Electronic music

For other uses, seeElectronic music (disambiguation)."Electronic musician" redirects here. For the magazine, seeElectronic Musician.

Electronic music
Other names	Electronica
Stylistic origins	Modernism Futurism
Cultural origins	Early 20th century,United StatesandEurope
Derivative forms	Ambient drone dub EDM IDM hip hop new-age new wave noise phonk neo soul psychedelic synth-pop synthedelia
Other topics
Avant-garde music computer music electronics in rock music experimental music music technology (electronic and digital) timeline of electronic music genres

Electronic musicbroadly is a group ofmusic genresthat employelectronic musical instruments,circuitry-basedmusic technologyand software, or general-purposeelectronics(such aspersonal computers) in its creation. It includes both music made using electronic and electromechanical means (electroacoustic music). Pure electronic instruments depended entirely on circuitry-based sound generation, for instance using devices such as anelectronic oscillator,theremin,orsynthesizer.Electromechanical instruments can have mechanical parts such as strings, hammers, and electric elements includingmagnetic pickups,power amplifiersandloudspeakers.Such electromechanical devices include thetelharmonium,Hammond organ,electric pianoandelectric guitar.

The first electronic musical devices were developed at the end of the 19th century. During the 1920s and 1930s, some electronic instruments were introduced and the first compositions featuring them were written. By the 1940s, magnetic audio tape allowed musicians to tape sounds and then modify them by changing the tape speed or direction, leading to the development ofelectroacoustictape musicin the 1940s, in Egypt and France.Musique concrète,created in Paris in 1948, was based on editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds. Music produced solely from electronic generators was first produced in Germany in 1953 byKarlheinz Stockhausen.Electronic music was also created in Japan and the United States beginning in the 1950s andalgorithmic compositionwith computers was first demonstrated in the same decade.

During the 1960s, digitalcomputer musicwas pioneered, innovation inlive electronicstook place, and Japanese electronic musical instruments began to influence themusic industry.In the early 1970s,Moog synthesizersanddrum machineshelped popularize synthesized electronic music. The 1970s also saw electronic music begin to have a significant influence onpopular music,with the adoption ofpolyphonic synthesizers,electronic drums,drum machines, andturntables,through the emergence of genres such asdisco,krautrock,new wave,synth-pop,hip hop,andEDM.In the early 1980s mass-produceddigital synthesizers,such as theYamaha DX7,became popular, andMIDI(Musical Instrument Digital Interface) was developed. In the same decade, with a greater reliance on synthesizers and the adoption of programmable drum machines, electronic popular music came to the fore. During the 1990s, with the proliferation of increasingly affordable music technology, electronic music production became an established part of popular culture.In Berlin starting in 1989, theLove Paradebecame the largest street party with over 1 million visitors, inspiring other such popular celebrations of electronic music.

Contemporary electronic music includes many varieties and ranges fromexperimental art musicto popular forms such aselectronic dance music.Pop electronic music is most recognizable in its 4/4 form and more connected with the mainstream than preceding forms which were popular in niche markets.

Origins: late 19th century to early 20th century

Front page ofScientific Americanin 1907, demonstrating the size, operation, and popularity of theTelharmonium

At the turn of the 20th century, experimentation withemerging electronicsled to the firstelectronic musical instruments.These initial inventions were not sold, but were instead used in demonstrations and public performances. The audiences were presented with reproductions of existing music instead of new compositions for the instruments.While some were considered novelties and produced simple tones, theTelharmoniumsynthesizedthe sound of several orchestral instruments with reasonable precision. It achieved viable public interest and made commercial progress intostreaming musicthroughtelephone networks.

Critics of musical conventions at the time saw promise in these developments.Ferruccio Busoniencouraged the composition ofmicrotonal musicallowed for by electronic instruments. He predicted the use of machines in future music, writing the influentialSketch of a New Esthetic of Music(1907).Futuristssuch asFrancesco Balilla PratellaandLuigi Russolobegan composingmusic with acoustic noiseto evoke the sound ofmachinery.They predicted expansions intimbreallowed for by electronics in the influential manifestoThe Art of Noises(1913).

Early compositions

Leon Theremindemonstrating the theremin in 1927

Developments of thevacuum tubeled to electronic instruments that were smaller,amplified,and more practical for performance.In particular, thetheremin,ondes Martenotandtrautoniumwere commercially produced by the early 1930s.

From the late 1920s, the increased practicality of electronic instruments influenced composers such asJoseph SchillingerandMaria Schuppelto adopt them. They were typically used within orchestras, and most composers wrote parts for the theremin that could otherwise be performed withstring instruments.

