Eighty Years' War

Eighty Years' War Dutch Revolt
Part of theEuropean wars of religionand theThirty Years' War(1621–1648)
TheBattle of Gibraltar,1607.
Date c. 1566/8– 30 January 1648 Location European theatre (c. 1566/1568): TheLow Countries(present-dayBelgium,Luxembourg,Netherlands,and part of western Germany and northern France) European waters:North Sea,English Channel,coast of theIberian Peninsula,Mediterranean Sea Overseas (from the 1590s): Atlantic Ocean:Canary IslandsandAzores Americas:Caribbean Sea,the Guianas,Northeast Braziland southwestSouth America Africa:West AfricaandSouthern Africa Asia:Indian Ocean,South Asia,Southeast AsiaandEast Asia Result Peace of Münster Spain recognizes the independence of theDutch Republic Spain retains theSouthern Netherlands Dutch overseas expansionstarting in the 17th century, which mainly affected thePortuguese colonial empire
Belligerents
Dutch Republic (from 1588) States-General (1576–1588) Dutch rebels (c. 1566/68–1576) European allies: Kingdom of England (1585–1604,1625–1630) Kingdom of France (1589–1598,from 1635) Anjou (1578–1583) Kingdom of Portugal (from 1641) Native overseas allies (from the 1600s)	Spanish Empire European ally: Portuguese Empire (c.1580–1640) European co-belligerent: Holy Roman Empire (1629, 1632, 1635) Native overseas allies (from the 1600s)
Commanders and leaders
William the SilentX Maurice of Orange Frederick Henry Johan van Oldenbarnevelt William Louis Maarten Tromp Elizabeth I Robert Dudley James VI and I Charles I SirFrancis Vere Henry IV Duke of Bouillon Louis XIII Cardinal Richelieu	Philip II Philip III Philip IV Margaret of Parma Duke of Alba Álvarez de Toledo John of Austria Alexander Farnese Archduke Albert Isabella Eugenia Ambrogio Spinola Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand Fadrique de Toledo Antonio de Oquendo

TheEighty Years' WarorDutch Revolt(Dutch:Nederlandse Opstand) (c. 1566/1568–1648)was an armed conflict in theHabsburg Netherlandsbetween disparate groups of rebels and theSpanish government.Thecauses of the warincluded theReformation,centralisation,excessive taxation, and the rights and privileges of theDutch nobilityand cities.

Afterthe initial stages,Philip II of Spain,the sovereign of the Netherlands, deployedhis armiesandregained control over most of the rebel-held territories.However,widespread mutinies in the Spanish armycaused a general uprising. Under the leadership of the exiledWilliam the Silent,the Catholic and Protestant-dominated provinces sought to establish religious peace while jointly opposing the king's regime with thePacification of Ghent,but thegeneral rebellionfailed to sustain itself.

DespiteGovernor of Spanish Netherlands and General for Spain, the Duke of Parma'ssteady military and diplomatic successes,theUnion of Utrechtcontinued their resistance, proclaiming their independence through the 1581Act of Abjuration,and establishing theCalvinist-dominatedDutch Republicin 1588. In theTen Yearsthereafter, the Republic (whose heartland was no longer threatened) made conquests in the north and east and receiveddiplomatic recognitionfrom France and England in 1596. TheDutch colonial empireemerged, which began withDutch attacks on Portugal's overseas territories.

Facing a stalemate,the two sides agreed to aTwelve Years' Trucein 1609; when it expired in 1621,fighting resumedas part of the broaderThirty Years' War.An end was reached in 1648 with thePeace of Münster(a treaty that was part of thePeace of Westphalia), when Spain retained theSouthern Netherlandsand recognised the Dutch Republic as an independent country.

Origins

This section is an excerpt fromOrigins of the Eighty Years' War.[edit]

Theorigins of the Eighty Years' Warare complicated, and have been a source ofdisputes amongst historians for centuries.

