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Edmond Halley

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Edmond Halley
FRS
Portrait of Halley (c. 1690)
Born8 November [O.S.29 October] 1656
Haggerston,Middlesex,England
Died25 January 1742 [O.S.14 January 1741] (aged 85)
Greenwich,Kent,England
Resting placeSt. Margaret's,Lee, South London
Alma materThe Queen's College, Oxford
Spouse
Mary Tooke
​
(m.1682)​
Children3[1]
Scientific career
FieldsAstronomy,mathematics,physics,cartography
InstitutionsUniversity of Oxford
Royal Observatory, Greenwich
Portrait byRichard Phillips,before 1722

Edmond[2](orEdmund)[3]HalleyFRS(/ˈhæli/;[4][5]8 November [O.S.29 October] 1656 – 25 January 1742 [O.S.14 January 1741])[6][7]was an Englishastronomer,mathematicianandphysicist.He was the secondAstronomer Royalin Britain, succeedingJohn Flamsteedin 1720.

From an observatory he constructed onSaint Helenain 1676–77, Halley catalogued thesouthern celestial hemisphereand recorded atransit of Mercuryacross the Sun. He realised that a similartransit of Venuscould be used to determine the distances between Earth, Venus, and the Sun. Upon his return to England, he was made afellow of the Royal Society,and with the help of KingCharles II,was granted a master's degree fromOxford.

Halley encouraged and helped fund the publication ofIsaac Newton's influentialPhilosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica(1687). From observations Halley made in September 1682, he usedNewton's law of universal gravitationto compute the periodicity ofHalley's Cometin his 1705Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets.[a]It was named after him upon its predicted return in 1758, which he did not live to see.

Beginning in 1698, Halley made sailing expeditions and made observations on the conditions of terrestrialmagnetism.In 1718, he discovered theproper motionof the"fixed" stars.[8]

Early life[edit]

Halley was born inHaggerstoninMiddlesex.His father, Edmond Halley Sr., came from aDerbyshirefamily and was a wealthy soap-maker in London. As a child, Halley was very interested in mathematics. He studied atSt Paul's School,[9]where he developed his initial interest in astronomy, and was elected captain of the school in 1671.[10]The following year, Halley's mother, Anne (probablynéeRobinson) died.[1]In July 1673,[10]he began studying atThe Queen's College, Oxford.[9]Halley took a twenty-four-foot (7.3 m) long telescope with him, apparently paid for by his father.[11]While still an undergraduate, Halley published papers on theSolar Systemandsunspots.[12]In March 1675, he wrote toJohn Flamsteed,theAstronomer Royal(England's first), telling him that the leading published tables on the positions ofJupiterandSaturnwere erroneous, as were some ofTycho Brahe's star positions.[13]

Career[edit]

Publications and inventions[edit]

Site of Halley's Observatory on the island ofSaint Helena

In 1676, Flamsteed helped Halley publish his first paper, titled "A Direct and Geometrical Method of Finding the Aphelia, Eccentricities, and Proportions of the Primary Planets, Without Supposing Equality in Angular Motion", about planetaryorbits,inPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.[13]Influenced by Flamsteed's project to compile a catalogue of stars of thenorthern celestial hemisphere,Halley proposed to do the same for thesouthern sky,[14]dropping out of school to do so. He chose the south Atlantic island ofSaint Helena(west of Africa), from which he would be able to observe not only the southern stars, but also some of the northern stars with which to cross-reference them.[15]KingCharles IIsupported his endeavour.[16]Halley sailed to the island in late 1676, then set up an observatory with a largesextantwith telescopic sights. Over a year, he made observations with which he would produce the first telescopic catalogue of the southern sky,[17]and observed atransit of Mercuryacross the Sun. Focusing on this latter observation, Halley realised that observing thesolar parallaxof a planet—more ideally using thetransit of Venus,which would not occur within his lifetime—could be used totrigonometricallydetermine the distances between Earth, Venus, and the Sun.[18][b]

First page to volume I of Miscellanea curiosa published by the Royal Society (1705), in which Halley wrote "An estimate of the quantity of vapours raised out of the sea, derived from experiment"
First page to volume I ofMiscellanea curiosapublished by the Royal Society (1705), in which Halley wrote "An estimate of the quantity of vapours raised out of the sea, derived from experiment"