Avant-garde composerscriticized the predominant use of electronic instruments for conventional purposes.The instruments offered expansions in pitch resourcesthat were exploited by advocates of microtonal music such asCharles Ives,Dimitrios Levidis,Olivier MessiaenandEdgard Varèse.Further,Percy Graingerused the theremin to abandon fixed tonation entirely,while Russian composers such asGavriil Popovtreated it as a source of noise in otherwise-acousticnoise music.

Recording experiments

Developments in earlyrecording technologyparalleled that of electronic instruments. The first means of recording and reproducing audio was invented in the late 19th century with the mechanicalphonograph.Record players became a common household item, and by the 1920s composers were using them to play short recordings in performances.

The introduction ofelectrical recordingin 1925 was followed by increased experimentation with record players.Paul HindemithandErnst Tochcomposed several pieces in 1930 by layering recordings of instruments and vocals at adjusted speeds. Influenced by these techniques,John CagecomposedImaginary Landscape No. 1in 1939 by adjusting the speeds of recorded tones.

Composers began to experiment with newly developedsound-on-filmtechnology. Recordings could be spliced together to createsound collages,such as those byTristan Tzara,Kurt Schwitters,Filippo Tommaso Marinetti,Walter RuttmannandDziga Vertov.Further, the technology allowed sound to begraphically created and modified.These techniques were used to compose soundtracks for several films in Germany and Russia, in addition to the popularDr. Jekyll and Mr. Hydein the United States. Experiments with graphical sound were continued byNorman McLarenfrom the late 1930s.

Development: 1940s to 1950s

Electroacoustic tape music

Further information:Electroacoustic musicandSound recording and reproduction

The first practical audiotape recorderwas unveiled in 1935.Improvements to the technology were made using theAC biasingtechnique, which significantly improved recording fidelity.As early as 1942, test recordings were being made in stereo.Although these developments were initially confined to Germany, recorders and tapes were brought to the United States following the end of World War II.These were the basis for the first commercially produced tape recorder in 1948.

In 1944, before the use of magnetic tape for compositional purposes, Egyptian composerHalim El-Dabh,while still a student inCairo,used a cumbersomewire recorderto record sounds of an ancientzaarceremony. Using facilities at the Middle East Radio studios El-Dabh processed the recorded material using reverberation, echo, voltage controls and re-recording. What resulted is believed to be the earliest tape music composition.The resulting work was entitledThe Expression of Zaarand it was presented in 1944 at an art gallery event in Cairo. While his initial experiments in tape-based composition were not widely known outside of Egypt at the time, El-Dabh is also known for his later work in electronic music at theColumbia-Princeton Electronic Music Centerin the late 1950s.

Musique concrète

Main article:Musique concrète

See also:Acousmatic music

Phonogene(1953), a tape machine for modifying the sound structure, developed byPierre Schaefferet al. at GRMC

Pierre Schaefferpresenting theAcousmonium(1974) that consisted of 80 loudspeakers for tape playback, atGRM

Following his work withStudio d'EssaiatRadiodiffusion Française(RDF), during the early 1940s,Pierre Schaefferis credited with originating the theory and practice of musique concrète. In the late 1940s, experiments in sound-based composition usingshellacrecord players were first conducted by Schaeffer. In 1950, the techniques of musique concrete were expanded when magnetic tape machines were used to explore sound manipulation practices such as speed variation (pitch shift) andtape splicing.

On 5 October 1948, RDF broadcast Schaeffer'sEtude aux chemins de fer.This was the first "movement"ofCinq études de bruits,and marked the beginning of studio realizationsand musique concrète (or acousmatic art). Schaeffer employed adisc cutting lathe,four turntables, a four-channel mixer, filters, an echo chamber, and a mobile recording unit. Not long after this,Pierre Henrybegan collaborating with Schaeffer, a partnership that would have profound and lasting effects on the direction of electronic music. Another associate of Schaeffer,Edgard Varèse,began work onDéserts,a work for chamber orchestra and tape. The tape parts were created at Pierre Schaeffer's studio and were later revised atColumbia University.

In 1950, Schaeffer gave the first public (non-broadcast) concert of musique concrète at theÉcole Normale de Musique de Paris."Schaeffer used aPA system,several turntables, and mixers. The performance did not go well, as creating live montages with turntables had never been done before. "Later that same year, Pierre Henry collaborated with Schaeffer onSymphonie pour un homme seul(1950) the first major work of musique concrete.In Paris in 1951, in what was to become an important worldwide trend, RTF established the first studio for the production of electronic music. Also in 1951, Schaeffer and Henry produced an opera,Orpheus,for concrete sounds and voices.

