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Ecstatically dancingmaenad.Detail from aPaestanred-figureskyphos,c. 330-320 BC

Ecstatic danceis a form ofdancein which the dancers, sometimes without the need to follow specific steps, release themselves to therhythmand move freely as the music takes them, leading totranceand a feeling of ecstasy. The effects of ecstatic dance begin with ecstasy itself, which may be experienced in differing degrees. Dancers are described as feeling connected to others, and to their ownemotions.The dance serves as a form ofmeditation,helping people tocope with stressand to attain serenity.

In the ancient and widespread practice ofshamanism,ecstatic dance and rhythmicdrummingare used to alter consciousness inspiritual practices.Ecstaticsacred dancesare known also from religious traditions around the world. Modern ecstatic dance was revived byGabrielle Rothin the 1970s and formalised in her5Rhythmspractice; it is now found in variants across the western world. Attitudes to ecstatic dance have varied widely. In the 1920s,musicologistssuch as Paul Nettl andFritz Böhmeconsidered it primitive and unrefined. More recently, it has been compared to dancing inravesand inclub culture,the anthropologist Michael J. Winkelman and the musicologist Rupert Till finding in these forms elements of ritual, spirituality, and healing. The philosopher Gediminas Karoblis relates early ecstatic dance to religious ritual, and notes that all well-executed dance borders on ecstasy.

Ecstasy[edit]

See also:Religious ecstasy

Ecstasy(fromAncient Greekἔκστασιςékstasis,in turn from ἐκ (ek,out) and ἵστημι (hístēmi,I stand) is a subjective experience of total involvement of the subject, with an object of his or her awareness. In classical Greek literature it meant the removal of the mind or body "from its normal place of function."[1]

The primary effect of ecstatic dance is ecstasy itself.[2]In particular,sacred dancersactively pursue ecstasy "in the experience of seizure and rapture".[2][3]The religious historianMircea Eliadestated that shamans use dance, repetitive music,fasting,andhallucinogenic drugsto induce ecstasy.[2][4]The ethnologistMaria-Gabriela Wosienidentified four degrees of ecstasy that dancers may experience: "the warning, the whisper of inspiration, the prophecy, and finally the gift, the highest grade of inspiration."[3]

The described effects of ecstatic dance include a feeling of connection with others,[5]indeed of "universal relatedness",[2]and with the dancer's own emotions; serving as ameditation,providing a way ofcoping with stressand restoring serenity; and serving as a spiritual practice.[5]Roth identified specific emotions associated with the five different rhythms of ecstatic dance that she used, namely that the flowing rhythm connected the dancer with their ownfear;the staccato rhythm withanger;chaos withsadness;lyrical withjoy;and stillness withcompassion.[6]

Ancient[edit]

The ecstatic Kouretes dancing around the infantZeus,depicted byJane Ellen Harrison,1912

Little is known directly of ecstatic dance in ancient times. However,Greek mythologydoes have several stories of theMaenads;the maenads were intoxicated female worshippers of the Greek god ofwine,Dionysus,known for their "ecstatic revelations and frenzied dancing".[7][8]The mythical female followers of Dionysus, including bacchants and thyai as well as maenads, were said to have sought the "wild delirium" of possession by the god so they could "get out of themselves", which was called "ekstasis".[9]The male counterparts of the Maenads were theKorybantes(Greek:Κορύβαντες), armed and crested ecstatic dancers who worshipped thePhrygiangoddessCybelewith drumming and dancing. They were the offspring of the museThaliaand the godApollo.The Greeks often confused them with other ecstatic male confraternities, such as the IdaeanDactyls(Greek:Δάκτυλοι Ἰδαῖοι) or the CretanKouretes(Κουρῆτες), spirit-youths (kouroi) with magical powers who acted as guardians of the infantZeus.[9]

The myths gave rise to ancient Greek practices in honour of Dionysus. Theoreibasia( "mountain dancing" ) was a midwinter Dionysian rite practised by women, and said to be originally an "unrestrained, ecstatic dance where the 'human' personality was temporarily replaced by another",[10]though it eventually became structured into a definiteritual.[10]