Halley returned to England in May 1678, and used his data to produce amapof the southern stars.[20]Oxford would not allow Halley to return because he had violated his residency requirements when he left for Saint Helena. He appealed to Charles II, who signed a letter requesting that Halley be unconditionally awarded hisMaster of Artsdegree, which the college granted on 3 December 1678.[21]Just a few days before,[22]Halley had been elected as afellow of the Royal Society,at the age of 22.[23]In 1679, he publishedCatalogus Stellarum Australium('A catalogue of the stars of the South'), which includes his map and descriptions of 341 stars.[20][24][c]Robert Hookepresented the catalogue to the Royal Society.[26]In mid-1679, Halley went to Danzig (Gdańsk) on behalf of the Society to help resolve a dispute: because astronomerJohannes Hevelius' observing instruments were not equipped withtelescopic sights,Flamsteed and Hooke had questioned the accuracy of his observations; Halley stayed with Hevelius and checked his observations, finding that they were quite precise.[25]

By 1681,Giovanni Domenico Cassinihad told Halley of his theory that comets were objects in orbit.[27]In September 1682, Halley carried out a series of observations of what became known asHalley's Comet;his name became associated with it because of his work on its orbit and predicting its return in 1758[28](which he did not live to see). In early 1686, Halley was elected to the Royal Society's new position of secretary, requiring him to give up his fellowship and manage correspondence and meetings, as well as edit thePhilosophical Transactions.[29][d]Also in 1686, Halley published the second part of the results from his Helenian expedition, being a paper and chart ontrade windsandmonsoons.The symbols he used to represent trailing winds still exist in most modern day weather chart representations. In this article he identified solar heating as the cause ofatmosphericmotions. He also established the relationship betweenbarometric pressureand height above sea level. His charts were an important contribution to the emerging field ofinformation visualisation.[30]

Halley spent most of his time on lunar observations, but was also interested in the problems ofgravity.One problem that attracted his attention was the proof ofKepler's laws of planetary motion.In August 1684, he went toCambridgeto discuss this withIsaac Newton,much as John Flamsteed had done four years earlier, only to find that Newton had solved the problem, at the instigation of Flamsteed with regard to the orbit of cometKirch,without publishing the solution. Halley asked to see the calculations and was told by Newton that he could not find them, but promised to redo them and send them on later, which he eventually did, in a short treatise titledOn the motion of bodies in an orbit.Halley recognised the importance of the work and returned to Cambridge to arrange its publication with Newton, who instead went on to expand it into hisPhilosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematicapublished at Halley's expense in 1687.[31]Halley's first calculations with comets were thereby for the orbit of comet Kirch, based on Flamsteed's observations in 1680–1681.[e]Although he was to accurately calculate the orbit of the comet of 1682, he was inaccurate in his calculations of the orbit of comet Kirch. They indicated a periodicity of 575 years, thus appearing in the years 531 and 1106, and presumably heraldingthe deathofJulius Caesarin a like fashion in 45 BC. It is now known to have an orbital period of circa 10,000 years.

In 1691, Halley built adiving bell,a device in which the atmosphere was replenished by way of weighted barrels of air sent down from the surface.[33]In a demonstration, Halley and five companions dived to 60 feet (18 m) in theRiver Thames,and remained there for over an hour and a half. Halley's bell was of little use for practical salvage work, as it was very heavy, but he made improvements to it over time, later extending his underwater exposure time to over 4 hours.[34]Halley suffered one of the earliest recorded cases of middle earbarotrauma.[33]That same year, at a meeting of the Royal Society, Halley introduced a rudimentary working model of a magneticcompassusing a liquid-filled housing to damp the swing and wobble of the magnetised needle.[35]

In 1691, Halley sought the post ofSavilian Professor of Astronomyat Oxford. While a candidate for the position, Halley faced the animosity of the Astronomer Royal, John Flamsteed, and theAnglican Churchquestioned his religious views,[f]largely on the grounds that he had doubted theEarth's ageas given in theBible.[36][g]After Flamsteed wrote to Newton to rally support against Halley, Newton wrote back in hopes of reconciliation, but was unsuccessful.[36]Halley's candidacy was opposed by both theArchbishop of Canterbury,John Tillotson,andBishop Stillingfleet,and the post went instead toDavid Gregory,who had Newton's support.[39]