TheHabsburg Netherlandsemerged as a result of the territorial expansion of theBurgundian Statein the 14th and 15th centuries. Upon extinction of the Burgundian State in 1477/1482, these lands were inherited by theHouse of Habsburg,whoseCharles Vbecame both King ofSpainandHoly Roman Emperor.While conquering and incorporating the rest of what would become the "Seventeen Provinces"during theGuelders Wars(1502–1543), and seeking to forge and centralise these disparate regions into one political entity, Charles aspired tocountertheProtestant Reformationand keep all his subjects obedient to theCatholic Church.

KingPhilip II of Spain,in his capacity as sovereign ofHabsburg Netherlands,continued the anti-heresyand centralisation policies of his father Charles V. This caused growing resistance among the moderate nobility and population (both Catholic and dissenting) of the Netherlands.This mood of resistance first led to peaceful protests (as from theCompromise of Nobles), but in the summer of 1566 erupted in violent protests byCalvinists,known as theiconoclastic fury,or (Dutch:Beeldenstorm) across the Netherlands. The Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands,Margaret of Parma,as well as authorities at lower levels, feared insurrection and made further concessions to the Calvinists, such as designating certain churches for Calvinist worship, but in December 1566 and early 1567 the first battles between Calvinist rebels and Habsburg governmental forces had taken place, commencing what would become known as theEighty Years' War.

Insurrection, repression and invasion (1566–1572)

This section is an excerpt fromEighty Years' War, 1566–1572.[edit]

TheBeeldenstormorIconoclastic Furywas a more or less organised destruction of Catholic sacred objects which swept through the Habsburg Netherlands' churches in 1566. 1630 painting byDirck van Delen

The period between the start of theBeeldenstormin August 1566 until early 1572 (before theCapture of Brielleon 1 April 1572) contained the first events of a series that would later be known as the Eighty Years' War between theSpanish Empireand disparate groups of rebels in theHabsburg Netherlands.Some of the first pitched battles and sieges between radicalCalvinistsand Habsburg governmental forces took place in the years 1566–1567, followed by the arrival and government takeover byFernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba(simply known as "Alba" or "Alva" ) with an army of 10,000 Spanish and Italian soldiers. Next, an ill-fated invasion by the most powerful nobleman of the Low Countries, the exiled but still-CatholicWilliam "the Silent" of Orange,failed to inspire a general anti-government revolt. Although the war seemed over before it got underway, in the years 1569–1571, Alba's repression grew severe, and opposition against his regime mounted to new heights and became susceptible to rebellion.

Although virtually all historians place the start of the war somewhere in this period, there is nohistorical consensuson which exact event should be considered to have begun the war. Consequently, there is no agreement whether the war really lasted exactly eighty years. For this and other reasons, some historians have endeavoured to replace the name "Eighty Years' War" with "Dutch Revolt", but there is also no consensus either to which period the term "Dutch Revolt" should apply (be it the prelude to the war, the initial stage(s) of the war, or the entire war).

Rebellion (1572–1576)

This section is an excerpt fromEighty Years' War, 1572–1576.[edit]

Capture of Briellein 1572 byAnthonie Waldorp(1862)

The period between theCapture of Brielle(1 April 1572) and thePacification of Ghent(8 November 1576) was an early stage of the Eighty Years' War (c. 1568–1648) between theSpanish Empireand groups of rebels in theHabsburg Netherlands.

AfterWatergeuzen(in English known as "Sea Beggars" ) seized several poorly defended towns and cities in Holland and Zeeland in April 1572, the exiledstadtholderWilliam "the Silent" of Orangelaunched his second invasion of the Netherlands from the east in another attempt to generate a general uprising against the repressive regime of Spanish General-GovernorFernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba.Acting on orders ofPhilip II of Spain,Alba sought to exterminate all manifestations ofProtestantismand disobedience through inquisition and public executions, as well as abolishing several privileges of the Netherlandish nobility and autonomy of cities, and introducing more stringent taxes.

William's second invasion in 1572 had mixed results, and Alba's sonDon Fadriquewent on a lightning campaign to retake all towns occupied byOrangistand Geuzen troops in October 1572. Several towns (includingMechelen,ZutphenandNaarden) which refused to surrender were brutally sacked by Fadrique's forces in an attempt to intimidate others into resubmitting themselves to the royal government, culminating in the seven-month-longSiege of Haarlembefore it was conquered and sacked in July 1573.By this point, the rebel territory had been reduced to most towns in Holland (notably excluding royalistAmsterdam) and Zeeland, and two towns in Guelders; knowing that violent repression would result from resistance, these cities resolved to fight to the bitter end, while the others capitulated. The Spanish offensive stalled after Haarlem, with the Dutch rebelscapturing Geertruidenberg,winning theSiege of AlkmaarandBattle of Delft,and achieving naval superiority. Citing ill health, Alba resigned and returned to Spain in December 1573.