The theologianW. O. E. Oesterleyargues thatOld Testamentpassages such as 1 Kings 18:26, "They [The prophets ofBaal] limped about the altar they had made ", and 1 Kings 18:21," How long will ye limp upon two legs? "describe a kind of ecstatic dance used forpaganworship in which the knees were bent, one after the other, to give a kind of limping step repeated for each leg. He notes that the dance increased "to an orgiastic frenzy",[8]as by 1 Kings 18:28 the dancers are crying aloud and cutting themselves "with knives and lances". He suggests that this might have been intended to awaken the god's pity and hence answer the people's prayers.[8]Oesterley compares this toApuleius's account in his 2nd centuryThe Golden Ass8:27–28 of the ecstatic dance of the priests of the Syrian goddess, in which "they began to howl all out of tune and hurl themselves hither and thither as though they were mad. They made a thousand gest[ure]s with their feet and their heads; they would bend down their necks, and spin round so that their hair flew out at a circle; they would bite their own flesh; finally, everyone took his two-edged weapon and wounded his arms in divers[e] places."[8]

Oesterley notes also thatHeliodorus of Emesarecorded in his 3rd centuryAethiopica4:16ff that sailors from Tyre performed a dance worshipping their god Herakles, to the "quick music" of flutes, hopping, jumping up, "limping along on the ground, and then turning with the whole body, spinning around like men possessed."[8]

Traditions[edit]

Further information:Religious ecstasyandSacred dance

A variety of religions and other traditions, founded at different times but still practised around the world today, make use of ecstatic dance.

Map of ecstatic dance across the world. Some dance forms have spread widely or, likeShamanism,are found in different forms across the world.[11][2]
Tradition Countries Description Start
Rudra-Shiva India InHindu mythology,theRig Vedatells of theMaruts,the wild but playful companions of the god Rudra-Shiva.[9]The god's human followers may identify with and imitate the god's companions, just as happened in ancient Greece with the followers of Dionysos and the Korybantes.[9] Ancient
Shamanism Worldwide Uses drumming, rhythm, and ecstatic dance to alter consciousness in spiritual practices,[12][5][13]hence magical rather than purely ecstatic;[14]in Europe, this ended in the Middle Ages, prohibited by the Christian church, while it continued among native peoples in America, Siberia and elsewhere[2] Ancient
Anastenaria N. Greece,
S. Bulgaria		 In the annual celebrations forSaint ConstantineandSaint Helen,dancers perform the Anastenaria, afire-walkingritual, as the climax of three days of processions, music, dancing, and animal sacrifice.[15][16][17] Ancient or medieval
Sufi whirling Turkey In the tradition of theMevlevi Orderfounded byRumi,ecstatic[18]Sufi whirling is practised by devotees as active meditation within theSama(worship ceremony).[19]In 2007, ecstatic dance was a focus for political resistance in Iran, reportedly "demoniz[ed]" byShi'aclerics.[20] 12th century
Santeria Cuba A syncretised form of African dance ofYoruba religion,Fon ofBenin,andCongolesetraditions,[11]merged with Christianity and indigenous American religions[2] 16th century
Candomblé Brazil Afro-American religious traditionpracticed mainly in Brazil; makes use of music and ecstatic dance in which worshippers become possessed by their own tutelary deities,Orishas.[21] Early 19th century
Shakers,somePentecostalists America "Charismatic" Christian sects using ecstatic ritual dance[2] 18th century
Balinese ritual dance Bali,Indonesia The anthropologistsGregory BatesonandMargaret MeadfilmedTrance and Dance in Baliin the late 1930s, recording the use of trance in Balinese ritual dance, but also influencing what they observed, for example introducing the use of women dancers in thekris-dance in 1937. The dance climaxes with the women dancing ecstatically, stabbing themselves with their razor-sharpkrisdaggers, and coming to no harm.[22][23][24] 1930s
Modernwitchcraft Western world Modern witchcraft traditions such as theReclaiming Traditionand theFeri Traditiondefine themselves as "ecstatic traditions", and focus on reaching ecstatic states in their rituals, which incorporate dance with other techniques.[25][26] 1960s
Caribbean Shaktism Indo-Caribbeans MadrasiTamil immigrantsfrom south India brought with them ritual worship of the goddess Mariamma, based on ecstatic dance to drumming on the tappu.[27]Since the 1970s Kali worship has taken the form of "ecstatic healing ceremonies of spirit possession".[28] 1970s