By 1951 the work of Schaeffer, composer-percussionist Pierre Henry, and sound engineer Jacques Poullin had received official recognition andThe Groupe de Recherches de Musique Concrète,Club d 'Essai de laRadiodiffusion-Télévision Françaisewas established at RTF in Paris, the ancestor of theORTF.

Elektronische Musik, Germany

Karlheinz Stockhausen in the Electronic Music Studio of WDR, Cologne, in 1991

Karlheinz Stockhausenworked briefly in Schaeffer's studio in 1952, and afterward for many years at theWDRCologne'sStudio for Electronic Music.

1954 saw the advent of what would now be considered authentic electric plus acoustic compositions—acoustic instrumentation augmented/accompanied by recordings of manipulated or electronically generated sound. Three major works were premiered that year: Varèse'sDéserts,for chamber ensemble and tape sounds, and two works byOtto LueningandVladimir Ussachevsky:Rhapsodic Variations for the Louisville SymphonyandA Poem in Cycles and Bells,both for orchestra and tape. Because he had been working at Schaeffer's studio, the tape part for Varèse's work contains much more concrete sounds than electronic. "A group made up of wind instruments, percussion and piano alternate with the mutated sounds of factory noises and ship sirens and motors, coming from two loudspeakers."

At the German premiere ofDésertsin Hamburg, which was conducted byBruno Maderna,the tape controls were operated byKarlheinz Stockhausen.The titleDésertssuggested to Varèse not only "all physical deserts (of sand, sea, snow, of outer space, of empty streets), but also the deserts in the mind of man; not only those stripped aspects of nature that suggest bareness, aloofness, timelessness, but also that remote inner space no telescope can reach, where man is alone, a world of mystery and essential loneliness."

In Cologne, what would become the most famous electronic music studio in the world, was officially opened at the radio studios of theNWDRin 1953, though it had been in the planning stages as early as 1950 and early compositions were made and broadcast in 1951.The brainchild ofWerner Meyer-Eppler,Robert Beyer, andHerbert Eimert(who became its first director), the studio was soon joined by Karlheinz Stockhausen andGottfried Michael Koenig.In his 1949 thesisElektronische Klangerzeugung: Elektronische Musik und Synthetische Sprache,Meyer-Eppler conceived the idea to synthesize music entirely from electronically produced signals; in this way,elektronische Musikwas sharply differentiated from Frenchmusique concrète,which used sounds recorded from acoustical sources.

In 1953, Stockhausen composed hisStudie I,followed in 1954 byElektronische Studie II—the first electronic piece to be published as a score. In 1955, more experimental and electronic studios began to appear. Notable were the creation of theStudio di fonologia musicale di Radio Milano,a studio at theNHKin Tokyo founded byToshiro Mayuzumi,and the Philips studio atEindhoven,the Netherlands, which moved to theUniversity of Utrechtas theInstitute of Sonologyin 1960.

"With Stockhausen andMauricio Kagelin residence, [Cologne] became a year-round hive of charismatic avant-gardism. "on two occasions combining electronically generated sounds with relatively conventional orchestras—inMixtur(1964) andHymnen, dritte Region mit Orchester(1967).Stockhausen stated that his listeners had told him his electronic music gave them an experience of "outer space", sensations of flying, or being in a "fantastic dream world".

United States

In the United States, electronic music was being created as early as 1939, when John Cage publishedImaginary Landscape, No. 1,using two variable-speed turntables, frequency recordings, muted piano, and cymbal, but no electronic means of production. Cage composed five more "Imaginary Landscapes" between 1942 and 1952 (one withdrawn), mostly for percussion ensemble, though No. 4 is for twelve radios and No. 5, written in 1952, uses 42 recordings and is to be realized as a magnetic tape. According to Otto Luening, Cage also performedWilliams Mixat Donaueschingen in 1954, using eight loudspeakers, three years after his alleged collaboration.Williams Mixwas a success at theDonaueschingen Festival,where it made a "strong impression".

The Music for Magnetic Tape Project was formed by members of theNew York School(John Cage,Earle Brown,Christian Wolff,David Tudor,andMorton Feldman),and lasted three years until 1954. Cage wrote of this collaboration: "In this social darkness, therefore, the work of Earle Brown, Morton Feldman, and Christian Wolff continues to present a brilliant light, for the reason that at the several points of notation, performance, and audition, action is provocative."