His successorRequesenswas more conciliatory,but was unable to force or persuade many places back into governmental control, losing theSiege of Leiden(1573–1574).After his death in March 1576, exacerbated by Spain's state bankruptcy in November 1575,mutiniesamongst the unpaid Spanish soldiers started spreading into what became known as the "Spanish Fury",plundering many towns and villages even in loyal territories of the Netherlands.Faced with the mutineer atrocities, particularly theSack of Antwerp,all the provinces except Luxembourg made an alliance known as thePacification of Ghent,rising in revolt in November 1576 to demand that Philip II withdraw all foreign troops from the Netherlands, suspend the persecution of Protestants, and consult the States-General in matters of local governance rather than rule by unilateral autocratic action.

From Pacification of Ghent to Union of Utrecht (1576–1579)

This section is an excerpt fromEighty Years' War, 1576–1579.[edit]

From 8 November 1576 until 23 July 1577

Union of Brussels:the 16 rebel provinces that concluded the 1576Pacification of Ghent,and demanded the departure of all foreign Spanish troops from the Netherlands

Luxemburg,the only province to remain fully loyal to the Spanish government. Most Spanish troops withdrawing from the other provinces were temporarily stationed here from late 1576 to mid-1577

The period between thePacification of Ghent(8 November 1576), and the Unions ofArras(6 January 1579) andUtrecht(23 January 1579) constituted a crucial phase of the Eighty Years' War (c. 1568–1648) between theSpanish Empireand the rebelling United Provinces, which would become the independentDutch Republic.Sometimes known as the "general revolt", the period marked the only time of the war where theStates–Generalof allSeventeen Provincesof the Habsburg Netherlands, exceptLuxemburg,were in joint active political and military rebellion against the Spanish Imperial government through thePacification of Ghent.The Pacification formulated several agreements amongst the rebellious provinces themselves, and laid down their demands – including the immediate withdrawal of foreign (mostly Spanish, Italian and German) troops from the Netherlands, restitution of old rights and privileges, and self-rule – to kingPhilip II of Spain.

From 8 November 1576 until 23 July 1577, the new Spanish Governor-General of the NetherlandsJohn of Austria(known to history as "Don Juan" ) engaged in peace negotiations with the States-General. The FirstUnion of Brussels(9 January 1577) confirmed the Pacification, adding that the States would uphold the Catholic religion in their provinces. By signing theEdict of 1577on 12 February 1577 atMarche-en-Famenne,Don Juan nominally accepted all demands of the Pacification.Most foreign troops withdrew to the territory of Luxemburg, which had not joined the Pacification. Although a few sieges of cities with Spanish garrisons that refused to withdraw took place, these were mostly resolved quickly by paying them off; in general, the situation had potential for putting an end to the war if agreements could be reached and respected between the parties.

From 24 July 1577 until 6 January 1579, starting with the capture of theCitadel of Namur,Don Juan and his second-in-command and successorAlexander Farnese, Duke of Parmalaunched a military offensive against the United Provinces, while seeking to reconcile provinces that were willing to subject themselves back under the Spanish royal government under certain conditions.In response, the States-General's Second Union of Brussels (10 December 1577) showed a more fierce and determined opposition to the Spanish government, now demanding (and themselves guaranteeing) equal protection for Catholics and Protestants in all provinces of the Netherlands.William "the Silent" of Orangebecame thede factopolitical leader of the United Provinces, whileMatthias of Austriawas brought in to replace Don Juan as Governor-General.