In 1692, Halley put forth the idea of ahollow Earthconsisting of a shell about 500 miles (800 km) thick, two inner concentric shells and an innermost core.[40]He suggested that atmospheres separated these shells, and that each shell had its ownmagnetic poles,with each sphere rotating at a different speed. Halley proposed this scheme to explain anomalous compass readings. He envisaged each inner region as having anatmosphereand beingluminous(and possibly inhabited), and speculated that escaping gas caused theaurora borealis.[41]He suggested, "Auroral rays are due to particles, which are affected by the magnetic field, the rays parallel to Earth's magnetic field."[42]

In 1693 Halley published an article onlife annuities,which featured an analysis of age-at-death on the basis of theBreslaustatisticsCaspar Neumannhad been able to provide. This article allowed the British government to sell life annuities at an appropriate price based on the age of the purchaser. Halley's work strongly influenced the development ofactuarial science.The construction of the life-table for Breslau, which followed more primitive work byJohn Graunt,is now seen as a major event in the history ofdemography.

The Royal Society censured Halley for suggesting in 1694 that the story ofNoah's floodmight be an account of a cometary impact.[43][failed verification–see discussion]A similar theorywas independently suggested three centuries later, but is generally rejected by geologists.[44]

In 1696, Newton was appointed aswarden of the Royal Mintand nominated Halley as deputy comptroller of the Chester mint. Halley spent two years supervising coin production. While there, he caught two clerks pilfering precious metals. He and the local warden spoke out about the scheme, unaware that the local master of the mint was profiting from it.[45]

In 1698, the Czar of Russia (later known asPeter the Great) was on a visit to England, and hoped Newton would be available to entertain him. Newton sent Halley in his place. He and the Czar bonded over science and brandy. According to one disputed account, when both of them were drunk one night, Halley jovially pushed the Czar aroundDeptfordin a wheelbarrow.[46]

Exploration years[edit]

Halley's 1701 map showingisogonic linesof equal magnetic declination in the Atlantic Ocean.

In 1698, at the behest of KingWilliam III,Halley was given command of theParamour,a 52 feet (16 m)pink,so that he could carry out investigations in the South Atlantic into the laws governing thevariation of the compass,as well as to refine the coordinates of theEnglish colonies in the Americas.[47]On 19 August 1698, he took command of the ship and, in November 1698, sailed on what was the first purely scientific voyage by an English naval vessel. Unfortunately problems ofinsubordinationarose over questions of Halley's competence to command a vessel. Halley returned the ship to England to proceed against officers in July 1699. The result was a mild rebuke for his men, and dissatisfaction for Halley, who felt the court had been too lenient.[48]Halley thereafter received a temporary commission as a captain in theRoyal Navy,recommissioned theParamouron 24 August 1699 and sailed again in September 1699 to make extensive observations on the conditions of terrestrialmagnetism.This task he accomplished in a second Atlantic voyage which lasted until 6 September 1700, and extended from 52 degrees north to 52 degrees south. The results were published inGeneral Chart of the Variation of the Compass(1701).[9]This was the first such chart to be published and the first on whichisogonic,or Halleyan, lines appeared.[12][49]The use of such lines inspired later ideas such as those of isotherms byAlexander von Humboldtin his maps.[50]In 1701, Halley made a third and final voyage on theParamourto study the tides of theEnglish Channel.[51]In 1702, he was dispatched by QueenAnneon diplomatic missions to other European leaders.[51]

Comet-like plaque to Halley in the South Cloister ofWestminster Abbey

The preface toAwnsham and John Churchill's collection of voyages and travels (1704), supposedly written by John Locke or by Halley, valourised expeditions such as these as part of a grand expansion of European knowledge of the world:

What was cosmography before these discoveries, but an imperfect fragment of a science, scarce deserving so good a name? When all the known world was only Europe, a small part of Africk, and the lesser portion of Asia; so that of this terraqueous globe not one sixth part had ever been seen or heard of. Nay so great was the ignorance of man in this particular, that learned persons made a doubt of its being round; others no less knowing imagin'd all they were not acquainted with, desart and uninhabitable. But now geography and hydrography have receiv'd some perfection by the pains of so many mariners and travelers, who to evince the rotundity of the earth and water, have sail’d and travell'd round it, as has been here made appear; to show there is no part uninhabitable, unless the frozen polar regions, have visited all other countries, tho never so remote, which they have found well peopl'd, and most of them rich and delightful…. Astronomy has receiv'd the addition of many constellations never seen before. Natural and moral history is embelish'd with the most beneficial increase of so many thousands of plants it had never before receiv'd, so many drugs and spices, such variety of beasts, birds and fishes, such rarities in minerals, mountains and waters, such unaccountable diversity of climates and men, and in them of complexions, tempers, habits, manners, politicks, and religions…. To conclude, the empire of Europe is now extended to the utmost bounds of the earth, where several of its nations have conquests and colonies. These and many more are the advantages drawn from the labours of those, who expose themselves to the dangers of the vast ocean, and of unknown nations; which those who sit still at home abundantly reap in every kind: and the relation of one traveler is an incentive to stir up another to imitate him, whilst the rest of mankind, in their accounts without stirring a foot, compass the earth and seas, visit all countries, and converse with all nations.[52]