Cage completedWilliams Mixin 1953 while working with the Music for Magnetic Tape Project.The group had no permanent facility, and had to rely on borrowed time in commercial sound studios, including the studio ofBebe and Louis Barron.

Columbia-Princeton Center

Further information:Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center

See also:Vladimir UssachevskyandRCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer

In the same yearColumbia Universitypurchased its first tape recorder—a professionalAmpexmachine—to record concerts. Vladimir Ussachevsky, who was on the music faculty of Columbia University, was placed in charge of the device, and almost immediately began experimenting with it.

Herbert Russcol writes: "Soon he was intrigued with the new sonorities he could achieve by recording musical instruments and then superimposing them on one another."Ussachevsky said later: "I suddenly realized that the tape recorder could be treated as an instrument of sound transformation."On Thursday, 8 May 1952, Ussachevsky presented several demonstrations of tape music/effects that he created at his Composers Forum, in the McMillin Theatre at Columbia University. These includedTransposition, Reverberation, Experiment, Composition,andUnderwater Valse.In an interview, he stated: "I presented a few examples of my discovery in a public concert in New York together with other compositions I had written for conventional instruments." Otto Luening, who had attended this concert, remarked: "The equipment at his disposal consisted of an Ampex tape recorder... and a simple box-like device designed by the brilliant young engineer, Peter Mauzey, to create feedback, a form of mechanical reverberation. Other equipment was borrowed or purchased with personal funds."

Just three months later, in August 1952, Ussachevsky traveled to Bennington, Vermont, at Luening's invitation to present his experiments. There, the two collaborated on various pieces. Luening described the event: "Equipped with earphones and a flute, I began developing my first tape-recorder composition. Both of us were fluent improvisors and the medium fired our imaginations."They played some early pieces informally at a party, where "a number of composers almost solemnly congratulated us saying, 'This is it' ('it' meaning the music of the future)."

Word quickly reached New York City. Oliver Daniel telephoned and invited the pair to "produce a group of short compositions for the October concert sponsored by the American Composers Alliance and Broadcast Music, Inc., under the direction ofLeopold Stokowskiat the Museum of Modern Art in New York. After some hesitation, we agreed....Henry Cowellplaced his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, at our disposal. With the borrowed equipment in the back of Ussachevsky's car, we left Bennington for Woodstock and stayed two weeks.... In late September 1952, the travelling laboratory reached Ussachevsky's living room in New York, where we eventually completed the compositions. "

Two months later, on 28 October, Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening presented the first Tape Music concert in the United States. The concert included Luening'sFantasy in Space(1952)— "an impressionisticvirtuosopiece "using manipulated recordings of flute—andLow Speed(1952), an "exotic composition that took the flute far below its natural range."Both pieces were created at the home of Henry Cowell in Woodstock, New York. After several concerts caused a sensation in New York City, Ussachevsky and Luening were invited onto a live broadcast of NBC's Today Show to do an interview demonstration—the first televised electroacoustic performance. Luening described the event: "I improvised some [flute] sequences for the tape recorder. Ussachevsky then and there put them through electronic transformations."

The score forForbidden Planet,byLouis and Bebe Barron,was entirely composed using custom-built electronic circuits and tape recorders in 1956 (but no synthesizers in the modern sense of the word).

USSR

ANS synthesizerexhibited at Glinka Museum

In 1929,Nikolai Obukhovinvented the "sounding cross"(lacroix sonore), comparable to the principle of thetheremin.In the 1930s, Nikolai Ananyev invented "sonar", and engineer Alexander Gurov — neoviolena, I. Ilsarov — ilston.,A. Rimsky-Korsakovand A. Ivanov —emiriton.Composer and inventorArseny Avraamovwas engaged in scientific work on sound synthesis and conducted a number of experiments that would later form the basis of Soviet electro-musical instruments.

In 1956Vyacheslav Mescherincreated theEnsemble of electro-musical instruments,which used theremins, electric harps, electric organs, the first synthesizer in the USSR "Ekvodin",and also created the first Soviet reverb machine. The style in which Meshcherin's ensemble played is known as "Space age pop".In 1957, engineer Igor Simonov assembled a working model of a noise recorder (electroeoliphone), with the help of which it was possible to extract various timbres and consonances of a noise nature.In 1958,Evgeny MurzindesignedANS synthesizer,one of the world's first polyphonic musical synthesizers.

Founded by Murzin in 1966, the Moscow Experimental Electronic Music Studio became the base for a new generation of experimenters –Eduard Artemyev,Alexander Nemtin,Sándor Kallós,Sofia Gubaidulina,Alfred Schnittke,andVladimir Martynov.By the end of the 1960s, musical groups playing light electronic music appeared in the USSR. At the state level, this music began to be used to attract foreign tourists to the country and forbroadcastingto foreign countries.In the mid-1970s, composerAlexander Zatsepindesigned an "orchestrolla" – a modification of the mellotron.

