figurativesculpturewas very rare except for smallcarved ivories.Manuscript painting preserved some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works till the end of the empire. Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought-after in Western Europe, where it maintained a continuous influence onmedieval arttill the near end of the period. This was especially true in Italy, where Byzantine styles persisted in modified forms through the 12th century, and became formative influences onItalian Renaissanceart. However, few incoming influences affected the Byzantine style.With the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Byzantine forms and styles spread throughout the Orthodox world and beyond.

Literature

Main articles:Byzantine literatureandList of Byzantine scholars

Byzantine literatureconcerns allGreek literaturefrom theMiddle Ages.Although the Empire waslinguistically diverse,the vast majority of extant texts are inmedieval Greek,albeit in twodiglossicvariants: a scholarly form based onAttic Greek,and avernacularbased onKoine Greek.Most contemporary scholars consider all medieval Greek texts to be literature,but some offer varying constraints.The literature's early period (c. 330–650) was dominated by the competing cultures ofHellenism,ChristianityandPaganism.TheGreek Church Fathers—educated in an Ancient Greekrhetorictradition—sought to synthesize these influences.Important early writers includeJohn Chrysostom,Pseudo-Dionysius the AreopagiteandProcopius,all of whom aimed to reinvent older forms to fit the empire.Theologicalmiraclestories were particularly innovative and popular;theSayings of the Desert Fathers(Apophthegmata Patrum) were copied in practically every Byzantine monastery.During theByzantine Dark Ages(c. 650–800), production of literature mostly stopped, although some important theologians were active, such asMaximus the Confessor,Germanus I of ConstantinopleandJohn of Damascus.

The subsequent Encyclopedism period (c. 800–1000) saw a renewed proliferation of literature and revived the earlier Hellenic-Christian synthesis.Works byHomer,Ancient Greek philosophersandtragedianswere translated, whilehagiographywas heavily reorganized.After this early flowering of monastic literature, there was a dearth untilSymeon the New Theologianin the late 10th-century.A new generation (c. 1000–1250), including Symeon,Michael PsellosandTheodore Prodromos,rejected the Encyclopedist emphasis on order, and were interested in individual-focused ideals variously concerningmysticism,authorial voice,heroism, humor and love.This included the Hellenistic-inspiredByzantine romanceandChivalricapproaches in rhetoric, historiography and the influential epicDigenes Akritas.The empire's final centuries saw a renewal of hagiography and increased Western influence, leading to mass Greek to Latin translations.Authors such asGemistos PlethonandBessarionexemplified a new focus on humanvicesalongside the preservation of classical traditions, which greatly influenced theItalian Renaissance.

Music

See also:Byzantine musicandList of Byzantine composers

Late 4th century "Mosaic of the Musicians" withorgan,aulos,andlyrefrom a Byzantine villa inMaryamin,Syria

The ecclesiastical forms ofByzantine music– composed to Greek texts as ceremonial, festival, or church music– are today the most well-known forms. Ecclesiastical chants were a fundamental part of this genre. Greek and foreign historians agree that the ecclesiastical tones and in general the whole system of Byzantine music is closely related to theancient Greek system.It remains the oldest genre of extant music, of which the manner of performance and (with increasing accuracy from the 5th century onwards) the names of the composers, and sometimes the particulars of each musical work's circumstances, are known.

Earliest known depiction of abowed lyra,from a Byzantine ivory casket (900–1100) (Museo Nazionale,Florence)