Modern[edit]

Grete Wiesenthal's ecstaticDanube waltzes,1908, photographed byArnold Genthe

Early in the 20th century, the Austrian dancerGrete Wiesenthalturned the formalViennese Waltzinto an ecstatically danced performance with "swirling, euphoric movement and suspended arches of the body",[29]the dancers "with unbound hair and swinging dresses".[30]

Modern ecstatic dance is a style ofdance improvisationwith little or no formal structure or steps to follow or any particular way to dance.[5]Modern ecstatic dance has developed alongside Western interest intantra;the two are sometimes combined, and ecstatic dance often plays a part in tantra workshops.[31][32]

The dancer and musicianGabrielle Rothbrought the term "Ecstatic Dance" back into current usage in the 1970s at theEsalen Institutewith her dance format called5Rhythms.This consists of five sections, each accompanied bytrance music[33][34]with a different rhythm, together constituting a "Wave". The five rhythms (in order) areFlowing,Staccato,Chaos,LyricalandStillness.[35]The form strongly expects dancers to shape a distinct movement style consistent with each of the five rhythms, which in practice is unlike other contemporary ecstatic dance as these rhythms often look similar between dancers, but has few other rules. The dance music set is carefully arranged,[34]as documented in Roth's 1989 bookMaps to Ecstasy[35]and a set of three DVDs.[36][37]

Ecstatictantric union,Yuan dynasty,14th century. Modern ecstatic dance sometimes incorporates elements of tantra.

My eyes scan the dancing bodies but keep returning to a young man. He's been gliding along the surface doing his standard repertoire offlowingmoves, when suddenly something shifts inside of him. He transcends his boredom and enters the body of a panther onRollerblades.Moves spin out from his center in endless waves, some breathtaking to watch. He disappears in the dance until all that's left of him is a mop of bleached-white hair... He dissolves in a swirl of arms, in the sweep of a leg, in the curve of his neck.... he surrenders his bones to the waves and dances in the ocean of his being.[37]

Many different formats have developed since the 1970s, often spun off from Roth's5Rhythms.[38][39]After being taught by Roth in 1989, Susannah and Ya'Acov Darling-Khan founded the Moving Centre School in Britain in 1989, teaching the 5 rhythms across Europe. In the early 1990s, "Barefoot Boogie" in San Francisco offered twice weekly drug and alcohol free dance event very similar in form to contemporary ecstatic dance, without the name. In 2006, having met shamans in the Amazon, the Darling-Khans started their own ecstatic dance form,Movement Medicine.[40]The science and environment journalist Christine Ottery, writing for the British newspaperThe Guardianin 2011, suggested that "ecstatic dancing has an image problem",[41]but that it "encompasses everything from large global movements such as 5Rhythms andBiodanzato local drum'n'dance meet-ups ".[41]Reviewing her experience of5Rhythmsfor the newspaper, she suggests that readers may "find 5 Rhythms a good place to start" if wanting to try ecstatic dance.[41]