The Baltic Soviet Republics also had their own pioneers: inEstonian SSR—Sven Grunberg,inLithuanian SSR— Gedrus Kupriavicius, inLatvian SSR— Opus andZodiac.

Australia

CSIRAC, Australia's first digital computer, displayed at theMelbourne Museum

The world's first computer to play music wasCSIRAC,which was designed and built byTrevor Pearceyand Maston Beard. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1951 it publicly played theColonel Bogey March,of which no known recordings exist, only the accurate reconstruction.However,CSIRACplayed standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice. CSIRAC was never recorded, but the music played was accurately reconstructed. The oldest known recordings of computer-generated music were played by theFerranti Mark 1computer, a commercial version of theBabyMachine from theUniversity of Manchesterin the autumn of 1951.The music program was written byChristopher Strachey.

Japan

Yamaha Magna Organand the designated tone cabinet (1935)

The earliest group of electronic musical instruments in Japan,Yamaha Magna Organwas built in 1935.however, after World War II, Japanese composers such asMinao Shibataknew of the development of electronic musical instruments. By the late 1940s, Japanese composers began experimenting with electronic music and institutional sponsorship enabled them to experiment with advanced equipment. Their infusion ofAsian musicinto the emerging genre would eventually support Japan's popularity in the development of music technology several decades later.

Following the foundation of electronics companySonyin 1946, composersToru Takemitsuand Minao Shibata independently explored possible uses for electronic technology to produce music.Takemitsu had ideas similar tomusique concrète,which he was unaware of, while Shibata foresaw the development of synthesizers and predicted a drastic change in music.Sony began producing popularmagnetic taperecorders for government and public use.

The avant-garde collectiveJikken Kōbō(Experimental Workshop), founded in 1950, was offered access to emerging audio technology by Sony. The company hired Toru Takemitsu to demonstrate their tape recorders with compositions and performances of electronic tape music.The first electronic tape pieces by the group were "Toraware no Onna" ( "Imprisoned Woman" ) and "Piece B", composed in 1951 by Kuniharu Akiyama.Many of theelectroacoustictape pieces they produced were used as incidental music for radio, film, and theatre. They also held concerts employing aslide showsynchronized with a recorded soundtrack.Composers outside of the Jikken Kōbō, such asYasushi Akutagawa,Saburo Tominaga, andShirō Fukai,were also experimenting withradiophonictape music between 1952 and 1953.

Musique concrète was introduced to Japan byToshiro Mayuzumi,who was influenced by a Pierre Schaeffer concert. From 1952, he composed tape music pieces for a comedy film, a radio broadcast, and a radio drama.However, Schaeffer's concept ofsound objectwas not influential among Japanese composers, who were mainly interested in overcoming the restrictions of human performance.This led to several Japaneseelectroacoustic musiciansmaking use ofserialismandtwelve-tone techniques,evident inYoshirō Irino's 1951dodecaphonicpiece "Concerto da Camera",in the organization of electronic sounds in Mayuzumi's "X, Y, Z for Musique Concrète", and later in Shibata's electronic music by 1956.

Modelling the NWDR studio in Cologne, established an NHK electronic music studio in Tokyo in 1954, which became one of the world's leading electronic music facilities.The NHK electronic music studio was equipped with technologies such as tone-generating and audio processing equipment, recording and radiophonic equipment, ondes Martenot,MonochordandMelochord,sine-waveoscillators,tape recorders,ring modulators,band-pass filters,and four- and eight-channelmixers.Musicians associated with the studio included Toshiro Mayuzumi, Minao Shibata, Joji Yuasa,Toshi Ichiyanagi,and Toru Takemitsu. The studio's first electronic compositions were completed in 1955, including Mayuzumi's five-minute pieces "Studie I: Music for Sine Wave by Proportion of Prime Number", "Music for Modulated Wave by Proportion of Prime Number" and "Invention for Square Wave and Sawtooth Wave" produced using the studio's various tone-generating capabilities, and Shibata's 20-minute stereo piece "Musique Concrète for Stereophonic Broadcast".