The 9th-century Persian geographerIbn Khordadbeh,in his lexicographical discussion of instruments, cited thelyra(lūrā) as the typical instrument of the Byzantines along with theurghun(organ),shilyani(probably a type ofharporlyre) and thesalandj(probably abagpipe).The first of these, the early bowed stringed instrument known as the Byzantine lyra, came to be called thelira da braccio,in Venice, where it is considered by many to have been the predecessor of the contemporary violin, which later flourished there.The bowed "lyra" is still played in former Byzantine regions, where it is known as thePolitiki lyra(lit. 'lyra of the City',i.e. Constantinople) in Greece, theCalabrian lirain southern Italy, and thelijericain Dalmatia. Thewater organoriginated in the Hellenistic world and was used in theHippodromeduring races.Apipe organwith "great leaden pipes" was sent by Emperor Constantine V toPepin the Short,King of the Franksin 757. Pepin's sonCharlemagnerequested a similar organ for his chapel inAachenin 812, beginning its establishment in Western church music.Theauloswas a double-reeded woodwind like the modernoboeor Armenianduduk.Other forms include theplagiaulos(πλαγίαυλος,fromπλάγιος"sideways" ), which resembled theflute,and theaskaulos(ἀσκόςaskos–wineskin), a bagpipe.The modern descendant of the aulos is the GreekZourna.Bagpipes, also known asdankiyo(from ancient Greek: angion (Τὸ ἀγγεῖον), "the container" ), had been played even in Roman times and continue to be played throughout the empire's former realms till the present day. These are namely the BalkanGaida,GreekTsampouna,PonticTulum,CretanAskomandoura,ArmenianParkapzuk,and RomanianCimpoi.Other instruments used in Byzantine music were theKanonaki,Tambouras,Semantron,Salpinx,Boukina,Syrinx,Crotala,Tympana and Cheirokymbala.

12th-century renaissance

Further information:Byzantine civilisation in the 12th century

See also:Byzantine army (Komnenian era)

The Lamentation of Christ(1164), a fresco from thechurch of Saint PanteleimoninNerezi,North Macedonia,considered a superb example of 12th-centuryKomnenianart

During the 12th century, there was a revival inmosaic,and regional schools of architecture began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences.In this period, the Byzantines provided the earliest model ofRenaissance humanismthrough their revival of interest in classical authors.Eustathius of Thessalonicais considered the greatest example of Byzantine humanism as he studied both classics and theology.In philosophy, there was a resurgence of classical learning not seen since the 7th century, characterised by a significant increase in the publication of commentaries on classical works.Moreover, the first transmission of classical Greek knowledge to the West occurred during the Komnenian period.In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the Komnenian period was one of the peaks in Byzantine history,and Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size, wealth, and culture.There was a renewed interest inclassical Greek philosophy,as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.Byzantine art and literature held a pre-eminent place in Europe, and the cultural impact of Byzantine art on the West during this period was enormous and of long-lasting significance.

Science and medicine

Main article:Byzantine science

See also:Byzantine medicine,Byzantine philosophy,andList of Byzantine inventions

Interior of theHagia Sophia,the patriarchalbasilicain Constantinople designed 537 byIsidore of Miletus,the first compiler ofArchimedes' various works. The influence of Archimedes' principles of solid geometry is evident.

Byzantine scienceplayed an important and crucial role in thetransmission of classical knowledgeto theIslamic worldand toRenaissance Italy.Many of the most distinguished classical scholars held high offices in theEastern Orthodox Church.

The writings ofclassical antiquitywere cultivated and preserved in Byzantium. Therefore, Byzantine science was in every period closely connected withancient philosophyandmetaphysics.In the field of engineering,Isidore of Miletus,the Greek mathematician and architect of the Hagia Sophia, produced the first compilation ofArchimedes' worksc. 530,and it is through this manuscript tradition, kept alive by the school of mathematics and engineering foundedc. 850during the "Byzantine Renaissance" byLeo the Mathematician,that such works are known today, primarily through the school's production, theArchimedes Palimpsest.

Alexandrian philosopherJohn Philoponuswas the first to questionAristotelian physics.Unlike Aristotle, who based his physics on verbal arguments, Philoponus relied on observations. Philoponus' criticism of the Aristotelian principles of physics was an inspiration forGalileo Galilei's refutation of Aristotelian physics during theScientific Revolutionmany centuries later, as Galileo cites Philoponus substantially in his works.

The Byzantines pioneered the concept of the hospital as an institution offering medical care and the possibility of a cure for the patients, as a reflection of the ideals of Christian charity, rather than merely being a place to die.