However, there are other styles that have been developed in North America, too, including theEcstatic Dance Communityfounded in 2000 by Bodhi Tara atKalani HonuainPunaon theBig Island of Hawaiiwho then passed it on to DJ Max Fathom and influenced by Carol Marashi's 1994Body Choirin Austin, Texas.[42]Also in Texas, Sydney 'Samadhi' Strahan foundedEcstatic Dance EvolutioninHoustonin 2003,[43]whilst theTribal Dance Communityof Julia Ray opened in Toronto in 2006.[44]A more influential event program of ecstatic dance, simply namedEcstatic Dance,was founded later, in 2008, by Tyler Blank and Donna Carroll and held at Sweet's Ballroom inOakland, California.[42]By 2018, the Ecstatic Dance Community Foundation listed over 80 places which offered "organized, spontaneous dance practices".[45]

Reception[edit]

ThemusicologistPaul Nettl[de]argued that the ecstatic dance of theSufisand others was "primitive".[46]Painting byKamāl ud-Dīn Behzād(c. 1485)

20th century attitudes[edit]

ThemusicologistPaul Nettl[de],writing in 1929, granted that ecstatic dance had emotional power "expressive of some psychic exaltation, some intensified emotion",[46]and that the "ordered rhythm"[46]on which it was based was hypnotic, inducing a meditative state and the "dissolution of consciousness",[46]but argued that it was a "primitive" form of dance, a precursor to "higher", more structured dance forms.[46]Nettl stated further that ecstatic dance was both religious anderotic,giving examples from ancient Greece, medieval Christianity and Sufism.[46] In his 1926Tanzkunst( "Art of Dance" ),[47]the dance theoristFritz Böhmesimilarly asserted, without giving examples to illustrate the statement, that ecstatic dance lacked "artistic refinement",[48]being limited to "a natural, organically grown expression."[48]

Philosophy[edit]

ThephilosopherGediminas Karoblis states that in early cultures, ecstatic dance was linked toreligious ritual,releasing the dancer from the egocentric self, undoing self-consciousness and connecting to the absolute. In Karoblis's view, trance dances can be either ecstatic or magical. He considers that the trance of the whirling dervishes is genuinely ecstatic as it glorifies God, whereas shamanistic dance is not, being instead magical, as it is intended to induce effects in the world.[14]Karoblis notes that all dance borders on ecstasy, as the catharsis that it produces – if good – cannot be controlled or "technically calculated", yet dancers depend upon it.[14]

Psychology[edit]

ThepsychoanalystMary Jo Spencer wrote ofPompeii'sVilla of MysteriesMaenad: "She does not dance in ecstasy; she is the dance".[49]

ThepsychoanalystMary Jo Spencer used the image of the ecstatic dancer (a Maenad) depicted in theVilla of Mysteries,Pompeiiwhen explaining the appearance of the dance as a symbol for the psyche. She described in thefresco"a nude woman with a flowing scarf turning in a contained but ecstatic dance, much like the description of the dervishes: she does not dance in ecstasy; she is the dance".[49]This was in the context of a client who presented a continuing "motif" of dance, which appeared whenever "a major shift in attitude" was imminent.[49]

Mindfulness[edit]

The nursing researcher Yaowarat Matchim and colleagues write that whilemindfulnessmeditation arose inBuddhism,practices that provoke mindfulness are found in wisdom traditions around the world; such practices include ecstatic dance as well asyoga,prayer,music,andart.[50]

Parallels[edit]

TheanthropologistMichael J. Winkelman suggests that shamanism and modernravesshare structures including social ritual and the use of dance and music for bonding, for communication of emotions, and for their effects on consciousness and personal healing.[51]

The musicologist Rupert Till places contemporary club dancing toelectronic dance musicwithin the framework of ecstatic dance. He writes that "club culturehas elements of religion, spirituality and meaning. Its transgressional nature is partly a reaction to the history of repression of traditions of ecstatic dancing by Christianity, particularly byPuritanandLutherantraditions. "[52]He notes that the scholars of music Nicholas Saunders and Simon Reynolds both discuss electronic dance music culture "in terms of trance rituals and ecstatic states."[52]

Documentation[edit]

