Eh

This article is about the English interjection. For other uses, seeEH (disambiguation).

Eh(/ˈeɪ/or/ˈɛ/)is a spokeninterjectionused in many varieties ofEnglish.The oldestOxford English Dictionarydefinesehas an "interjectionalinterrogativeparticleoften inviting assent to the sentiment expressed. "Today, whileehhas many different uses, it is most popularly used in a manner similar in meaning to "Excuse me?", "Please repeat that", "Huh?", or to otherwise mark a question. It is also commonly used as an alternative to thequestion tag"right?",as a method for inciting a reply, as in "Don't you think?", "You agree with me, right?", as in, "It's nice here, eh?" (instead of "It's nice here, right?" ). In theAmericas,it is most commonly associated withCanadaandCanadian English,though it is also common inEngland,Scotland,andNew Zealand.It is also known in someAmericanregions bordering Canada, including the area stretching from northernWisconsinup toMichigan'sUpper Peninsula.Similarinterjectionsexist in many other languages, such asAzerbaijaniandItalianandDutch.

The spelling of this sound in English is quite different from the common usage of these letters. Thevowelis sounded in one of the continental manners (as inFrench,only missing theapostrophe), and the letterhis used to indicate it is long, as though the origin of the spelling wereGerman.

While evidence suggests thatehinitially may have been considered as anonomatopoeicsound, the earliest uses ofehfound so far, date back toEarly Modern Englishin 1662, but first mentions of it are found inMiddle English.In 1707, it was first used in aplay,functioning "to create or confirm agreement."Later, in 1773, its earliest quotation, s.v. "eh" was in a play byIrishplaywrightOliver Goldsmith.

It can also convey a lack of strong emotion and a neutral response. For example, if when asked how a movie was one replies with "Eh," this indicates that they did not find it particularly great or terrible. In this example,ehis used as a way to convey a middle-ground feeling or invite further discussion.

English

United States

Ehis also used in situations to describe something bad or mediocre. In which, it is often pronounced with a short "e" sound and the "h" may even be noticeable.

It is quite prevalent in theNew York areato use the term "ey" as a general substitute for such basicgreetings,such as "hey"or"hello".

In theUpper Midwest,it is used to end sentences.

Canada

History

The first clear evidence ofeh's usage in Canada was in 1836, through the writings ofThomas Chandler Haliburton,aNova-Scotiandistrict judge and comical writer.Ehwas first recognized as being a marker of being Canadian in 1959 by Harold B. Allen; he stated thatehis "so exclusively a Canadian feature that immigration officials use it as an identifying clue."However, despite mainly being perceived as a stereotypical marker of Canadian identity,ehwas not recognized initially as aCanadianismin theDictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles(DCHP-1).Chief editor of the DCHP-1, Walter Avis, argued that it should not be included due to its historical use inBritish Englishand its frequency inAmerican,Australian,andNew Zealand English.However, despiteeh's origins, it has become more frequently used in Canada than in the UK and the US, and in a broader variety of contexts.Due to this frequency, it has since been included in theDCHP-2as a Preservation of British English that is Culturally Significant.

Uses

According to theDCHP-2,there are five main uses ofehwith four subtypes.The first is used to elicit confirmation (1a),which can be used in sentences like "So that's what he thinks, eh?" A subtype of this use is to elicit acknowledgement (1b).This applies to the acknowledgment of a fact in contrast to belief or opinion.For example, one could say "I have a new dog, eh?" The second subtype (1c) is to confirm agreement.This is used to increase the chance of acceptance of a suggestion,toning downstatements.The fourth, (1d), is used as an exclamative over a shared experience, for example "What a great game, eh?"The final (1e) is to confirm compliance, like asking "Will you?" The belief is that this tones down a command or request.