Ceramic grenades that were filled withGreek fire,surrounded bycaltrops,10th–12th century,National Historical Museum,Athens, Greece

Greek fire,an incendiary weapon which could even burn on water, is attributed to the Byzantines. It played a crucial role in the empire's victory over the Umayyad Caliphate during the siege of Constantinople (717–718).The discovery is attributed toCallinicus of Heliopolisfrom Syria who fled during the Arab conquest of Syria. However, it has also been argued that no single person invented Greek fire, but rather, that it was "invented by the chemists in Constantinople who had inherited the discoveries of the Alexandrian chemical school...".

In the final century of the empire,astronomyand othermathematical scienceswere taught in Trebizond; medicine attracted the interest of almost all scholars.The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 fuelled the era later commonly known as the "Italian Renaissance".During this period,refugee Byzantine scholarswere principally responsible for carrying, in person and writing, ancient Greek grammatical, literary, mathematical, and astronomical knowledge to early Renaissance Italy.They also brought with them classical learning and texts on botany, medicine and zoology, as well as the works ofDioscoridesand John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian physics.

Religion

Christianity

Main articles:History of Christianity,Christianity as the Roman state religion,andHistory of the Eastern Orthodox Church § Byzantine period

Map of the Roman empire with the distribution of the Christian congregations of the first three centuries displayed for each century

The first Christian communities began in Judea, in the Roman Empire, in the second quarter of the first century. They swiftly spread into theJewish diaspora,along the trade and travel routes followed by merchants, soldiers and migrating tribes, moving from fewer than 50,000 adherents to over a million in the hundred years between 150 and 250.Driven by a universalist logic, Christianity has been, from its beginnings, a missionary faith with global aspirations, leading it to become a part of the history of a great many civilizations.

Statue of Constantine the Great inOria,Italy (Retouched)

Constantine the Greatbecame the Roman emperor in 306 and issued theEdict of Milanexpressing tolerance for all religions in 313.The Edict was a pluralist policy, and throughout the Roman Empire of the fourth to sixth centuries, people chose between a variety of religious groups in a kind of "religious marketplace".

Constantine did not make Christianity the state religion.Law, literature, rituals, and institutions indicate that converting the empire to Christianity was a complex, long-term, slow-paced, and uneven process with no single moment or event to mark Christianity becoming the Roman Empire's state religion.Constantine wrote laws against sacrifice and magic, and laws that favored Christianity, but there was no legislation forcing the conversion of polytheists until the reign of theEastern Emperor Justinian Iin A.D. 529.

Mosaic of Jesus in thePammakaristos Church,Istanbul

In the fourth century, the diverse network of separate churches became an organization that mirrored the structure of the Roman Empire.Often referred to as the "golden age" ofpatristic Christianity,Christians of this era compiled many of Christianity's greatest works as they transformed and defined its art, culture, literature, philosophy and politics, its internal and external relationships, and its theology.

The Church of this age was seen by its supporters as a universal all-embracing union of separate individual churches.Yet, the tendency for East and West to grow apart was already evident.The western church spoke Latin, while the East spoke, and wrote, in Greek and at least five other languages.The ancient state was a religious institution, yet East and West related to that State differently: the Catholic church condemned Roman culture as sinful, kept itself as separate as possible, and struggled to resist State control. This is in pointed contrast with Eastern Christianity which acclaimed harmony with Greek culture, and whose emperors andPatriarchsupheld unanimity between church and state.

Regional variations led to competing orthodoxies, and conflicts over defining heresy and orthodoxy dominated fourth century Christianity.These ongoing controversies were a large part of what led the Armenian, Assyrian, and Egyptian churches to combine into what is today known asOriental Orthodoxy,one of three major branches of Eastern Christianity, along with theChurch of the Eastin Persia andEastern Orthodoxyin Byzantium.

The patriarchs in the East frequently looked to the Pope, the bishop of Rome, to resolve disagreements for them, thereby establishing what would later become important features of papal power and influence.Still, by the end of the sixth century, large sections of both the Western and Eastern church remained unconvinced they should be submissive to the Roman See.The vision of a universal and united Christendom was slowly coming undone.