TheBattle of Gembloux(31 January 1578) was a devastating defeat for the rebels, however, and many began to talk about surrender. Moreover, radical Calvinists had seized power in various cities in Flanders and Brabant, most notably the so-calledCalvinist Republic of Ghent,persecuting Catholics and alienating many Catholic allies which had up until that point supported the rebellion, but now became known as theMalcontents.Parma was able to successfully exert his diplomatic skills on some of these Malcontents, negotiating with several Catholic noblemen and regents in various southern provinces with promises of respecting their interests in return for abandoning the revolt.Finally, the united front of the States-General collapsed on 6 January 1579 when theCounty of Artois,theCounty of Hainautand the city ofDouaisigned theUnion of Arras,seeking to revert to Catholicism and the Spanish government under more moderate demands than the Pacification.On 17 May 1579, they signed a separate peace treaty with the king. In response, most of the other provinces and cities (virtually only in the Dutch-speaking parts of the Low Countries) sought to reaffirm their commitment to the Pacification, as well as the Second Union of Brussels, and forging an even closer political and military alliance by concluding theUnion of Utrechton 23 January 1579.

Secession and reconquest (1579–1588)

This section is an excerpt fromEighty Years' War, 1579–1588.[edit]

UnderParma's command, theSpanish Armyreconquered large parts of theNetherlandsin the 1580s.

The years 1579–1588 constituted a phase of the Eighty Years' War (c. 1568–1648) between theSpanish Empireand the United Provinces in revolt after most of them concluded theUnion of Utrechton 23 January 1579, and proceeded to carve the independentDutch Republicout of theHabsburg Netherlands.It followed the1576–1579 period,in which atemporary alliance of 16out of theSeventeen Provinces'States–Generalestablished thePacification of Ghent(8 November 1576) as a joint Catholic–Protestant rebellion against the Spanish government, but internal conflicts as well as military and diplomatic successes of the Spanish Governors-GeneralDon Juan of AustriaandAlexander Farnese, Duke of Parmasplit them apart, finally leading theMalcontentCounty of Artois,County of Hainautand city ofDouaito sign theUnion of Arrason 6 January 1579, reverting to Catholicism and loyalty to the Spanish crown.In response, most of the remaining rebel provinces and cities would forge or later accede to the Union of Utrecht,a closer military alliance treaty that would go on to become the most importantfundamental lawof the United Provinces,who on 26 July 1581 proclaimed theAct of Abjuration,ade factodeclaration of independencefrom Spain.While the nascent polity was struggling to find a new sovereign head of state, includingMatthias of Austria,Francis of Anjou,William "the Silent" of OrangeandRobert of Leicester,before giving up and deciding to become a republic by passing theDeduction of Vranckenon 12 April 1588,the Duke of Parma continued his successful military and diplomatic offensive, bringing ever more provinces and cities in the southern, eastern and northeastern parts of the Netherlands back into royalist hands.Parma's reconquests more or less stalled after theFall of Antwerp(1585),and finally came to an end with the failure of theSpanish Armada(July–August 1588) and Philip II ordered him to intervene in theFrench Wars of Religion(September 1589) to prevent theSuccession of Henry IVand France becoming a Protestant kingdom.These developments gave rise to a new phase,theTen Years (1588–1598),that saw significant conquests by theDutch States Armyunder the leadership of stadtholdersMaurice of NassauandWilliam Louis of Nassau-Dillenburg,and the Dutch Republic's rise as a commercial great power.

Ten Years (1588–1598)

This section is an excerpt fromTen Years (Eighty Years' War).[edit]

Conquests made byMauricein his 1597 campaign

TheTen Years(Dutch:Tien jaren) were a period in the Eighty Years' War spanning the years1588to1598.In this period of ten years,stadtholderMaurice of Nassau,the futureprince of Orangeand son ofWilliam "the Silent" of Orange,and his cousinWilliam Louis, Count of Nassau-DillenburgandstadtholderofFrieslandas well as the English generalFrancis Vere,were able to turn the tide of the war against theSpanish Empirein favour of theDutch Republic.They achieved many victories over the SpanishArmy of Flanders,conquering large swathes of land in the north and east of theHabsburg Netherlandsthat were incorporated into the Republic and remained part of theNetherlandsinto the present. Starting with the important fortification ofBergen op Zoom(1588), Maurice and William Louis subsequently tookBreda(1590),Zutphen,Deventer,Delfzijl,andNijmegen(1591),Steenwijk,Coevorden(1592)Geertruidenberg(1593),Groningen(1594),Grol,Enschede,Ootmarsum,andOldenzaal(1597).,recovering territories lost in 1580 through the treachery ofGeorge de Lalaing.Maurice's most successful years were 1591 and 1597, in which his campaigns resulted in the capture of numerous vital fortified cities, some of which were regarded as "impregnable". His novel military tactics earned him fame amongst the courts of Europe, and the borders of the present-day Netherlands were largely defined by the campaigns of Maurice of Orange during the Ten Years.

