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Effects unit

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Not to be confused withSoftware effect processor.
A pedalboard allows a performer to create a ready-to-use chain of multiple pedals to achieve certain types of sounds.Signal chainorder:tuner,compressor,octave generator,wah-wah pedal,overdrive,distortion,fuzz,EQandtremolo.

Aneffects unit,effects processor,oreffects pedalis an electronic device that alters the sound of amusical instrumentor other audio source throughaudio signal processing.

Common effects includedistortion/overdrive,often used with electric guitar inelectric bluesandrock music;dynamiceffects such asvolume pedalsandcompressors,which affectloudness;filterssuch aswah-wah pedalsandgraphic equalizers,which modify frequency ranges;modulationeffects, such aschorus,flangersandphasers;pitcheffects such aspitch shifters;and time effects, such asreverbanddelay,which create echoing sounds and emulate the sound of different spaces.[1][2]

Most modern effects usesolid-state electronicsordigital signal processors.Some effects, particularly older ones such asLeslie speakersandspring reverbs,use mechanical components orvacuum tubes.Effects are often used asstompboxes,typically placed on the floor and controlled with footswitches. They may also be built intoguitar amplifiers,instruments (such as theHammond B-3organ),tabletop unitsdesigned for DJs and record producers, andrackmounts,and are widely used asaudio plug-insin such common formats asVST,AAX,andAU.

Musicians,audio engineersand record producers use effects units during live performances or in the studio, typically with electric guitar, bass guitar,electronic keyboardorelectric piano.While effects are most frequently used withelectric or electronic instruments,they can be used with any audio source, such asacousticinstruments, drums, and vocals.[3][4]

Terminology[edit]

Various type of guitar and bass effect pedals.

An effects unit is also called aneffect box,effects device,effects processoror simply aneffect.The abbreviationF/XorFXis sometimes used. A pedal-style unit may be called astomp box,stompbox,effects pedalorpedal.Unprocessed audio coming into an effects unit is referred to asdry,while the processed audio output is referred to aswet.[5]

A musician bringing many pedals to a live show or recording session often mounts the pedals on aguitar pedalboard,to reduce set-up and tear-down time and, for pedalboards with lids, protect the pedals during transportation. When a musician has multiple effects in arack mountedroad case,this case may be called aneffects rackorrig.When rackmounted effects are mounted in a roadcase, this also speeds up a musician's set-up and tear-down time, because all of the effects can be connected together inside the rack case.

Form factors[edit]

Effects units are available in a variety ofform factors.Stompboxes are used in both live performance and studio recording. Rackmount devices saw a heavy usage during the later 20th century, due to their superior processing power and desirable tones as compared to pedal-style units. However, by the 21st century, with the advent of digital plugins and more powerful stompboxes for live usage, the use of rack-mounted effect units has declined.[6][failed verification]An effects unit can consist ofanalogordigital electronicsor a combination of the two. During a live performance, the effect is plugged into the electricalsignalpath of the instrument. In the studio, an instrument or another sound source — possibly anauxiliary outputof amixeror aDAW— is patched into the effect.[7][8]Whatever the form factor, effects units are part of a studio or musician'soutboard gear.[9]

Stompboxes[edit]

Ibanez Tube ScreamerTS9 overdrive pedal

Stompboxes are small plastic or metal chassis that usually lie on the floor or in apedalboardto be operated by the user's feet. Pedals are often rectangle-shaped, but there are a range of other shapes (e.g., the circularFuzz Face). Typical simple stompboxes have a single footswitch, one to threepotentiometersfor controlling the effect, and a singleLEDthat indicates if the effect is on. A typical distortion or overdrive pedal's three potentiometers, for example, control the level or intensity of the distortion effect, the tone of the effected signal and the output level of the effected signal. Depending on the type of pedal, the potentiometers may control different parameters of the effect. For achorus effect,for example, the knobs may control the depth and speed of the effect. Complex stompboxes may have multiple footswitches, many knobs, additional switches or buttons that are operated with the fingers, and an Alpha numericLEDdisplay that indicates the status of the effect with short acronyms (e.g., DIST for "distortion" ).[6][10]

An example of aneffects chain.
From the input [right] to the output [left]:
  • Tuner[upper right] (tc electronic Polytune)⇒
  • Wah pedal[lower right] (Morley Bad Horsie Wah)⇒
  • Overdrives/distortion[lower row] (Rocktron Short Timer Delay → Danelectro CTO-1 Transparent Overdrive → Boss HM-2 → Boss MT-2)⇒
  • Modulations/delay[upper row] (Digitech Hyper Phase → Danelectro CV-1 Vibe → Danelectro CT Tremolo → Digitech Hyper Delay)

Aneffects chainis formed by connecting two or more stompboxes forming asignal chain.Effect chains are typically created between the guitar and the amp or between thepreamplifierand the power amp. When a pedal is off or inactive, the electricaudio signalcoming into the pedal diverts onto abypass,an unaltereddrysignal that continues on to other effects down the chain. In this way, a musician can combine effects within a chain in a variety of ways without having to reconnect boxes during a performance.[11] Acontrolleroreffects management systemlets the musician create multiple effect chains, so they can select one or several chains by tapping a single switch. The switches are usually organized in a row or a simple grid.[12]