According to the early Christian expert Tia Kolbaba, the Arab, Lombard, and Slavic invasions contributed to the alienation between the churches of Rome and Constantinople despite their shared past.Disagreement about Constantinople's jurisdiction compared to Rome's intensified as a result.Misunderstandings and conflicts over ritual, such as the use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist, and differences in points of doctrine (such as theFilioque ClauseandNestorianism), as well as differences in religious practices (such as celibacy, and even the growing of beards), underline the increasing separation of their unique social structures and cultures.Theological differences became more pronounced.There was a general lack of charity and respect on both sides. In 1054, the Patriarch of Constantinople refused to submit to the supremacy of the Roman Pope. Eventually, this all led to theEast–West Schism,also known as the "Great Schism", which officially separated Christianity into Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.

In 1439, a reunion agreement between the Eastern and Western church was proposed. Popular resistance in the East interfered, so it wasn't until 1452 that the decree of union was officially published in Constantinople. The agreement was overthrown the very next year by theFall of Constantinopleto the Ottoman Turks in 1453.The conquest of 1453 destroyed the Orthodox Church as an institution of the Christian empire inaugurated by Constantine, sealing off Greek-speaking Orthodoxy from the West for almost a century and a half.However, the church survived in altered form, and the spiritual and cultural influence of the Eastern church, Constantinople, andMount Athos the monastic peninsulahas continued.

Judaism

Main article:History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire

Byzantine Jewry played a prominent role in the medieval Jewish world. TheKaraiteschism and the Venetian and Genoese conquests during the Fourth Crusade introduced divisions, but these did not significantly impact the commercial or cultural life of the Jewish or Christian communities.

Legacy

Main article:Legacy of the Roman Empire

Political aftermath

Main article:Succession to the Byzantine Empire

The Eastern Mediterranean just before theFall of Constantinople

By the time of the fall of Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire, already an empire in name only since the Fourth Crusade, had been reduced to threerump states:theDespotate of the Morea,the Empire of Trebizond and thePrincipality of Theodoro.The Morea was ruled by the brothers of Constantine XI,Thomas PalaiologosandDemetrios Palaiologos.The despotate continued as an independent state by paying an annual tribute to the Ottomans. Incompetent rule, failure to pay the annual tribute, and a revolt against the Ottomans finally led to Mehmed II's invasion of Morea in May 1460.

A few holdouts remained for a time. In the Morea, the island ofMonemvasiacame under the pope's protection before the end of 1460, while theMani Peninsulasubmitted to Venice.The Empire of Trebizond, which had split away from the Byzantine Empire just weeks before Constantinople was taken by the Crusaders in 1204, became the last remnant of and de facto successor state to the Byzantine Empire. Efforts by EmperorDavidto recruit European powers for an anti-Ottoman crusade provoked war between the Ottomans and Trebizond in the summer of 1461. After amonth-long siege,David surrendered the city of Trebizond on 14 August 1461. Trebizond's Crimean principality, the Principality of Theodoro (part of thePerateia), lasted another 14 years, falling to the Ottomans in December 1475.

Mehmed II and his successors continued toconsider themselves heirsto the Roman Empire. They considered that they had shifted their religious basis as Constantine had done before, and they continued to refer to their conquered Eastern Roman inhabitants (Orthodox Christians) asRûm.This claim gradually faded away as the Ottoman Empire assumed a more Islamic political identity.Meanwhile, theDanubian Principalities(whose rulers also considered themselves the heirs of the Eastern Roman Emperors)harboured Orthodox refugees, including some Byzantine nobles.

At Constantine's death, the role of the emperor as a patron of Eastern Orthodoxy was claimed byIvan III,Grand Prince ofMuscovy.He had married Andreas' sister,Sophia Palaiologina,whose grandson,Ivan IV,would become the first tsar of Russia (tsar,orczar,meaningcaesar,is a term traditionally applied by Slavs to the Byzantine emperors). Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the proper heir to Rome and Constantinople. The idea of theRussian Empireas the successiveThird Romewas kept alive until its demise with theRussian Revolution.