Run-up to the Truce (1599–1609)

This section is an excerpt fromEighty Years' War, 1599–1609.[edit]

StadtholderMaurice of Nassauduring the 1600Battle of Nieuwpoort,a tactical Dutch victory for little gain

The years 1599–1609 constituted a phase of in the Eighty Years' War (c. 1568–1648) between theSpanish Empireand the emergingDutch Republic.It followed theTen Years (1588–1598)that saw significant conquests by theDutch States Armyunder the leadership of stadtholdersMaurice of NassauandWilliam Louis of Nassau-Dillenburg,and ended with the conclusion of theTwelve Years' Truce(1609–1621) on 9 April 1609. The 1599–1609 period was generally marked by a stalemate; the well-knownBattle of Nieuwpoort(1600) brought the Dutch a tactical victory without long-term gain, while Spanish conquests in theSiege of Ostend(1601–1604) andSpinola's 1605–1606 campaignwere effectively balanced out by the Dutch naval triumph in theBattle of Gibraltar (1607)and the Spanish state bankruptcy that same year.Financial troubles were amongst the primary motives that prompted the Dutch, and even more so the Spanish, to head to the negotiating table for a ceasefire.

Twelve Years' Truce (1609–1621)

Main articles:Twelve Years' Truce;Trial of Oldenbarnevelt, Grotius and Hogerbeets;andSynod of Dort

The military upkeep and decreased trade had put both Spain and the Dutch Republic under financial strain. To alleviate conditions, a ceasefire was signed in Antwerp on 9 April 1609, marking the end of the Dutch Revolt and the beginning of theTwelve Years' Truce.The conclusion of this Truce was a major diplomatic coup forHolland's advocateJohan van Oldenbarnevelt,as Spain by concluding the Treaty, formally recognised the independence of the Republic.In Spain the truce was seen as a major humiliation – she had suffered a political, military and ideological defeat, and the affront to its prestige was immense.The closure of the river Scheldt to traffic in and out of Antwerp, and the acceptance of Dutch commercial operations in the Spanish and Portuguese colonial maritime lanes were just a few points that the Spanish found objectionable.

Although there was peace on an international level, political unrest took hold of Dutch domestic affairs. What had started as atheological quarrelresulted in riots betweenRemonstrants(Arminians) andCounter-Remonstrants(Gomarists). In general, regents would support the former and civilians the latter. Even the government got involved, with Oldenbarnevelt taking the side of the Remonstrants andstadtholderMaurice of Nassautheir opponents. In the end, theSynod of Dortcondemned the Remonstrants for heresy and excommunicated them from the national Public Church. Van Oldenbarnevelt was sentenced to death, together with his allyGilles van Ledenberg,while two other Remonstrant allies,Rombout HogerbeetsandHugo Grotiusreceived life imprisonment.

TheSynod of Dort.

Final phase of the war (1621–1648)

This section is an excerpt fromEighty Years' War, 1621–1648.[edit]

The Low Countries in 1621–1628

Dutch Republic

Dutch conquests

Spanish Netherlands

Spanish conquests

Prince-Bishopric of Liège

The years 1621–1648 constituted the final phase of the Eighty Years' War (c. 1568–1648) between theSpanish Empireand the emergingDutch Republic.It began when theTwelve Years' Truce(1609–1621) expired, and concluded with thePeace of Münsterin 1648.