In their 2003 documentaryDances of Ecstasy,the filmmakers Michelle Mahrer and Nicole Ma portrayed ecstatic dances from around the world, with traditional dances by the San of theKalaharidesert of Namibia, and by theYorubaofNigeria;the modern annual Firedance celebration in the Santa Cruz Mountains, California; by Gabrielle Roth; the whirlingZikrdance of theSufidervishes; the Hadra ritual danced byMoroccanwomen, brought by immigrants fromGhanaandSenegal;the modernRainbow Serpent Festivalin Australia; theCandombléritual inBrazil,derived from Yoruba, Fon ofBenin,andCongolesetraditions; and the shamanisticKutritual ofKorea.[11]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Versnal, H. S. "Ecstasy".The Oxford Classical Dictionary(Third, revised ed.). p. 505.
  2. ^abcdefghZmolek, Paul; Zmolek, Josephine A. (2002)."Dance as Ecstatic Ritual/Theatre"(PDF).Callous Physical Theature.Retrieved17 October2018.
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  4. ^Eliade, Mircea(2004) [1964].Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy(New ed.). Princeton.ISBN978-0691119427.
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  6. ^"Gabrielle Roth's 5Rhythms".5Rhythms.Retrieved18 October2018.
  7. ^Dickason, Kathryn (10 April 2014)."Stanford scholar studies ancient Greek dance performances from the viewers' perspective".Retrieved14 October2018.
  8. ^abcdeOesterley, William Oscar Emil(2010) [1923].The Sacred Dance: A Study in Comparative Folklore.Kessinger. pp. 107–139.ISBN978-1163177228.
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  10. ^abRussell, Meredith (August 2003).The Danced Space, Ancient and Modern | The Role of Transformation in Classical Indian and Modern Dance.University of South Australia (Ph. D. Thesis). p. 38.
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  12. ^Berggren, Karen (1998).Circle of Shaman: Healing Through Ecstasy, Rhythm, and Myth.Inner Traditions / Bear & Co.ISBN978-0-89281-622-4.
  13. ^"The Shaman Healing Dance of the San Bushmen".Rock Art Research Institute, University of the Witwatersrand. 2011.Retrieved15 October2018.
  14. ^abcKaroblis, Gediminas (2007). "The Question Concerning Dance Technique". In Sepp, Hans Rainer; Copoeru, Ion (eds.).Phenomenology 2005, Vol. IV, Selected Essays from Northern Europe.Bucharest: Zeta Books. pp. 363–398.
  15. ^Xygalatas, Dimitris (2007). "Firewalking and the Brain: The Physiology of High-Arousal Rituals". In Joseph Bulbulia; Richard Sosis; Erica Harris; Russell Genet; Cheryl Genet; Karen Wyman (eds.).Evolution of Religion: Studies, Theories, and Critiques.Collins Foundation Press. pp. 189–195.
  16. ^Xygalatas, Dimitris (2011)."Ethnography, Historiography, and the Making of History in the Tradition of the Anastenaria"(PDF).History and Anthropology.22(1): 57–74.doi:10.1080/02757206.2011.546855.S2CID154450368.
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  20. ^Scolieri, Paul (2008). "Introduction Global/Mobile: Re-orienting Dance and Migration Studies".Dance Research Journal.40(2 (Winter)): XVII.doi:10.1017/S0149767700000346.S2CID145573700.
  21. ^"Religions - Candomblé: Candomblé at glance".BBC.15 September 2009.
  22. ^Jacknis, Ira (May 1988). "Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson in Bali: Their Use of Photography and Film".Cultural Anthropology.3(2): 60–177.doi:10.1525/can.1988.3.2.02a00030.JSTOR656349.
  23. ^Geertz, Hildred (1976)."Trance and Dance in Bali. Gregory Bateson, Margaret Mead.; Bathing Babies in Three Cultures. Gregory Bateson, Margaret Mead.; Karba's First Years. Gregory Bateson, Margaret Mead".American Anthropologist.78(3): 725–726.doi:10.1525/aa.1976.78.3.02a01160.