It is common to putcompression,wahandoverdrivepedals at the start of the chain; modulation (chorus,flanger,phase shifter) in the middle; and time-based units (delay/echo,reverbat the end.[13]When using many effects, unwanted noise and hum can be introduced into the sound. Some performers use anoise gate pedalat the end of a chain to reduce unwanted noise and hum introduced by overdrive units or vintage gear.[14]

Rackmounts[edit]

Rackmounted effects in road cases. These road cases have the front protective panels removed so the units can be operated. The protective panels are put back on and latched shut to protect the effects during transportation.
TheEventideHE3000 Ultra-Harmonizer pictured here displays the entire name of an effect or setting, which helps users to find their preferred settings and effects.

Rackmount effects units are typically built in a thin metal chassis withrack earsdesigned to be screw-mounted into the rack rails of a19-inch rackthat is standard to themusic technologyindustry. Rackmount effects have a standardized 19-inch width, and height of 1 or morerack unit(s).Devices that are less than 19 inches wide can sometimes be made rackmount-compatible via special rackmount adapters.[15]

A rackmount effects unit may containelectronic circuitryidentical to a stompbox's, although its circuits are typically more complex. Unlike stompboxes, rackmounts usually have several different types of effects.[16]Rackmount effects units are controlled by knobs, switches or buttons on their front panel, and often remote-controllable by aMIDIdigital control interface or pedal-stylefoot controller.[17]

Rackmount effects units are most commonly used in recording studios andfront of houselive sound mi xingsituations. Musicians may use them in place of stompboxes, as use of a rack can offer space for conveniently mounting additional rackmount equipment or accessories. Rackmounted effects units are typically mounted in a rack, which may be housed within aroad case,a durable case with removable access panels that protect the equipment within during transportation. Because of this, rackmount effect units are not always designed with durable protective features such as corner protectors which are used on stompboxes and amps that are designed to be transported as standalone units.

Multi-effects and tabletop units[edit]

BossME-5 multi-effects from 1988 included several pedal effects in one unit, with the ability to write and recall presets.

A multi-effects (MFX) device is a single electronics effects pedal or rackmount device that contains many different electronic effects. multi-effects devices allow users topresetcombinations of different effects, allowing musicians quick on-stage access to different effects combinations.[18]Multi-effects units typically have a range of distortion, chorus, flanger, phaser, delay, looper and reverb effects. Pedal-style multi-effects range from fairly inexpensive stompboxes that contain two pedals and a few knobs to control the effects to large, expensive floor units with many pedals and knobs. Rack-mounted multi-effects units may be mounted in the same rack as preamplifiers and power amplifiers.

A tabletop unit is a type of multi-effects device that sits on a desk and is controlled manually. One such example is thePodguitar amplifier modeler. Digital effects designed for DJs are often sold in tabletop models, so that the units can be placed alongside aDJ mixer,turntables andscratchinggear.[19]

Built-in units[edit]

A 1968Fender Bandmasteramplifier. Note the four inputs, two for regular sound and two which are run through the onboardtremoloeffect unit.

Effects are often incorporated intoinstrument amplifiersand even some types of instruments. Electricguitar amplifiersoften have built-inreverb,chorus anddistortion,while acoustic guitar andkeyboard amplifierstend to only have built-in reverb. Some acoustic instrument amplifiers have reverb, chorus, compression and equalization (bass and treble) effects. Vintage guitar amps typically havetremoloandvibratoeffects, and sometimes reverb. The Fender Bandmaster Reverb amp, for example, had built-in reverb and vibrato. Built-in effects may offer the user less control than standalone pedals or rackmounted units. For example, on some lower- to mid-pricedbass amplifiers,the only control on theaudio compressioneffect is a button or switch to turn it on or off, or a single knob. In contrast, a pedal or rackmounted unit would typically provide ratio, threshold and attack controls or other options to allow the user additional control over the compression.

Some guitar amplifiers have built-in multi-effects units or digitalamplifier modelingeffects. Bass amplifiers are less likely to have built-in effects, although some may have acompressor/limiterorfuzz basseffect.[20][better source needed]

Instruments with built-in effects includeHammond organs,electronic organs,electronic pianosanddigital synthesizers.[21]Built-in effects for keyboards typically include reverb, chorus and, for Hammond organ, vibrato. Manyclonewheel organsinclude an overdrive effect. Occasionally, acoustic-electric and electric guitars will have built-in effects, such as a preamp or equalizer.[22][23]

History[edit]

Studio effects and early stand-alone units[edit]