Although the Dutch and Spanish were both involved in opposite sides of theWar of the Jülich Succession(June 1609 – October 1610; May–October 1614) inJülich-Cleves-Berg,they carefully avoided each other, and thus the hostilities never spread back into theHabsburg Netherlands,and the truce held firm.Nevertheless, attempts to negotiate a definitive peace also failed, and the war resumed as anticipated in 1621.Essentially, it became a side theatre of the widerThirty Years' Warthat had already broken out with theBohemian Revoltin 1618 in eastern parts of the Holy Roman Empire (Bohemia and Austria), pitting Central Europe'sProtestant Unionagainst theCatholic League,although the two conflicts never fully merged.With several back and forths – notably, theSpanish conquered Breda in 1625,but theDutch took it back in 1637– the Dutch Republic was able to conquer the eastern border forts ofOldenzaal (1626)andGroenlo (1627),the majorBrabantian city of 's-Hertogenbosch (1629),the fortified cities of Venlo, Roermond andMaastricht along the Meuse (1632),andSas van Gent(1644) andHulst(1645) inZeelandic Flanders.

Nevertheless, peace talks in 1629–1630 came to nothing. More ambitious plans to conquer Brussels in 1632–1633 with the help of anti-Spanish nobility in the Southern Netherlands never came to fruition. Several attempted Northern republican surprises and sieges of Antwerp were parried by the Spanish royalArmy of Flanders.

Nor did the Franco-Dutch alliance bring significant changes to the situation on the ground. It began with a disastrousFranco-Dutch invasionof the southern Netherlands in 1635. This in fact made matters worse for the Dutch when French and Dutch troops sacked the city ofTienen,which cost them the sympathies of the southern Netherlands population.

However, French intervention and internal discontent at the costs of the war in the Low Countries led to a change in Spain's 'Netherlands First' policy. Instead Spain focused on suppressing the French-backedReapers' Warin Catalonia.The resulting stalemate and financial troubles, plus Spanish military exhaustion and Dutch desire for formal political recognition, eventually convinced both sides in the mid-1640s to hold peace talks.

The outcome was the 1648 Peace of Münster, which confirmed most agreements already reached with the Truce of 1609.

Peace of Münster

Main article:Peace of Münster

The negotiations between Spain and the Republic formally started in January 1646 as part of the more general peace negotiations between the warring parties in the Thirty Years' War. The States General sent eight delegates from several of the provinces as none trusted the others to represent them adequately. They were Willem van Ripperda (Overijssel), Frans van Donia (Friesland), Adriaen Clant tot Stedum (Groningen),Adriaan Pauwand Jan van Mathenesse (Holland), Barthold van Gent (Gelderland), Johan de Knuyt (Zeeland) and Godert van Reede (Utrecht). The Spanish delegation was led byGaspar de Bracamonte, 3rd Count of Peñaranda.The negotiations were held in what is now the Haus der Niederlande in Münster.

The Dutch and Spanish delegations soon reached an agreement, based on the text of the Twelve Years' Truce. It therefore confirmed Spain's recognition of Dutch independence. The Dutch demands (closure of the Scheldt, cession of the Meierij, formal cession of Dutch conquests in the Indies and Americas, and lifting of the Spanish embargoes) were generally met. However, the general negotiations between the main parties dragged on, because France kept formulating new demands. Eventually it was decided therefore to split off the peace between the Republic and Spain from the general peace negotiations. This enabled the two parties to conclude what technically was a separate peace (to the annoyance of France, which maintained that this contravened the alliance treaty of 1635 with the Republic).

The text of the Treaty (in 79 articles) was fixed on 30 January 1648. It was then sent to the principals (King Philip IV of Spain and the States General) for ratification. Five provinces voted to ratify (against the advice of stadtholder William) on 4 April (Zeeland and Utrecht being opposed). Utrecht finally yielded to pressure by the other provinces, but Zeeland held out and refused to sign. It was eventually decided to ratify the peace without Zeeland's consent. The delegates to the peace conference affirmed the peace on oath on 15 May 1648 (though the delegate of Zeeland refused to attend, and the delegate of Utrecht suffered a possibly diplomatic illness).