Cultural aftermath

See also:Succession of the Roman EmpireandGreek scholars in the Renaissance

AChrist Pantocratormosaic in theHagia Sophia,paintedc. 1261

Byzantium has been often identified with absolutism, orthodox spirituality, orientalism and exoticism, while the terms "Byzantine" and "Byzantinism" have been used as bywords for decadence, complex bureaucracy, and repression. Both Eastern and Western European authors have often perceived Byzantium as a body of religious, political, and philosophical ideas contrary to those of the West. Even in19th-century Greece,the focus was mainly on the classical past, while Byzantine tradition had been associated with negative connotations.

This traditional approach towards Byzantium has been partially or wholly disputed and revised by modern studies, which focus on the positive aspects of Byzantine culture and legacy. From the ninth to the twelfth centuries, Byzantine Christianity converted and helped establish multiple nations in what is now Eastern Europe.The historianAveril Cameronregards this as undeniable, and both Cameron and Obolensky recognize the major role of Byzantium in shaping Orthodoxy, which in turn occupies a central position in the history, societies and culture of Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Russia, Georgia, Serbia and other countries.

Monument toSt. Cyril and St. Methodius,Byzantine missionaries to the Slavs, onMt. Radhošťin theCzech Republic

The Baptism of Kievans,by the Russian painterKlavdiy Lebedev

Its use of vernacular language, and the development of the first Slavic written script, increased education and literacy and influenced the direction of the spiritual, religious, and cultural development of the entire region.The Byzantines also preserved and copied classical manuscripts, and they are thus regarded as transmitters of classical knowledge, as important contributors to modern European civilization, and as precursors of bothRenaissance humanismand Slavic-Orthodox culture.

As the only stable long-term state in Europe during the Middle Ages, Byzantium isolated Western Europe from newly emerging forces to the East. Constantly under attack, it distanced Western Europe from Persians, Arabs, Seljuk Turks, and for a time, the Ottomans. From a different perspective, since the 7th century, the evolution and constant reshaping of the Byzantine state were directly related to the respective progress of Islam.Following the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, Sultan Mehmed II took the title "Kaysar-i Rûm"(the Ottoman Turkish equivalent ofCaesarof Rome), since he was determined to make the Ottoman Empire the heir of the Eastern Roman Empire.

See also

• Family tree of Byzantine emperors
• Index of Byzantine Empire–related articles
• Legacy of the Roman Empire
• List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars
• List of Byzantine wars
• List of Roman dynasties
• Outline of the Byzantine Empire
• Succession of the Roman Empire

References

Sources

Primary sources

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• Cinnamus, Ioannes(1976).Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus.New York and West Sussex: Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-04080-8.
• Komnene, Anna(1928)."Books X–XIII".TheAlexiad.Translated byDawes, Elizabeth A.S.Internet Medieval Sourcebook.Archivedfrom the original on 13 April 2020.Retrieved18 May2007.

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External links

• Byzantine EmpireonIn Our Timeat theBBC
• De Imperatoribus Romanis.Scholarly biographies of many Byzantine emperors.
• 12 Byzantine RulersArchived18 July 2016 at theWayback Machineby Lars Brownworth ofThe Stony Brook School;audio lectures.
• 18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman(Maps of the Roman/Byzantine Empire throughout its lifetime).
• Byzantine & Christian Museum

Byzantine studies, resources and bibliography

• Byzantine studies homepageatDumbarton Oaks.Includes links to numerous electronic texts.
• Byzantium: Byzantine studies on the InternetArchived8 October 2014 at theWayback Machine.Links to various online resources.
• Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c. 700–1204.Online sourcebook.
• De Re Militari.Resources for medieval history, including numerous translated sources on the Byzantine wars.
• Medieval Sourcebook: ByzantiumArchived14 August 2014 at theWayback Machine.Numerous primary sources on Byzantine history.
• Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life.Hosted by theUniversity of Vienna;in English.
• Constantinople Home Page.Links to texts, images and videos on Byzantium.
• Byzantium in Crimea: Political History, Art and Culture.
• Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (with further resources and a repository with papers on various aspects of the Byzantine Empire)