Mid-to-late 1950s

The impact of computers continued in 1956.Lejaren HillerandLeonard IsaacsoncomposedIlliac Suiteforstring quartet,the first complete work of computer-assisted composition usingalgorithmiccomposition. "... Hiller postulated that a computer could be taught the rules of a particular style and then called on to compose accordingly."Later developments included the work ofMax MathewsatBell Laboratories,who developed the influentialMUSIC Iprogram in 1957, one of the first computer programs to play electronic music.Vocodertechnology was also a major development in this early era. In 1956, Stockhausen composedGesang der Jünglinge,the first major work of the Cologne studio, based on a text from theBook of Daniel.An important technological development of that year was the invention of theClavivoxsynthesizer byRaymond Scottwith subassembly byRobert Moog.

In 1957, Kid Baltan (Dick Raaymakers) andTom Disseveltreleased their debut album,Song Of The Second Moon,recorded at the Philips studio in the Netherlands.The public remained interested in the new sounds being created around the world, as can be deduced by the inclusion of Varèse'sPoème électronique,which was played over four hundred loudspeakers at the Philips Pavilion of the 1958Brussels World Fair.That same year,Mauricio Kagel,anArgentinecomposer, composedTransición II.The work was realized at the WDR studio in Cologne. Two musicians performed on the piano, one in the traditional manner, the other playing on the strings, frame, and case. Two other performers used tape to unite the presentation of live sounds with the future of prerecorded materials from later on and its past of recordings made earlier in the performance.

RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer

In 1958, Columbia-Princeton developed theRCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer,the first programmable synthesizer.Prominent composers such as Vladimir Ussachevsky, Otto Luening,Milton Babbitt,Charles Wuorinen,Halim El-Dabh,Bülent ArelandMario Davidovskyused theRCASynthesizer extensively in various compositions.One of the most influential composers associated with the early years of the studio was Egypt'sHalim El-Dabhwho,after having developed the earliest known electronic tape music in 1944,became more famous forLeiyla and the Poet,a 1959 series of electronic compositions that stood out for its immersion and seamlessfusionof electronic andfolk music,in contrast to the more mathematical approach used byserialcomposers of the time such as Babbitt. El-Dabh'sLeiyla and the Poet,released as part of the albumColumbia-Princeton Electronic Music Centerin 1961, would be cited as a strong influence by a number of musicians, ranging fromNeil Rolnick,Charles AmirkhanianandAlice Shieldsto rock musiciansFrank ZappaandThe West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band.

Following the emergence of differences within the GRMC (Groupe de Recherche de Musique Concrète) Pierre Henry, Philippe Arthuys, and several of their colleagues, resigned in April 1958. Schaeffer created a new collective, calledGroupe de Recherches Musicales(GRM) and set about recruiting new members includingLuc Ferrari,Beatriz Ferreyra,François-Bernard Mâche,Iannis Xenakis,Bernard Parmegiani,andMireille Chamass-Kyrou.Later arrivals includedIvo Malec,Philippe Carson, Romuald Vandelle, Edgardo Canton andFrançois Bayle.

Expansion: 1960s

See also:Synthesizer,Harald Bode,Modular synthesizer,Buchla,andMoog Music

These were fertile years for electronic music—not just for academia, but for independent artists as synthesizer technology became more accessible. By this time, a strong community of composers and musicians working with new sounds and instruments was established and growing. 1960 witnessed the composition of Luening'sGargoylesfor violin and tape as well as the premiere of Stockhausen'sKontaktefor electronic sounds, piano, and percussion. This piece existed in two versions—one for 4-channel tape, and the other for tape with human performers. "InKontakte,Stockhausen abandoned traditional musical form based on linear development and dramatic climax. This new approach, which he termed 'moment form', resembles the 'cinematic splice' techniques in early twentieth-century film. "

Thethereminhad been in use since the 1920s but it attained a degree of popular recognition through its use in science-fiction film soundtrack music in the 1950s (e.g.,Bernard Herrmann's classic score forThe Day the Earth Stood Still).

In the UK in this period, theBBC Radiophonic Workshop(established in 1958) came to prominence, thanks in large measure to their work on the BBC science-fiction seriesDoctor Who.One of the most influential British electronic artists in this periodwas Workshop stafferDelia Derbyshire,who is now famous for her 1963 electronic realisation of the iconicDoctor Whotheme,composed byRon Grainer.Other composers of electronic music active in the UK includedErnest Berk(who established his first studio in 1955),Tristram Cary,Hugh Davies,Brian Dennis,George Newson,Daphne OramandPeter Zinovieff.