In the broader context of the treaties between France and the Holy Roman Empire, and Sweden and the Holy Roman Empire of 14 and 24 October 1648, which comprise thePeace of Westphalia,but which were not signed by the Republic, the Republic now also gained formal "independence" from the Holy Roman Empire, just like the Swiss Cantons. In both cases this was just a formalisation of a situation that had already existed for a long time. France and Spain did not conclude a treaty and so remained at war until thepeace of the Pyreneesof 1659. The peace was celebrated in the Republic with sumptuous festivities. It was solemnly promulgated on the 80th anniversary of the execution of the Counts of Egmont and Horne on 5 June 1648.

• 
  Swearing of the Peace of MünsterbyGerard ter Borch
• 
  The Celebration of the Peace of Münster(1648) byBartholomeus van der Helst

Aftermath

This section is an excerpt fromAftermath of the Eighty Years' War.[edit]

The aftermath of the Eighty Years' War (c. 1568–1648) had far-reaching military, political, socio-economic, religious, and cultural effects on the Low Countries, theSpanish Empire,theHoly Roman Empire,as well as other regions of Europe and European colonies overseas. By thePeace of Münster(15 May 1648), theHabsburg Netherlandswere split in two, with the northern Protestant-dominated Netherlands becoming theDutch Republic,independent of the Spanish and Holy Roman Empires, while the southern Catholic-dominatedSpanish Netherlandsremained under Spanish Habsburg sovereignty. Whereas the Spanish Empire and the Southern Netherlands along with it were financially and demographically ruined, declining politically and economically, the Dutch Republic became a globalcommercial powerand achieved a high level of prosperity for its upper and middle classes known as theDutch Golden Age,despite continued great socio-economic, geographic and religious inequalities and problems, as well as internal and external political, military and religious conflicts.

Historiography

This section is an excerpt fromHistoriography of the Eighty Years' War.[edit]

The Eighty Years' War has given rise to more historical controversies than any other topic from the history of theNederlanden[Low Countries]whatsoever.

–EncartaEncyclopedieWinkler Prins(2002)

Thehistoriography of the Eighty Years' Warexamines how the Eighty Years' Warhas been viewed or interpreted throughout the centuries.Some of the main issues of contention between scholars include the name of the war (most notably "Eighty Years' War" versus "Dutch Revolt"), theperiodisationof the war (particularly when it started, which events to include or exclude, and whether the effective length of the war justifies counting "eighty years" or not), theorigins or causes of the war(theProtestant Reformationor the violation of the rights and privileges of the nobility and autonomous cities) and thus its nature (areligious war,acivil waror awar of independence), the meaning of its historical documents such as theAct of Abjuration,and the role of its central characters such asPhilip II of Spain,William "the Silent" of Orange,Margaret of Parma,theDuke of Alba,theDuke of Parma,Maurice of Orange,andJohan van Oldenbarnevelt.It has been theorised thatProtestant Reformation propagandahas given rise to theSpanish Black Legendin order to portray the actions of theSpanish Empire,theArmy of Flandersand theCatholic Churchin an exaggerated extremely negative light, while other scholars maintain that the atrocities committed by the Spanish military in order to preserve theHabsburg Netherlandsfor the Empire have historically been portrayed fairly accurately. Controversy also rages about the importance of the war for the emergence of theDutch Republicas the predecessor of the currentKingdom of the Netherlandsand the role of theHouse of Orange'sstadtholdersin it, as well as thedevelopment of Dutch and Belgian national identitiesas a result of the split of the Northern and Southern Netherlands.

See also

• Act of Abjuration
• Bourgeois revolution
• European wars of religion
• Gallery of maps of the Eighty Years' War(in Dutch)
• List of battles of the Eighty Years' War
• Martyrs of Gorkum
• "Merck toch hoe sterck"—Dutch patriotic song
• Spanish Road
• Union of Delft
• Wars of national liberation