Edmond Halley's tombstone, re-positioned at theRoyal Observatory, Greenwich;he is not buried there, but atSt Margaret's, Lee,some 30 minutes' walk away to the south

Life as an academic[edit]

In November 1703, Halley was appointedSavilian Professor of Geometryat the University of Oxford, his theological enemies,John TillotsonandBishop Stillingfleethaving died. In 1705, applyinghistorical astronomymethods, he published the paperAstronomiae cometicae synopsis(A Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets); in this, he stated his belief that the comet sightings of 1456, 1531, 1607, and 1682 were of the same comet, and that it would return in 1758.[53][a]Halley did not live to witness the comet's return, but when it did, the comet became generally known as Halley's Comet.

By 1706 Halley had learnedArabicand completed the translation started byEdward Bernard[55]of Books V–VII ofApollonius'sConicsfrom copies found atLeidenand theBodleian Libraryat Oxford. He also completed a new translation of the first four books from the original Greek that had been started by the lateDavid Gregory.He published these along with his own reconstruction of Book VIII[56]in the first complete Latin edition in 1710. The same year, he received an honorary degree of doctor of laws from Oxford.[9]

In 1716, Halley suggested a high-precision measurement of the distance between the Earth and the Sun by timing thetransit of Venus.In doing so, he was following the method described byJames GregoryinOptica Promota(in which the design of theGregorian telescopeis also described). It is reasonable to assume Halley possessed and had read this book given that the Gregorian design was the principal telescope design used in astronomy in Halley's day.[57]It is not to Halley's credit that he failed to acknowledge Gregory's priority in this matter. In 1717–18 he discovered theproper motionof the "fixed" stars (publishing this in 1718)[58]by comparing hisastrometricmeasurements with those given in Ptolemy'sAlmagest.ArcturusandSiriuswere two noted to have moved significantly, the latter having progressed 30 arc minutes (about the diameter of the moon) southwards in 1800 years.[59]

In 1720, together with his friend theantiquarianWilliam Stukeley,Halley participated in the first attempt to scientifically dateStonehenge.Assuming that the monument had been laid out using a magnetic compass, Stukeley and Halley attempted to calculate the perceived deviation introducing corrections from existing magnetic records, and suggested three dates (460 BC, AD 220 and AD 920), the earliest being the one accepted. These dates were wrong by thousands of years, but the idea that scientific methods could be used to date ancient monuments was revolutionary in its day.[60]

Halley's grave

Halley succeeded John Flamsteed in 1720 as Astronomer Royal, a position Halley held until his death in 1742 at the age of 85.[14]He was buried in the graveyard of the old church of St Margaret's, Lee (since rebuilt), atLeeTerrace,Blackheath.[61]He was interred in the same vault as the Astronomer RoyalJohn Pond;the unmarked grave of the Astronomer RoyalNathaniel Blissis nearby.[62]His originaltombstonewas transferred by theAdmiraltywhen the original Lee church was demolished and rebuilt – it can be seen today on the southern wall of theCamera Obscuraat the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. His marked grave can be seen at St Margaret's Church, Lee Terrace.[63][64]

Despite the persistent misconception that Halley received aknighthood,it is not the case. The idea can be tracked back to American astronomical texts such asWilliam Augustus Norton's 1839An Elementary Treatise on Astronomy,possibly due to Halley's royal occupations and connections toSir Isaac Newton.[65]

Personal life[edit]

Halley married Mary Tooke in 1682 and settled inIslington.The couple had three children.[1]

Named after Edmond Halley[edit]

Halley's map of the path of theSolar eclipse of 3 May 1715across England

Pronunciation and spelling[edit]