The second main use ofehis as an expression of disbelief to express one's surprise over the offered information (2).Use 3 is to elicit repetition, and is referred to as the "Pardoneh."It is used synonymously with" I beg your pardon? "in the sense of asking for a repetition of what was said.The fourth use is a distinctly Canadian use, identified as the narrativeeh.It is a rarer form, and is claimed to be found primarily in oral evidence of Canadian origin.The final use ofehis as ametalinguisticcommentary to express a link with Canada or rural Canada (5).This form is commentary on the Canadian status ofehand has contributed its share to the registration ofehandcommodificationof the form in association with Canada.A popular example of its use is in the phrase "How's it goin',eh?"

Due to English and French beingCanada's official languages,the popularity ofeh's usage in Canada is believed to be influenced by French.TheFrench Canadianheinsounds similar to a nasalized Canadianeh,and the two share similar functions. Due to this, the increased use ofehin Canada may have been influenced by the frequent use ofheininCanadian French.

The term is used most frequently among blue-collar workers, and the most popular form used is for opinions and exclamations.While there is a prevalent stereotype that men useehmore than women, survey results suggest similar use frequencies. Overall, between both men and women, the pardon-ehis used much less than the observation-eh.The most positively viewed usage ofehis the imperative "I know,eh?"form with the exclamation-ehand opinion-ehclose behind.The most negatively viewed usage is the anecdotal, narrative-eh.This perception is due to opinions surrounding the speakers of the narrative-eh,who are categorized as uneducated, lower-class, rural, and male, akin to theMcKenzie brothersfrom the comedy sketch "Great White North," which first appeared duringSecond City Television's (SCTV) third season.

Regionally, while usage is similar across the ten provinces, with the use ofehnot having changed significantly over the past 25 years, there is some variation.For example, inQuebec,respondents useehfor 'pardon' more than other Canadians.While usage has not changed significantly across Canada, the overall frequency ofehhas declined among speakers born in the 1960s or later. This decrease has been prevalent in big cities such asVancouverandToronto.Despite this decline, there have been high recognition rates and uptake of the Canadianehamong immigrant populations.

Iconography

Ehhas gained such recognition among Canadians that it is used consciously and frequently by newspaper journalists and others in informal articles and reports.Also,ehis attributed freely in reported conversations with all men, including athletes, professors, and politicians, such asPierre Trudeau.

The prevalence ofehin Canadian iconography is strongly associated with its recognition as part of the Canadian national or regional identity. In print, it is used primarily to signify 'Canadian,' with many websites incorporatingehinto their URLs to indicate a Canadian connection.It is also popularly incorporated into Canadian-targeted marketing campaigns, such as whenSmarties' Canadian-themed packaging was labelled "SMARTIESeh?"

The usage ofehin Canada is occasionally mocked in theUnited States,where some view its use as a stereotypical Canadianism. Such stereotypes have been reinforced in popular culture and were famously lampooned inSouth Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut.SingerDon Freed,in his song "Saskatchewan,"declares," What is this 'Eh?'-nonsense? I wouldn't speak like that if I were paid to ". There are many products displaying the phrase, such as T-shirts and coffee mugs.

Future usage

The future ofehin Canada is vague but promising. Three critical factors that will shape the future of this expression include speaker attitudes, the possible replacement of the expressions by young speakers, and new Canadians' adoption ofeh.Students account for a large percentage ofehusers and continue to contribute to the growing community.Because of this projected increase in the usage ofeh,the previous negative connotation surrounding the narrative-ehwill most likely dwindle.The future ofehis quite optimistic and there is room for expansion due to the various uses possible. In addition to the popularity amongst students, immigrants are essential to the future ofeh.Survey results on immigrant recognition ofehshow that immigrants had high rates of recognition for most types ofeh,with opinion-ehand exclamation-ehat the top.The data shows that while the usage ofehin immigrant countries is different, it is still common.This shows that even though native speakers still useehmore frequently, the future ofehis still optimistic. Altogether, Canada's link withbilingualismhas contributed toeh's common usage, and its recognition amongst immigrants shows thatehwill continue to be prevalent in Canadian culture.