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• van der Lem, Anton (1995).De Opstand in de Nederlanden (1555–1648)(in Dutch). Uitgeverij Kosmos / Leiden University.Retrieved28 July2022– via dutchrevolt.library.universiteitleiden.nl.
• van der Lem, Anton (2019).Revolt in the Netherlands: The Eighty Years War, 1568–1648.London: Reaktion Books. pp. 142–243.ISBN978-1789140880.Retrieved9 July2022.
• Lesaffer, Randall (2006). "Siege Warfare and the Early Modern Laws of War".Ius Brabanticum, ius commune, ius gentium(PDF).pp. 87–109.
• Mulder, Liek; Doedens, Anne; Kortlever, Yolande (2008).Geschiedenis van Nederland, van prehistorie tot heden.Baarn: HBuitgevers. p. 288.ISBN978-9055746262.
• Parker, Geoffrey (2004).The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road 1567–1659. Second edition.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521543927.paperback
• Rooze-Stouthamer, Clasina Martina (2009).De opmaat tot de Opstand: Zeeland en het centraal gezag (1566–1572)(in Dutch). Uitgeverij Verloren.ISBN978-9087040918.
• Scammel, G.V. (1989).The First Imperial Age: European Overseas Expansion c. 1400–1715.Routledge.
• Tracy, J.D. (2008).The Founding of the Dutch Republic: War, Finance, and Politics in Holland 1572–1588.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0199209118.
• Wilson, Peter (2009).Europe's Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years War.Allen Lane.ISBN978-0713995923.
• Beausobre, Isaac de (1733).Mémoires de Frederic Henri de Nassau Prince d'Orange(in French). Pierre Humbert.
• Palafox y Mendoza, Juan de (1762). "Sitio y socorro de Fuenterrabía y sucesos del año de treinta y ocho".Obras del ilustrissimo Don Juan de Palafox y Mendoza(in Spanish). Vol. X. Gabriel Ramírez. pp. 92–272.
• Picouet, Pierre A. (2020).The Armies of Philip IV of Spain 1621–1665. The Fight for European Supremacy.Helion & Company.ISBN9781911628613.
• Duffy, Christopher (1996).Siege Warfare: The fortress in the early modern world, 1494–1660.New York, USA: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-14649-4.
• Ferguson, James (1899).The Scots Brigade in Holland, Vol. 1.Edinburgh: Scottish History Society. p. 310.
• Richer, Estienne (1623).Le Mercure françois(in French). Vol. VIII. Estienne Richer.
• Collin de Pancy, Jacques Albin Simon (1836).Fastes militaires des Belges, ou Histoire des guerres, sièges, conquêtes, expéditions et faits d'armes qui ont illustré la Belgique depuis l'invasion de César jusqu'à nos jours(in French). Brussel, Belgium: Au Bureau des fastes militaires.

Further reading

• Duke, Alastair, (1992),Select documents for the Reformation and the Revolt of the Low Countries, 1555–1609
• Geyl, Pieter,(1932),The Revolt of the Netherlands, 1555–1609.Williams & Norgate, UK.
• Geyl, Pieter, (1936),The Netherlands Divided, 1609–1648.Williams & Norgate, UK.
• Kossmann, E.H.& Mellink, A.H., (1974)Texts concerning the Revolt of the NetherlandsCambridge University Press, Cambridge.ISBN0521200148
• Marnef, Guido, "Belgian and Dutch Post-war Historiography on the Protestant and Catholic Reformation in the Netherlands,"Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte(2009) Vol. 100, pp. 271–292.
• Parker, Geoffrey,(1977),The Dutch Revolt,Penguin Books, London.
• Rodríguez Pérez, Yolanda,The Dutch Revolt through Spanish Eyes: Self and Other in historical and literary texts of Golden Age Spain (c. 1548–1673)(Oxford etc., Peter Lang, 2008) (Hispanic Studies: Culture and Ideas, 16).

External links

• De Bello Belgico(in Dutch)– about the Revolt in the Netherlands, website of Leiden University
• Correspondence of William of Orange(in Dutch)
• La Guerra de Flandes, desde la muerte del emperador Carlos V hasta la Tregua de los Doce Años(in Spanish)
• "Nederlandse Opstand" on onsverleden.net(in Dutch)
• Sabbe, M.(1933) "De Veldtocht van 1635–1636 – Inneming en Verlies van de Schencke-Schans – Het ‘Raffelspel’ om de Schans," in:Brabant in 't verweer. Bijdrage tot de studie der Zuid-Nederlandsche strijdliteratuur in de eerste helft der 17e eeuw(in Dutch)
• (in Dutch)Poelhekke, J.J.(1978)Frederik Hendrik Prins van Oranje. Een biografisch drieluik