Israeli composer Josef Tal at the Electronic Music Studio in Jerusalem (c. 1965) withHugh Le Caine's Creative Tape Recorder (a sound synthesizer) aka "Multi-track"

During the time of theUNESCOfellowship for studies in electronic music (1958)Josef Talwent on a study tour in the US and Canada.He summarized his conclusions in two articles that he submitted to UNESCO.In 1961, he established theCentre for Electronic Music in IsraelatThe Hebrew Universityof Jerusalem. In 1962,Hugh Le Cainearrived in Jerusalem to install hisCreative Tape Recorderin the centre.In the 1990s Tal conducted, together with Dr. Shlomo Markel, in cooperation with theTechnion – Israel Institute of Technology,and theVolkswagen Foundationa research project ('Talmark') aimed at the development of a novel musical notation system for electronic music.

Milton Babbitt composed his first electronic work using the synthesizer—hisComposition for Synthesizer(1961)—which he created using the RCA synthesizer at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center.

For Babbitt, the RCA synthesizer was a dream come true for three reasons. First, the ability to pinpoint and control every musical element precisely. Second, the time needed to realize his elaborate serial structures were brought within practical reach. Third, the question was no longer "What are the limits of the human performer?" but rather "What are the limits of human hearing?"

The collaborations also occurred across oceans and continents. In 1961, Ussachevsky invited Varèse to the Columbia-Princeton Studio (CPEMC). Upon arrival, Varese embarked upon a revision ofDéserts.He was assisted byMario DavidovskyandBülent Arel.

The intense activity occurring at CPEMC and elsewhere inspired the establishment of theSan Francisco Tape Music Centerin 1963 byMorton Subotnick,with additional membersPauline Oliveros,Ramon Sender,Anthony Martin, andTerry Riley.

Later, the Center moved toMills College,directed byPauline Oliveros,and has since been renamed Center for Contemporary Music.Pietro Grossiwas an Italian pioneer of computer composition and tape music, who first experimented with electronic techniques in the early sixties. Grossi was a cellist and composer, born in Venice in 1917. He founded the S 2F M (Studio de Fonologia Musicale di Firenze) in 1963 to experiment with electronic sound and composition.

Simultaneously in San Francisco, composer Stan Shaff and equipment designer Doug McEachern, presented the first "Audium" concert at San Francisco State College (1962), followed by work at theSan Francisco Museum of Modern Art(1963), conceived of as in time, controlled movement of sound in space. Twelve speakers surrounded the audience, four speakers were mounted on a rotating, mobile-like construction above.In an SFMOMA performance the following year (1964),San Francisco Chroniclemusic critic Alfred Frankenstein commented, "the possibilities of the space-sound continuum have seldom been so extensively explored".In 1967, the firstAudium,a "sound-space continuum" opened, holding weekly performances through 1970. In 1975, enabled by seed money from theNational Endowment for the Arts,a new Audium opened, designed floor to ceiling for spatial sound composition and performance."In contrast, there are composers who manipulated sound space by locating multiple speakers at various locations in a performance space and then switching or panning the sound between the sources. In this approach, the composition of spatial manipulation is dependent on the location of the speakers and usually exploits the acoustical properties of the enclosure. Examples include Varese'sPoeme Electronique(tape music performed in the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 World Fair, Brussels) and Stan Schaff'sAudiuminstallation, currently active in San Francisco. "Through weekly programs (over 4,500 in 40 years), Shaff "sculpts" sound, performing now-digitized spatial works live through 176 speakers.

Jean-Jacques Perreyexperimented with Schaeffer's techniques on tape loops and was among the first to use the recently released Moog synthesizer developed by Robert Moog. With this instrument he composed some works withGershon Kingsleyand solo.A well-known example of the use of Moog's full-sizedMoog modular synthesizeris the 1968Switched-On Bachalbum byWendy Carlos,which triggered a craze for synthesizer music.In 1969David Tudorbrought aMoog modular synthesizerand Ampex tape machines to theNational Institute of Designin Ahmedabad with the support of theSarabhai family,forming the foundation of India's first electronic music studio. Here a group of composers Jinraj Joshipura, Gita Sarabhai, SC Sharma, IS Mathur and Atul Desai developed experimental sound compositions between 1969 and 1973.

Computer music

Main article:Computer music

See also:Music-NandAlgorithmic composition

Musical melodies were first generated by the computerCSIRACin Australia in 1950. There were newspaper reports from America and England (early and recently) that computers may have played music earlier, but thorough research has debunked these stories as there is no evidence to support the newspaper reports (some of which were obviously speculative). Research has shown that peoplespeculatedabout computers playing music, possibly because computers would make noises,but there is no evidence that they actually did it.