The earliest sound effects were strictly used in studio productions. Microphones placed inecho chamberswith specially designed acoustic properties simulated the sound of live performances in different environments. In the mid to late 1940s,recording engineersand experimental musicians such asLes Paulbegan manipulatingreel-to-reel recording tapeto create echo effects and unusual, futuristic sounds.[24][25]In 1941,DeArmondreleased the Model 601 Tremolo Control,[26]the first commercially available stand-alone effects unit. This device produced a tremolo by passing an instrument's electrical signal through a water-based electrolytic fluid.[27]Most stand-alone effects of the 1950s and early 1960s such as the Gibson GA-VI vibrato unit and the Fender reverb box, were expensive and impractical, requiring bulkytransformersand highvoltages.The original stand-alone units were not especially in-demand as many effects came built into amplifiers. The first popular stand-alone was the 1958Watkins Copicat,a relatively portabletape echo effectmade famous by the British band,The Shadows.[28][29]

Amplifiers[edit]

AFender VibroluxReverb amp and a ROSS amp

Effects built intotube-powered guitar amplifierswere the first effects that musicians used regularly outside the studio. From the late 1940s onward, theGibsonbegan includingvibratocircuits incombo amplifiersthat incorporated one or more speakers with the amp. The 1950 Ray Butts EchoSonic amp was the first to feature atape echo,[30]which quickly became popular with guitarists such asChet Atkins,Carl Perkins,Scotty Moore,Luther Perkins,andRoy Orbison.[31]BothPremierand Gibson built amplifiers withspring reverb.Fenderbegan manufacturing the tremolo amps Tremolux in 1955 and Vibrolux in 1956.[32]

Distortionwas not an effect originally intended by amplifier manufacturers, but could often easily be achieved byoverdrivingthe power supply in earlytube amplifiers.In the 1950s, guitarists began deliberately increasinggainbeyond its intended levels to achievewarmdistorted sounds.[33]Among the first musicians to experiment with distortion wereWillie JohnsonofHowlin' Wolf,[33]Goree Carter,[34]Joe Hill Louis,[35][36]Ike Turner,[37]Guitar Slim,[38]andChuck Berry.[39]

In 1954,Pat Hareproduced heavily distortedpower chordsfor several recordings (includingJames Cotton's "Cotton Crop Blues" ), creating "a grittier, nastier, more ferocious electric guitar sound,"[40]accomplished by turning the volume knob on his amplifier "all the way to the right until the speaker was screaming."[41]Link Wray's 1958 recording "Rumble"inspired young musicians such asPete TownshendofThe Who,Jimmy PageofLed Zeppelin,Jeff Beck,Dave DaviesofThe Kinks,andNeil Youngto explore distortion by various means.[42]In 1966, the British companyMarshall Amplificationbegan producing the Marshall 1963, a guitar amplifier capable of producing the distortedcrunchthat rock musicians were starting to seek.[43][44]

Stompboxes[edit]

TheFuzz Faceeffect pedal

The electronictransistorfinally made it possible to fit effects circuitry into highly portable stompbox units. Transistors replacedvacuum tubes,allowing for much more compact formats and greater stability. The first transistorized guitar effect was the 1962 Maestro Fuzz Tone pedal, which became a sensation after its use in the 1965 Rolling Stones hit "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction".[45][46]

Warwick Electronics manufactured the firstwah-wah pedal,[47]The Clyde McCoy, in 1967 and that same year Roger Mayer developed the firstoctave effect,which Jimi Hendrix named "Octavio".[48]Upon first hearing the Octavia, Hendrix reportedly rushed back to the studio and immediately used it to record the guitar solos on "Purple Haze"and"Fire".[49]In 1968,Univoxbegan marketing Shin-ei'sUni-Vibepedal, an effect designed by noted audio engineer Fumio Mieda that mimicked the oddphase shiftandchoruseffects of theLeslie rotating speakersused inHammond organs.The pedals soon became favorite effects of guitaristsJimi HendrixandRobin Trower.In 1976,RolandsubsidiaryBoss Corporationreleased the CE-1 Chorus Ensemble, the firstchorus pedal,created by taking a chorus circuit from anamplifierand putting it into astompbox.[50]By the mid-1970s a variety of solid-state effects pedals includingflangers,chorus pedals,ring modulatorsandphase shifterswere available.[51][52]

SeveralBosspedals connected together.

In the 1980s, digitalrackmountunits began replacing stompboxes as the effects format of choice. Often musicians would recorddry,unaltered tracks in the studio and effects would be added in post-production.[citation needed]The success ofNirvana's 1991 albumNevermindhelped to re-ignite interest in stompboxes. Somegrungeguitarists would chain several fuzz pedals together and plug them into atube amplifier.[53]Throughout the 1990s, musicians committed to alo-fiaesthetic such asJ MascisofDinosaur Jr.,Stephen MalkmusofPavementandRobert PollardofGuided by Voicescontinued to useanalogeffects pedals.[54]

Effects and effects units—stompboxes in particular—have been celebrated by pop and rock musicians in album titles, songs and band names. TheBig Muff,afuzzboxmanufactured byElectro-Harmonix,[55]is commemorated by theDepeche Modesong "Big Muff"and theMudhoneyEPSuperfuzz Bigmuff.Nine Inch Nails,Pink Floyd,George Harrison,They Might Be GiantsandJoy Divisionare among the many musicians who have referenced effects units in their music.[56]