There are three pronunciations of the surnameHalley.These are/ˈhæli/,/ˈheɪli/,and/ˈhɔːli/. As a personal surname, the most common pronunciation in the 21st century, both in Great Britain[4]and in the United States,[5]is/ˈhæli/(rhymes with "valley" ). This is the personal pronunciation used by most Halleys living in London today.[66] This is useful guidance but does not, of course, tell us how the name should be pronounced in the context of the astronomer or the comet. The alternative/ˈheɪli/is much more common in the latter context than it is when used as a modern surname. Colin Ronan,one of Halley's biographers, preferred/ˈhɔːli/.Contemporary accounts spell his nameHailey, Hayley, Haley, Haly, Halley, HawleyandHawly,and presumably pronunciations varied similarly.[67]

As for his given name, although the spelling "Edmund" is quite common, "Edmond" is what Halley himself used, according to a 1902 article,[2]though a 2007International Comet Quarterlyarticle disputes this, commenting that in his published works, he used "Edmund" 22 times and "Edmond" only 3 times,[68]with several other variations used as well, such as the Latinised "Edmundus". Much of the debate stems from the fact that, in Halley's own time, English spelling conventions were not yet standardised, and so he himself used multiple spellings.[3]

In popular media[edit]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^abThis was perhaps the first astronomical mystery solved using Newton's laws by a scientist other than Newton.[54]
  2. ^He wrote as late as 1716 in hopes of a future expedition to make these observations.[19]
  3. ^This contribution caused Flamsteed to nickname Halley "the southern Tycho".[24]Tycho had catalogued the stars observed byJohannes Hevelius.[25]
  4. ^For his payment, he was given 75 unsold copies of the Society's unsuccessful bookThe History of Fish,which it had depleted its funds on.[29]
  5. ^Halley asked Newton to obtain Flamsteed's observations for him, as his own relationship with the older astronomer had deteriorated.[32]
  6. ^"To what extent Halley's failure was due the animosity of John Flamsteed or to his stout defence [sic] of his religious belief that not every iota of scripture was necessarily divinely inspired is still a matter of some argument. All Oxford appointees had to assent to the Articles of Religion and be approved by theChurch of England.Halley's religious views could not have been too outlandish because the University was happy to grant him another chair 12 years later.... Halley held liberal religious views and was very outspoken. He believed in having a reverent but questioning attitude towards the eternal problems and had little sympathy for those who unquestioningly accepted dogma. He was certainly not an atheist. "Hughes 1985,pp. 198, 201.
  7. ^Halley had noticed that observable geological processes take much longer than implied by theGenesis flood narrative.In attempt toexplainthe biblical account, Halley had theorized that the gravity of a passing comet could have suddenly raised the oceans in a certain area.[37]Following his failure to obtain the professorship, he investigated oceansalinityas an indicator of the Earth's age, since salt is carried to the ocean by rivers. He estimated the Earth to be over 100 million years old.[38]

References[edit]