New Zealand

While not as commonly lampooned as the Canadianeh,there are few features that are more eagerly recognized byNew Zealandersas a marker of their identity than the tag particleeh(commonly spelt asay,although this has been contentious).New Zealanders useehmuch more than Canadians, who are more famous for the word.This commonly used and referenced feature ofNew Zealand English(NZE) is one of great controversy to many communication scholars as it is both a mark of cultural identity and simultaneously a means to parody those of a lower socioeconomic status.The use ofehin New Zealand is very common among all demographics.

Communications scholarMiriam Meyerhoffdescribesehas a "validation checker" to create connections between speakers. She says that there are two main uses of the phrase: to signify a question, such as "You went to school in Christchurch, eh?"; or to confirm that the listener understands new information, such as "He was way bigger than me, eh". It is believed thatehbecame common in New Zealand due to similarity with theMāoriwordnē,which has a similar use and rhymes witheh.

A 1994 study by Meyerhoff sought to examine the function ofehin New Zealand culture. She hypothesized thatehdid not function as a clarification device as frequently believed, but instead served as a means of establishing solidarity between individuals of similar ethnic descent. In her research, Meyerhoff analyzed conversations between an interviewer and an interviewee of eitherPākehāor Māori descent and calculated the frequency ofehin the conversation. In order to yield the most natural speech, Meyerhoff instructed the interviewers to introduce themselves as a "friend of a friend", to their respective interviewees. Her results showed Māori men as the most frequent users ofehin their interviews. As Māori are typically of a lower socio-economic status, Meyerhoff proposed thatehfunctioned as a verbal cue that one reciprocated by another individual signified both shared identity and mutual acceptance. Therefore, in the context of Meyerhoff's research,ehcan be equated as a device to establish and maintain a group identity.This phenomenon sheds light on the continuous scholarly debate questioning if language determines culture or culture determines language.In New Zealandehis used more often by males than females, more by younger generations than older generations, and more by the middle class than the working class. Māori useehabout twice as much than Pākehā, irrespective of their gender, age or class.

England, Scotland and Ireland

The usage of the word is widespread throughout much of the UK, particularly in Eastern Scotland, the north of England,Northern Ireland,andWales.It is normally used to mean 'what?'. InScotland,mainly around the Tayside region,ehis also used as a shortened term for 'yes'. For example, "Are you going to the disco?" "Eh". In Aberdeen and the wider DoricScotsspeaking area ofGrampian,ehis often used to end a sentence, as a continuation or sometimes, inflection is added and it's used as a confirmation, or with different inflection, a question. For example, "I was walking home, eh, and I saw a badger, eh", "It was a big car, eh" or "We're going to the co-op, eh?".

Rest of the world

Eh?used to solicit agreement or confirmation is also heard regularly amongst speakers inAustralia,Trinidad and Tobagoand theUnited Kingdom(where it is sometimes spelledayon the assumption thatehwould rhyme withhehormeh). In theCaribbeanisland ofBarbadosthe wordnuhacts similarly, as doesnohinSurinamese DutchandSranantongo.The usage inNew Zealandis similar, and is more common in theNorth Island.It is also heard in theUnited States,especiallyMinnesota,Wisconsin,theUpper Peninsula of Michigan(although theScandinavian-basedYooperismyais more common),Oklahoma,and theNew Englandregion. InNew EnglandandOklahoma,it is also used as a general exclamation as in Scotland and the Channel Islands ofJerseyandGuernsey. It is occasionally used to express indifference, in a similar way tomeh.

Since usage of the wordehis not as common in the United States as it is in Canada, it is often used by Americans, and indeed Canadians themselves, toparodyCanadian English.

The equivalent inSouth African Englishishey.This usage is also common inWestern Canada.

Ehis also used inGuernsey EnglishandJersey English.

Ehis very common in theEnglishspoken in theSeychelles.

In Singapore, the use of mediumSinglishoften includesehas an interjection, but it is not as popularly used aslah.An example of a sentence that usesehis "Dis guy Singlish damn good eh", meaning "this guy's Singlish is very good".