Techniques[edit]

For broader coverage of this topic, seeSound effect § Techniques.
Jim O’Rourkekneeling while operating two stompboxes with his hands

Distortion[edit]

Main article:Distortion (music)
Distortion effect
Electric guitar played firstclean(no effects), then with distortion pedal.
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Clippingan instrument'saudio signalproduces distortion

Distortion, overdrive, and fuzz effects units add awarm,gritty,orfuzzycharacter to an audio signal by re-shaping orclippingit, whichdistortsthe shape of itswaveformby flattening its peaks, creatingwarmsounds by addingharmonicsorgrittysounds by addinginharmonicovertones. Distortion effects are sometimes calledgaineffects, as distorted guitar sounds were first achieved by increasing the gain oftube amplifiers.[57][58][59]

While distortion effects units produce perfectly flattened peaks orhardclipping, overdrive effects units producesofttube-like distortion by compressing the waveform without completely flattening it. Much like guitar tube amplifiers, overdrive effects units are capable of producingcleansounds at lower volumes and distortedwarmsounds at higher volumes.[60][61]

Notableexamples of distortion and overdrive pedalsinclude theBoss DS-1Distortion,Ibanez Tube Screamer,Marshall ShredMaster,MXR Distortion +,andPro Co RAT.

A fuzz pedal, or fuzzbox, is a type of overdrive effects unit that clips a signal until it is nearly asquarewave,resulting in a heavily distorted orfuzzysound.[59][62]Fuzzboxes may containfrequency multipliercircuitry to achieve a harshtimbreby adding complexharmonics.[63][64]The Rolling Stones' song "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction",with a fuzz effect featured prominently on the main electric guitar riff played by Keith Richards, greatly popularized the use of fuzz effects.[65]Fuzz bass(also called bass overdrive) is a style of playing the electric bass that produces a buzzy, overdriven sound via a tube or transistor amp or by using a fuzz or overdrive pedal.

Notable examples of fuzz effect units include the:Arbiter Fuzz Face,Electro-Harmonix Big Muff,Shin-ei Companion FY-2,Univox Super-Fuzz,Vox Tone Bender,Z.Vex Fuzz Factory.

While distortion effect units are most associated with electric and bass guitar, they are also commonly used on keyboard instruments (i.e.synthesizers,comboandtonewheel organs,electric piano), as well as drums and vocals.

Dynamics[edit]

A rack ofrackmountaudio compressors in a recording studio. From top to bottom: Retro Instruments/Gates STA level; Spectra Sonic; Dbx 162; Dbx 165; Empirical Labs Distressor; Smart Research C2; Chandler Limited TG1; Daking FET (91579); and Altec 436c.

Also called volume andamplitudeeffects, dynamics effects modify the volume of an instrument. Dynamics effects were among the first effects introduced to guitarists.[1]

Boost/volume pedal:When activated, aboostorclean boostpedal amplifies the volume of an instrument by increasing theamplitudeof itsaudio signal.These units are generally used forboostingvolume during solos and preventing signal loss in long effects chains. A guitarist switching from rhythm guitar to lead guitar for aguitar solomay use a boost to increase the volume of their solo.[66]

Volume effects:Electro-HarmonixLPB-1, Fender Volume Pedal,MXRMicro Amp,Ernie BallVolume Pedal.Treadle-based volume pedals are used by electric instrument players (guitar, bass, keyboards) to adjust the volume of their instrument with one foot while their hands are being used to play their instrument. Treadle-style volume pedals are often also used to create swelling effects by removing the attack of a note or chord, as popularised bypedal steel guitarplayers. This enables electric guitar and pedal steel players to imitate the soft swelling sound that an orchestrastring sectioncan produce, in which a note or chord starts very softly and then grows in volume. Treadle-based volume pedals do not usually have batteries or require external power.

Compressor:Compressors make loud sounds quieter and quiet sounds louder by decreasing orcompressingthedynamic rangeof anaudio signal.[67]A compressor is often used to stabilize volume and alter the sound of a note'sattack.With extreme settings of its controls, a compressor can function as alimiter.[68]

Compressor effects:Keeley Compressor,MXR Dyna Comp,Boss CS-3 Compression Sustainer.

Noise gate:Noise gatesattenuatehum, hiss, and static in the signal by greatly diminishing the volume when the signal falls below a set threshold. Noise gates areexpanders—meaning that, unlike compressors, they increase thedynamic rangeof anaudio signalto make quiet sounds even quieter.[67]If used with extreme settings and combined with reverb, they can create unusual sounds, such as thegated drum effectused in 1980s pop songs, a style popularized by thePhil CollinssongIn the Air Tonight.[69][70]

Noise gate effects:Boss NS-2 Noise Suppressor.

Filter[edit]

Filter effects alter thefrequencycontent of anaudio signalthat passes through them by either boosting or weakening specific frequencies or frequency regions.