  1. ^abcCook, Alan(2012) [2004]. "Halley, Edmond".Oxford Dictionary of National Biography(online ed.). Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/12011.(Subscription orUK public library membershiprequired.)
  2. ^abThe Times(London)Notes and QueriesNo. 254, 8 November 1902 p.36
  3. ^abHughes, David W.; Green, Daniel W. E. (January 2007)."Halley's First Name: Edmond or Edmund"(PDF).International Comet Quarterly.29.Harvard University:14.Bibcode:2007ICQ....29....7H.Might we suggest... simply recogniz[ing] both forms, noting that—in the days when Halley lived—there was no rigid'correct' spelling,and that this particular astronomer seemed to prefer the 'u' over the 'o' in his published works.
  4. ^abJones, Daniel;Gimson, Alfred C.(1977) [1917].Everyman's English Pronunciation Dictionary.Everyman's Reference Library (14 ed.). London: J. M. Dent & Sons.ISBN0-460-03029-9.
  5. ^abKenyon, John S.;Knott, Thomas A. (1953).A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English.Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Inc.ISBN0-87779-047-7.
  6. ^The source of the dates of birth and death is a biography of Edmond Halley written shortly after his death: Biographia Britannica, vol. 4, 1757, pp. 2494–2520. On his tombstone at Lee near Greenwich his year of birth and his year of death were inscribed as follows: Natus est A.C. MDCLVI. Mortuus est A.C. MDCCXLI. Before 1752 the Julian calendar was used in England. Also, the year began on 25 March.
  7. ^"Halley, Edmond".astro.uni-bonn.de.
  8. ^Gribbin & Gribbin (2017),p. 267.
  9. ^abcdClerke, Agnes Mary(1911)."Halley, Edmund".InChisholm, Hugh(ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 856.
  10. ^abSagan & Druyan 1997,p. 40.
  11. ^Sagan & Druyan 1997,pp. 40–41.
  12. ^abCook, Alan(1998).Edmond Halley: Charting the Heavens and the Seas.Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 54–59, 282.ISBN0198500319.
  13. ^abSagan & Druyan 1997,p. 41.
  14. ^abBBC."Edmond Halley (1656–1742)".Retrieved28 March2017.
  15. ^Sagan & Druyan 1997,p. 42.
  16. ^Cook, Alan(2003)."Edmond Halley and Visual Representation in Natural Philosophy".In Lefèvre, Wolfgang; Renn, Jürgen; Schoepflin, Urs (eds.).The Power of Images in Early Modern Science.Basel: Birkhäuser. pp. 251–262.doi:10.1007/978-3-0348-8099-2_13.ISBN978-3-0348-8099-2.
  17. ^Ridpath, Ian."Edmond Halley's southern star catalogue".Star Tales.Retrieved22 February2022.
  18. ^Jeremiah Horrocks, William Crabtree, and the Lancashire observations of the transit of Venus of 1639, Allan Chapman 2004 Cambridge University Pressdoi:10.1017/S1743921305001225
  19. ^Sagan & Druyan 1997,p. 60.
  20. ^abKanas, Nick (2012).Star Maps: History, Artistry, and Cartography(2nd ed.). Chichester, U.K.: Springer. p. 123.ISBN978-1-4614-0917-5.
  21. ^Sagan & Druyan 1997,p. 45.
  22. ^O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (January 2000)."Edmond Halley - Biography".Maths History.Archivedfrom the original on 10 August 2020.Retrieved28 June2021.
  23. ^Sharp, Tim (11 December 2018)."Edmond Halley: An Extraordinary Scientist and the Second Astronomer Royal".Space.Archivedfrom the original on 14 February 2014.Retrieved28 June2021.
  24. ^abHughes 1985,p. 202.
  25. ^abJones, Harold Spencer(1957)."Halley as an Astronomer".Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London.12(2): 175–192.doi:10.1098/rsnr.1957.0008.ISSN0035-9149.JSTOR530833.S2CID202574705.
  26. ^Sagan & Druyan 1997,p. 44.
  27. ^Sagan & Druyan 1997,p. 48.
  28. ^Lancaster-Brown, Peter (1985).Halley & His Comet.Blandford Press. pp. 76–78.ISBN0-7137-1447-6.
  29. ^abSagan & Druyan 1997,p. 56.
  30. ^Halley E. (1686), "An Historical Account of the Trade Winds, and Monsoons, Observable in the Seas between and Near the Tropicks, with an Attempt to Assign the Phisical Cause of the Said Winds",Philosophical Transactions,16:153–168doi:10.1098/rstl.1686.0026
  31. ^Peter Ackroyd.Newton.Great Britain: Chatto and Windus, 2006.
  32. ^Sagan & Druyan 1997,p. 64.
  33. ^abEdmonds, Carl; Lowry, C; Pennefather, John."History of Diving".South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal.5(2). Archived from the original on 14 October 2010.Retrieved17 March2009.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  34. ^"History: Edmond Halley".London Diving Chamber.Retrieved6 December2006.