Similar to Singapore, Malaysia also usesehinManglishas an interjection. It is also used as an exclamation to express surprise, depending on the length and context of theeh.It also depends how one sounds uses it as a shortehcan be a sarcastic shock or a genuine one. Sometimes it can be used as the equivalent asoiwhen the speaker is being angry to the listener such as "Eh, hello!?" or "Eh, can you not!?". A longeeehcan be a disgusted shock, annoyance, or greater surprise. Theehusage here is similar to the Japanese usage. It is used by all Malaysians regardless of what language they are using.

Similar terms in other languages

• Hè('heh') (not to be confused withhé('hey'), an informalgreetingand (potentially rude) way of getting someone's attention is an informal yet very commonDutchinterjectionthat can be used as a brief exclamation to indicate confusion or surprise ('huh?'), in a prolonged manner when disappointed or annoyed ('aww'), or at the end of any sentence to form atag question.The third usage is arguably the most popular. It very closely compares with "Eh" in Canadian English. In the regional dialects of Zealand and West Flanders, the corresponding and frequently used interjectionhé,is in fact pronounced the same as in English (note that the equivalent of Dutch[ɦ]is silent inZealandicandWest Flemish).
• JapaneseHé?/え?([heː]) is a common exclamation in Japanese and is used to express surprise. It is also used when the listener did not fully understand or hear what the speaker said. It can be lengthened to show greater surprise (e.g.Heeeeee?!).Neandnaaare extremely similar to the Canadianeh,being statement ending particles which solicit or assume agreement, confirmation, or comprehension on the part of the listener.
• Portuguesené?,a contraction ofnão é?meaning 'isn't it?', is used to turn a statement in to a question, even if no answer is expected, for emphasis or other objectives.
• Heinis used inFrenchand inPortuguesein much the same way as in English.
• Hainis used inMauritian Creoleand it can express a variety of ideas. It is generally used in context of a conversation and is generally interpreted very quickly.
• Gell/gelleoroder,wa,watorwahr('true' or 'correct') ornä/ne/net(fromnicht,'not') are used in (very) colloquialGermanto express a positive interrogative at the end of a sentence, much asehis used in Canadian English. Statements expressed in Standard German are more commonly phrased in negative terms, and outside of colloquial usage the ending interrogative is oftennicht wahr,which invites a response ofstimmt('agreed', literally 'that's right').
• Nietwaaris used in Dutch in the same way asnicht wahris in German.
• Spanish¿No?,literally translated to English as 'no', is often put at the end of a statement to change it into a question and give emphasis, i.e.Hace buen tiempo,¿no?('The weather is nice,isn't it?')Ehis also used as well for emphasis, as in¡Te vas a caer de la silla,eh!('You're going to fall from the chair,if you keep doing that!')Chealso has a similar function.
• InCatalan,eh?is also commonly used.
• Swiss Germanodermeaning 'or' in English, is commonly used interrogatively as '... or what?' andgäll/gellat the end of sentences in German-speaking Switzerland, especially in the Zurich area. It is used more as a matter of conversational convention than for its meaning. The expressionniis used in highest Alemannic-speaking parts,and is used similarly tonetin German. The termÄhis also used, which is pronounced similarly toehin English and has the same meaning.
• Azerbaijaniha?,hı?,hay?,andhıy?are commonly used as 'huh?'. Alternatively,hə?'yes?', anddüzdür?'is it correct?' can be used as 'isn't it?'.
• Pakistani Urduہیں؟is used to mean 'what? say it again'.
• Egyptian Arabicايه؟([ˈeːh]) is used to mean 'what? say it again'. It could also mean 'what's wrong?' either in a concerned manner or a more aggressive one, depending on the tone used to pose the question. Besides, it could refer to an exclamation.
• Levantine Arabicايشorشو(esh,shoo) as 'what?'.
• Gulf Arabicوشو(wisho) is used to mean 'what?'.
• Regional Italiannehis used in regional Northern Italian as spoken inPiedmont,Western Lombardy(Northwestern Italy), and theTicino(Southern Switzerland), with the meaning of "isn't it true?". It comes from the expression in the local languages (PiedmonteseandLombard)N'è (mia/pa) vera?,which means, once again, 'isn't it true?'

See also

• English interjections
• Discourse marker
• Canadian English