  24. ^Rony, Fatimah Tobing (2006). "The Photogenic Cannot Be Tamed: Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson's" Trance and Dance in Bali "".Discourse.28(1): 5–27.JSTOR41389738.
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  27. ^Stone, Ruth M. (1998).The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia: the Indian subcontinent.Taylor & Francis. p. 602.ISBN978-0-8240-4946-1.
  28. ^Winer, Lise (2009).Dictionary of the English/Creole of Trinidad & Tobago: On Historical Principles.McGill-Queen's Press.p. 484.ISBN978-0-7735-7607-0.
  29. ^Cates, Meryl (24 December 2020)."Dancing by Herself: When the Waltz Went Solo".The New York Times.Retrieved28 December2020.
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  32. ^Solluna, Shashi (2016).Tantra: Discover the Path from Sex to Spirit.Hay House. p. 47.ISBN978-1-78180-784-2.Dance has traditionally been a part of Tantric practice, at least for women, with theDevadasisbeing women who danced in Tantric temples... modern Tantra workshops often have a lot of dance in them. Freestyle dancing, such as ecstatic dance, is also often found in modern-day Tantra, for both men and women.
  33. ^Plonka, Lavinia (2005).What Are You Afraid Of?.Penguin Publishing Group. p. 102.ISBN978-1-101-16082-4.
  34. ^abMay, Meredith (25 October 2013)."Ecstatic dance moves the spirit, soothes the soul".San Francisco Chronicle.Retrieved20 October2018.
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  36. ^Roth, Gabrielle(2004).Ecstatic Dance(DVD-ROM ed.). Sounds True.ISBN978-1591791768.Roth, Gabrielle(1 May 2004).Gabrielle Roth Ecstatic Dance Collection (The Wave, The Inner Wave, The Power Wave)(DVD Video (3 DVDs) ed.). Sounds True.ISBN978-1-59179-176-8.
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  41. ^abcOttery, Christine (21 July 2009)."Ecstatic dance: rhythm to beat the blues".The Guardian.Retrieved18 March2012.
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  45. ^Miller, Anna Medaris (24 May 2018)."What Is Ecstatic Dance – and Can It Improve Your Health?".US News.
  46. ^abcdefNettl, Paul (October 1929). "Notes on the History of the Dance".The Musical Quarterly.15(4): 583–589.doi:10.1093/mq/xv.4.583.JSTOR38569.
  47. ^Böhme, Fritz (1926).Tanzkunst(in German). Dessau: Dünnhaupt.
  48. ^abToepfer, Karl (1997).Empire of Ecstasy | Nudity and Movement in German Body Culture, 1910–1935.University of California Press. p. 348.
  49. ^abcSpencer, M. J. (1984)."Amplification: The Dance".Journal of Analytical Psychology.29(2): 113–123.doi:10.1111/j.1465-5922.1984.00113.x.PMID6735917.
  50. ^Matchim, Yaowarat; Armer, Jane M.; Stewart, Bob R. (October 2008)."A Qualitative Study of Participants' Perceptions of the Effect of Mindfulness Meditation Practice on Self-Care and Overall Well-Being"(PDF).Self-Care, Dependent-Care & Nursing.16(2): 46–53.
  51. ^Winkelman, Michael James (2015). "Biogenetic structural perspectives on shamanism and raves". In Emilia Simão; Armando Malheiro de Silva; Sérgio Tenreiro de Magalhães (eds.).Exploring Psychedelic Trance and Electronic Dance Music in Modern Culture.IGI Global. pp. 1–37.ISBN978-1466686656.Retrieved18 October2018.
  52. ^abTill, Rupert (2009). "Possession Trance Ritual in Electronic Dance Music Culture: A Popular Ritual Technology for Reenchantment, Addressing the Crisis of the Homeless Self, and Reinserting the Individual Into the Community". In Deacy, Christopher; Arweck, Elisabeth (eds.).Exploring religion and the sacred in a media age.Ashgate. pp. Chapter 10.ISBN978-0754665274.

External links[edit]

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