Equalizer:An equalizer is a set oflinear filtersthat strengthen (boost) or weaken (cut) specificfrequencyregions. While basichome stereosoften have equalizers for two bands, to adjust bass and treble, professionalgraphic equalizersoffer much more targeted control over the audio frequency spectrum.[71]Audio engineersuse highly sophisticated equalizers to eliminate unwanted sounds, make an instrument or voice more prominent, and enhance particular aspects of an instrument's tone.[72]

Equalizer effects:Boss GE-7 Equalizer,MXR10-band EQ Pedal.

Peter Frampton'sTalk box.

Talk box:A talk box directs the sound from an electric guitar or synthesizer into the mouth of a performer using a tube, allowing the sound to be shaped intovowelsandconsonantswith movements of the mouth. The modified sound is then picked up by a microphone. In this way, the guitarist is able create the effect that the guitar is talking. Some famous uses of the talkbox includeBon Jovi's "Livin' on a Prayer",Stevie Wonder's "Black Man",Mötley Crüe's "Kickstart My Heart",Joe Walsh's "Rocky Mountain Way",Alice in Chains's "Man in the box"andPeter Frampton's "Show Me the Way".[73][74]

Talk boxes:Dunlop HT1 Heil Talk Box,Rocktron Banshee.

Thomas Organ Cry BabyWah-wah pedal(1970) manufactured by JEN.

Wah-wah:A wah-wah pedal creates vowel-like sounds by altering thefrequency spectrumproduced by an instrument—i.e., how loud it is at each separatefrequency—in what is known as aspectral glideorsweep.[75]The device is operated by a foot treadle that manipulates apotentiometeror other electronic control. Wah-wah pedals are often used byfunkand rock guitarists.[76]

Wah effects:Dunlop Cry Baby,[77]Morley Power Wah,Vox.[78]

Auto-wahor, more generally, envelope filter effects: A filter effect that is controlled by the volume of the input signal.[79]The most common filter type used for this effect pedal is the low-pass filter, although many designs include a toggle for band-pass or high-pass filters as well. Additionally, some designs can switch between a down filter mode and an up filter. This effect is commonly used in funk, reggae and jam band music.

Envelope filter effects:Musitronics Mu-Tron III,Electro-Harmonix Q-Tron Plus,[80]DOD Envelope Filter 440.[81]

Modulation[edit]

Chorus effect
Chorus effect on guitar, coming from an Electro-Harmonix Small Clone
Flanging effect
A short synthesizer sample followed by two flanging versions
Phaser effect
Unprocessed organ followed by different phasing effects
Ring modulation effect
Bell-like sound
Tremolo effect
A low-frequency oscillator modulating a tremolo (synthesizer)
Vibrato effect
A low-frequency oscillator modulating a vibrato (synthesizer)
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Modulation,in general electronics, means the altering of on signal based on another. In audio devices, modulation is a control feature that varies the strength or other attribute of an effect over time to alter tonal properties. Some modulation effects modulate an instrument'saudio signalwith a signal generated by the effect called acarrier wave.[82]Other modulation effects split an instrument's audio signal in two, altering one portion of the signal and mi xing it with the unaltered portion.[83]

Chorus:Chorus pedals mimic the effectchoirsandstring orchestrasproduce naturally, by having slight variations in timbre and pitch, by mi xing sounds with slight differences intimbreandpitch.A chorus effect splits the instrument-to-amplifieraudio signal,and adds a slight delay andfrequencyvariations orvibratoto part of the signal while leaving the rest unaltered.[83][84]A well-known usage of chorus is the lead guitar in "Come As You Are"byNirvana.[68]

Chorus effects:Boss CE-1 Chorus Ensemble,Electro-HarmonixSmall Clone,TC ElectronicStereo Chorus.

Flanger:A flanger creates a "whooshing" "jet plane" or "spaceship" sound, simulating a studio effect that was first produced by recording a track on two synchronizedtapesand periodically slowing one tape by pressing the edge of its reel (the "flange" ). When the two tapes'audio signalsare later mixed, acomb filtereffect can be heard. Flanger units add a variably delayed version of the audio signal to the original or signal, creating a comb filter orDoppler effect.[85][86]Some famous uses of flanger effects include "Walking on the Moon"byThe Police,the intro to "Ain't Talkin' 'Bout Love"byVan Halen,and "Barracuda"byHeart.[87][88]

Flanger effects:Electro-HarmonixElectric Mistress,MXRFlanger,Boss BF-3 Flanger.

An MXR-101 Phaser pedal

Phaser:A phaser or "phase shifter" creates a slight rippling effect—amplifying some aspects of the tone while diminishing others—by splitting anaudio signalin two and altering thephaseof one portion. Three well-known examples of phaser are thetwo handed tappingpart on the Van Halen instrumental "Eruption"and the keyboard parts onBilly Joel's "Just the Way You Are"andPaul Simon's "Slip Slidin' Away".[89]

Phase shift effects:Uni-Vibe,Electro-HarmonixSmall Stone,MXR Phase 90.