  35. ^Gubbins, David,Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism,Springer Press (2007),ISBN1-4020-3992-1,ISBN978-1-4020-3992-8,p. 67
  36. ^abSagan & Druyan 1997,p. 62.
  37. ^Sagan & Druyan 1997,p. 59.
  38. ^Sagan & Druyan 1997,p. 63.
  39. ^Derek Gjertsen,The Newton Handbook,ISBN0-7102-0279-2,pg 250
  40. ^Halley, E. (1692)."An account of the cause of the change of the variation of the magnetic needle; with an hypothesis of the structure of the internal parts of the earth".Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.16(179–191): 470–478.
  41. ^Carroll, Robert Todd(13 February 2006)."hollow Earth".Skeptic's Dictionary.Retrieved23 July2006.
  42. ^"10 Illuminating Facts about the Northern Lights".Oceanwide Expeditions.Retrieved24 August2018.
  43. ^V. Clube and B. Napier,The Cosmic SerpentLondon: Faber and Faber, 1982.
  44. ^Deutsch, A., C. Koeberl, J.D. Blum, B.M. French, B.P. Glass, R. Grieve, P. Horn, E.K. Jessberger, G. Kurat, W.U. Reimold, J. Smit, D. Stöffler, and S.R. Taylor, 1994,The impact-flood connection: Does it exist?Terra Nova. v. 6, pp. 644–650.
  45. ^Sagan & Druyan 1997,p. 67.
  46. ^Sagan & Druyan 1997,pp. 67–68.
  47. ^Sagan & Druyan 1997,p. 68.
  48. ^Halley, Edmond (1982).The Three Voyages of Edmond Halley in the Paramore, 1698–1701.UK: Hakluyt Society. pp. 129–131.ISBN0-904180-02-6.
  49. ^Cook, Alan (2001)."Edmond Halley and the Magnetic Field of the Earth".Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London.55(3): 473–490.doi:10.1098/rsnr.2001.0158.ISSN0035-9149.JSTOR531953.S2CID122788971.
  50. ^Robinson, A. H.; Wallis, Helen M. (1967)."Humboldt's Map of Isothermal Lines: A Milestone in Thematic Cartography".The Cartographic Journal.4(2): 119–123.Bibcode:1967CartJ...4..119R.doi:10.1179/caj.1967.4.2.119.ISSN0008-7041.
  51. ^abSagan & Druyan 1997,p. 70.
  52. ^Halley or Locke,'A Collection of Voyages and Travels, some now first printed from manuscript',Preface,p.lxxiii
  53. ^Sagan & Druyan 1997,pp. 66–67.
  54. ^Sagan & Druyan 1997,p. 66.
  55. ^M.B. Hall, 'Arabick Learning in the Correspondence of the Royal Society, 1660–1677',The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in 17th-Century England,p.154
  56. ^Michael N. Fried, 'Edmond Halley's Reconstruction of the Lost Book of Apollonius's Conics: Translation and Commentary', Spring 2011
  57. ^Wakefield, Julie; Press, Joseph Henry (2005).Halley's Quest: A Selfless Genius and His Troubled Paramore.USA: National Academies Press.ISBN0309095948.Retrieved5 January2015.
  58. ^Aitken, Robert G.(October 1942)."Edmund Halley and Stellar Proper Motions".Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets.4(164). SAO/NASAAstrophysics Data System(ADS): 108.Bibcode:1942ASPL....4..103A.Retrieved27 June2021– via Harvard.edu.
  59. ^Holberg, Jay B. (2007).Sirius: Brightest Diamond in the Night Sky.Chichester, UK: Praxis Publishing. pp. 41–42.ISBN978-0-387-48941-4.
  60. ^Johnson, Anthony,Solving Stonehenge, The New Key to an Ancient Enigma(Thames & Hudson 2008)ISBN978-0-500-05155-9
  61. ^"Location of Edmond Halley's tomb".shadyoldlady.The Shady Old Lady's guide to London.Retrieved5 January2015.
  62. ^Halley's gravesite is in a cemetery at the junction of Lee Terrace and Brandram Road, across from the Victorian Parish Church of St Margaret. The cemetery is a 30-minute walk from theGreenwich Observatory.
  63. ^"Photograph of Edmond Halley's Tombstone".flamsteed.org.Flamsteed Society.Retrieved5 January2015.
  64. ^Redfern, Dave (Summer 2004).Doing the Halley Walk(Issue 14 ed.). London: Horizons.Retrieved5 January2015.
  65. ^Rosenfeld, Randall; Edgar, James (2010)."2010JRASC.104...28R Page 28".Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.104(1): 28.Bibcode:2010JRASC.104...28R.Retrieved23 May2022.
  66. ^Ian Ridpath."Saying Hallo to Halley".Retrieved8 November2011.
  67. ^"Science: Q&A".The New York Times.14 May 1985.Retrieved8 November2011.
  68. ^Hughes, David W.; Green, Daniel W. E. (January 2007)."Halley's First Name: Edmond or Edmund"(PDF).International Comet Quarterly.29.Harvard University:7.Bibcode:2007ICQ....29....7H.
  69. ^"Longitude © (1999)".Retrieved22 June2021.
  70. ^"Guide Profile: Bill Haley".Oldies.about. Archived fromthe originalon 21 January 2012.Retrieved8 November2011.

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