Ring modulator:A ring modulator produces a resonant, metallic sound by mi xing an instrument'saudio signalwith acarrier wavegenerated by the device's internaloscillator.The original sound wave is suppressed and replaced by a "ring" ofinharmonichigher and lowerpitchesor "sidebands".[82][90]A notable use ofring modulationis the guitar in theBlack Sabbathsong "Paranoid".[91]

Ring modulator effects:Moogerfooger MF-102 Ring Modulator.

Tremolo:A tremolo effect produces a slight, rapid variation in the volume of a note or chord. The "tremolo effect" should not be confused with the misleadingly-namedtremolo bar,a device on a guitar bridge that creates avibratoor pitch-bending effect. Intransistorizedeffects, a tremolo is produced by modulating an instrument'saudio signalwith asub-audiblecarrier wave in such a way that generatesamplitudevariations in the sound wave.[92][93]Tremolo effects are built-in effects in some vintageguitar amplifiers.The guitar intro in theRolling Stones' "Gimme Shelter"features a tremolo effect.[94]

Tremolo effects: Demeter TRM-1 Tremulator,Fender Tremolux.

Slicer:Combines amodulationsequence with anoise gateorenvelope filterto create a percussive and rhythmic effect like a helicopter.[95]

Vibrato:Vibrato effects produce slight, rapid variations inpitch,mimicking the fractionalsemitonevariations produced naturally byopera singersand violinists when they are prolonging a single note. Vibrato effects often allow the performer to control the rate of the variation as well as the difference in pitch (e.g. "depth" ). A vibrato with an extreme "depth" setting (e.g., half a semitone or more) will produce a dramatic,ululatingsound. Intransistorizedeffects, vibrato is produced by mi xing an instrument'saudio signalwith acarrier wavein such a way that generatesfrequencyvariations in the sound wave.[93]Guitarists often use the termsvibratoand "tremolo"misleadingly. A so-called" vibrato unit "in a guitar amplifier actually produces tremolo, while a"tremolo arm"or" whammy bar "on a guitar produces vibrato.[96][97]

Vibrato effects:Boss VB-2 Vibrato.

Pitch/frequency[edit]

AnElectro-HarmonixPolyphonic Octaver Generator (POG).

Pitch/frequency effects modifypitchby altering thefrequencyof asound waveor sound signal or adding newharmonies.

Pitch shifterand harmonizer"Apitchshifter (also called an "octaver" for effects that shift pitch by anoctave) raises or lowers (e.g. "transposes") each note a performer plays by a pre-setinterval.For example, a pitch shifter set to increase the pitch by a fourth will raise each note fourdiatonicintervals above the notes actually played. Simple, less expensive pitch shifters raise or lower the pitch by one or twooctaves,while more sophisticated and expensive devices offer a range of interval alterations. A pitch shifter can be used by an electric guitarist to play notes that would normally only be available on an electric bass. As well, a bass player with a four string electric bass can use an octave pedal to obtain low notes that would normally only be obtainable with a five-string bass with a low "B" string.

A harmonizer is a type of sophisticated pitch shifter that combines the altered pitch with the original pitch to create a two noteharmonybased on the original pitch, or even with some pedals, three note harmony. Some hamonizers are able to create chorus-like effects by adding very tiny shifts in pitch.[98]

Pitch shift effects:DigiTech Whammy,Electro-HarmonixPOG.

Time-based[edit]

Time-based effects delay the sound signal, add reverb or echos, or, if a long delay is possible, enable musicians to record "loops".

A vintageEchoplexEP-2 delay effect
Delay effect
A flute before and after delay
Reverberation effect
Reverb with increasingly longer delay
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Delay/echo:Delay/echo units produce an echo effect by adding a duplicate instrument-to-amplifierelectrical signalto the original signal at a slight time-delay. The effect can either be a single echo called a "slap" or "slapback", or multiple echos. A well-known use of delay is the lead guitar in theU2song "Where the Streets Have No Name",and also the opening riff of"Welcome to the Jungle"byGuns N' Roses.[99]

Delay effects:Boss DD-3 Digital Delay,MXRCarbon Copy,Electro-HarmonixDeluxe Memory Man,Line 6 DL4,Roland RE-201.

Looper pedal:A looper pedal or "phrase looper" allows a performer to record and later replay a phrase,riffor passage from a song. Loops can be created on the spot during a performance (live looping) or they can be pre-recorded. By using a looper pedal, a singer-guitarist in aone person bandcan play the backing chords (or riffs) to a song, loop them with the pedal, and then sing and do aguitar soloover the chords. Some units allow a performer to layer multiple loops, enabling the performer to create the effect of a full band.[100]The first loop effects were created withreel-to-reel tapeusing atape loop.High-end boutique tape loop effects are still used by some studio producers who want a vintage sound. Digital loop effects recreate this effect using an electronic memory.[101]

Folded line spring reverberation

Reverb:Reverb units simulate the spacious sounds produced naturally in a huge stone cathedral (or otheracoustic spacesuch as a hall or room). This is done by creating a large number of echoes that gradually fade away in volume or "decay". One early technique for creating a reverb effect was to send an amplified signal of the music via a speaker to another room with reflective surfaces, such as a tile bathroom, and then record the natural reverberations that were produced. A plate reverb system uses an electromechanicaltransducerto create vibrations in a plate of metal.Spring reverbsystems, which are often used in guitar amplifiers, use a transducer to create vibrations in a spring. Digital reverb effects use varioussignal processingalgorithmsto create the reverb effect, often by using multiple feedbackdelay circuits.Rockabillyandsurf guitarare two genres that make heavy use of reverb.[102]

Reverb effects:Electro-HarmonixHoly Grail,Fender Reverb Unit.

Feedback/sustain[edit]

Audio feedback:Audio feedback is an effect produced when amplified sound is picked up by a microphone or guitar pickup and played back through aguitar amplifier,initiating a "feedback loop", which usually consists of high-pitched sound. Feedback that occurs from a vocal mic into aPA systemis almost always avoided. However, in some styles of rock music, electric guitar players intentionally create feedback by playing their instrument directly in front of a heavily amplified,distortedguitar amplifier'sspeaker enclosure.The creative use of feedback effects was pioneered by guitarists such asJimi Hendrixin the 1960s. This technique creates sustained, high-pitchedovertonesand unusual sounds not possible through regular playing techniques. Guitar feedback effects can be difficult to perform, because it is difficult to determine the sound volume and guitar position relative to a guitar amp's loudspeaker necessary for achieving the desired feedback sound.[103][104]Guitar feedback effects are used in a number of rock genres, includingpsychedelic rock,heavy metal musicandpunk rock.

AnEBowguitar string resonator.

EBowis abrand nameof Heet Sound Products, of Los Angeles, California, for a small, handheld, battery-powered resonator. The Ebow was invented by Greg Heet, as a way to make a note on an electric guitar string resonate continuously, creating an effect that sounds similar to a bowed violin note or a sustainedpipe organnote. The resonator uses apickup– inductive string driver – feedback circuit, including a sensor coil, driver coil, and amplifier, to induce forced string resonance. The Ebow brand resonator is monophonic, and drives only one string at a time.

Other handheld and mounted guitar and bass resonators have been on the market since the early 1990s, produced in Germany under the SRG brand, which ceased production in 2016, and were available in both monophonic (one string at a time) and polyphonic (multiple strings at a time) models, which included multiple onboard trigger switch effects, such as HPF (high pass filter) for enhancing harmonics and producing feedback effects, and LPF (low pass filter), producing a bass boost with a cello sound on heavy gauge strings.[105]Later EBow models, such as the plus Ebow, contain a mode slide switch on the back, which allows the player to either produce just sustain orovertonefeedback in addition to sustain.[76]Pedals such as the Boss DF-2 and FB-2 use an internally generated signal matched to the pitch of the guitar that can be sustained indefinitely by depressing the pedal. Manycompressor pedalsare often also marketed as "sustainer pedals". As a note is sustained, it loses energy and volume due to diminishing vibration in the string. The compressor pedal boosts its electrical signal to the specifieddynamic range,slightly prolonging the duration of the note.[106]This, combined with heavy distortion and the close proximity of the guitar and the speaker cabinet, can lead to infinite sustain at higher volumes.

Other effects[edit]

Envelope follower:An envelope follower activates an effect once a designated volume is reached. One effect that uses an envelope follower is theauto-wah,which produces a "wah" effect depending on how loud or soft the notes are being played.[107][108]

A Line 6 modeling amplifier shown from above. Note the various amplifier and speaker emulations selectable via the rotary knob on the left.

Guitar amplifiermodeling:Amplifier modelingis adigitaleffect that replicates the sound of various amplifiers, most often vintagetube amplifiersand famous brands of speaker cabinets (e.g., theAmpeg SVT8x10 "bass cabinet). Sophisticated modeling effects can simulate different types ofspeaker cabinets(e.g., the sound of an 8x10 "cabinet) andmikingtechniques. A rotary speaker simulator mimics thedopplerandchorus effectsound of a vintageLeslie speakersystem by replicating its volume and pitch modulations,overdrivecapacity andphase shifts.[109]

Pitch correction/vocal effects:Pitch correction effects use signal-processing algorithms to re-tune faulty intonation in a vocalist's performance[110]or create unusualvocoder-type vocal effects. One of the best known examples of this isAutotune,a software program and effect unit which can be used to both correct pitch (it moves a pitch to the nearest semitone), and add vocal effects. Some stompbox-style vocal pedals contain multiple effects, such as reverb and pitch correction.

Simulators:Simulators enable electric guitars to mimic the sound of other instruments such asacoustic guitar,electric bass andsitar.Pick upsimulators used on guitars withsingle-coilpick ups replicate the sound of guitars withhumbuckerpick ups, or vice versa. A de-fretteris a bass guitar effect that simulates the sound of afretless bass.The effect uses anenvelope-controlled filterandvoltage-controlled amplifierto "soften" a note's attack both in volume andtimbre.[111]

Bitcrusherfilters:Bitcrushers rely on conversion of the audio signal into a digital format (ADC) and the reduction of sound fidelity by utilising bit (and sometimes sample) rates low enough to cause significant colouration and filtering within the audible frequency range.

A rotating Leslie speaker in a clear plastic cabinet. Typically, the Leslie is mounted in a wooden cabinet.

Rotating speakersare specially constructedamplifierorloudspeakersused to create special audio effects using theDoppler effectby rotating the speakers or a sound-directing duct. The rotating speaker creates a chorus-type effect. Named after its inventor,Donald Leslie,it is particularly associated with theHammond organbut is used with a variety of instruments as well as vocals. The Hammond/Leslie combination has become an element in many genres of music. The Leslie Speaker and the Hammond Organ brands are currently owned bySuzuki Musical Instrument Corporation.

TheKorg Kaoss Padis a smalltouchpadMIDIcontroller,sampler,and effects processor for audio and musical instruments, made byKorg.The Kaoss Pad's touchpad can be used to control its internal effects engine, which can be applied to a line-in signal or to samples recorded from the line-in. Effects types include pitch shifting,distortion,filtering,wah-wah,tremolo,flanging,delay,reverberation,auto-panning, gating,phasing,andring modulation. The Kaoss Pad can also be used as aMIDI controller.

Bass effects[edit]

A selection of bass effect pedals at a music store.
Main article:Bass effects

Bass effectsare electronic effects units that are designed for use with the low pitches created by an electric bass or for anupright bassused with a bass amp orPA system.Two examples of bass effects arefuzz bassandbass chorus.Somebass amplifiershave built-in effects, such asoverdriveorchorus.Upright bassistsin jazz, folk, blues and similar genres may use a basspreamplifier,a small electronic device that matches the impedance between thepiezoelectric pickupand the amp or PA system. Bass preamps also allow for the gain of the signal to be boosted or cut. Some models also offer equalization controls, a compressor, and aDI boxconnection.

Boutique pedals[edit]

T-Rexbrand "Mudhoney" overdrive pedal.

Boutique pedals are designed by smaller, independent companies and are typically produced in limited quantities. Some may even be hand-made, with hand-soldered connections. These pedals are mainly distributed online or through mail-order, or sold in a few music stores.[112]They are often more expensive than mass-produced pedals[113]and offer higher-quality components, innovative designs, in-house-made knobs, and hand-painted artwork or etching. Some boutique companies focus on re-creating classic or vintage effects.[114][better source needed]

Some boutique pedal manufacturers include:BJFE,Pete Cornish,Emlyn Crowther,Death By Audio,Robert Keeley,Roger Linn,Roger Mayer,Strymon,T-Rex Engineering,ToadWorks,andZ.Vex Effects.

Modification[edit]

There is also aniche marketfor modifying or "modding" effects.[citation needed]Typically,[according to whom?]vendors provide either custom modification services or sell new effects pedals they have already modified.[citation needed]TheIbanez Tube Screamer,Boss DS-1,Pro Co RATandDigiTech Whammyare some of the most often-modified effects.[115][116]Common modifications include value changes in capacitors or resistors, addingtrue-bypassso that the effect's circuitry is no longer in the signal path, substituting higher-quality components, replacing the unit's original operational amplifiers (op-amps), or adding functions to the device, such as allowing additional control of some factor or adding another output jack.[115][117][118]

Other pedals and rackmount units[edit]

Some rock and pop guitarists and bassists use "stompbox"format electronic tuners.

Not all stompboxes and rackmounted electronic devices designed for musicians are effects.Strobe tunerand regularelectronic tunerpedals indicate whether a guitar string is toosharporflat.[119]Stompbox-format tuner pedals route the electric signal for the instrument through the unit via a 1/4 "patch cable. These pedal-style tuners usually have an output so that the signal can be plugged into aguitar ampto produce sound. Rackmountpower conditionerdevices deliver a voltage of the proper level and characteristics to enable equipment to function properly (e.g., by providing transient impulse protection). A rackmounted wireless receiver unit is used to enable a guitarist or bassist to move around on stage without being connected to a cable. A footswitch pedal such as the "A/B" pedal routes a guitar signal to an amplifier or enables a performer to switch between two guitars, or between two amplifiers.

This footswitchcontrolsan effect (distortion), but it is not an effects pedal as the case does not contain effects circuitry; it is just a switch.

Guitar amplifiers andelectronic keyboardsmay have switch pedals for turning built-in reverb and distortion effects on and off; the pedals contain only a switch, with the circuitry for the effect being housed in the amplifier chassis.[120]Some musicians who use rackmounted effects or laptops employ aMIDIcontroller pedalboard or armband remote controls to trigger soundsamples,switch between different effects or control effect settings.[121][122][123]Apedal keyboarduses pedals, but it is not an effect unit; it is a foot-operated keyboard in which the pedals are typically used to playbasslines.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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