The world's first computer to play music wasCSIRAC,which was designed and built byTrevor Pearceyand Maston Beard in the 1950s. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1951 it publicly played the "Colonel Bogey March"of which no known recordings exist. However,CSIRACplayed standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice which is current computer-music practice.

The first music to be performed in England was a performance of theBritish National Anthemthat was programmed byChristopher Stracheyon the Ferranti Mark I, late in 1951. Later that year, short extracts of three pieces were recorded there by aBBCoutside broadcasting unit: the National Anthem, "Ba, Ba Black Sheep",and"In the Mood"and this is recognised as the earliest recording of a computer to play music. This recording can be heard atthis Manchester University site.Researchers at theUniversity of Canterbury,Christchurch declicked and restored this recording in 2016 and the results may be heard onSoundCloud.

The late 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s also saw the development of large mainframe computer synthesis. Starting in 1957, Max Mathews of Bell Labs developed the MUSIC programs, culminating inMUSIC V,a direct digital synthesis language.Laurie Spiegeldeveloped thealgorithmic musical compositionsoftware "Music Mouse"(1986) forMacintosh,Amiga,andAtaricomputers.

Stochastic music

An important new development was the advent of computers to compose music, as opposed to manipulating or creating sounds.Iannis Xenakisbegan what is calledmusique stochastique,orstochastic music,which is a composing method that uses mathematical probability systems. Different probability algorithms were used to create a piece under a set of parameters. Xenakis used computers to compose pieces likeST/4for string quartet andST/48for orchestra (both 1962),Morsima-Amorsima,ST/10,andAtrées.He developed the computer systemUPICfor translating graphical images into musical results and composedMycènes Alpha(1978) with it.

Live electronics

Main article:Live electronic music

In Europe in 1964,Karlheinz StockhausencomposedMikrophonie Ifortam-tam,hand-held microphones, filters, and potentiometers, andMixturfor orchestra, foursine-wavegenerators, and fourring modulators.In 1965 he composedMikrophonie IIfor choir, Hammond organ, and ring modulators.

In 1966–1967,Reed Ghazaladiscovered and began to teach "circuit bending"—the application of the creative short circuit, a process of chance short-circuiting, creating experimental electronic instruments, exploring sonic elements mainly of timbre and with less regard to pitch or rhythm, and influenced byJohn Cage'saleatoric music[sic] concept.

Cosey Fanni Tutti's performance art and musical career explored the concept of 'acceptable' music and she went on to explore the use of sound as a means of desire or discomfort.

Wendy Carlosperformed selections from her albumSwitched-On Bachon stage with a synthesizer with theSt. Louis Symphony Orchestra;another live performance was with Kurzweil Baroque Ensemble for "Bach at the Beacon" in 1997.In June 2018,Suzanne CianireleasedLIVE Quadraphonic,a live album documenting her first solo performance on a Buchla synthesizer in 40 years. It was one of the first quadraphonic vinyl releases in over 30 years.

Japanese instruments

Earlyelectronic organ:YamahaElectoneD-1 (1959)

In the 1950s,Japaneseelectronic musical instrumentsbegan influencing the internationalmusic industry.Ikutaro Kakehashi,who foundedAce Tonein 1960, developed his own version of electronic percussion that had been already popular on the overseas electronic organ.At the 1964NAMM Show,he revealed it as the R-1 Rhythm Ace, a hand-operated percussion device that played electronic drum sounds manually as the user pushed buttons, in a similar fashion to modern electronic drum pads.

Earlydrum machine:KorgDonca Matic DA-20 (1963)

In 1963,Korgreleased theDonca-Matic DA-20,an electro-mechanicaldrum machine.In 1965,Nippon Columbiapatented a fully electronic drum machine.Korg released the Donca-Matic DC-11 electronic drum machine in 1966, which they followed with theKorg Mini Pops,which was developed as an option for theYamaha Electoneelectric organ.Korg's Stageman and Mini Pops series were notable for "natural metallic percussion" sounds and incorporating controls for drum "breaksandfill-ins."

In 1967, Ace Tone founderIkutaro Kakehashipatented a preset rhythm-pattern generator usingdiode matrixcircuitsimilar to theSeeburg's priorU.S. patent 3,358,068filed in 1964 (SeeDrum machine#History), which he released as the FR-1 Rhythm Ace drum machine the same year.It offered 16 preset patterns, and four buttons to manually play each instrument sound (cymbal,claves,cowbellandbass drum). The rhythm patterns could also be cascaded together by pushing multiple rhythm buttons simultaneously, and the possible combination of rhythm patterns were more than a hundred.Ace Tone's Rhythm Ace drum machines found their way intopopular musicfrom the late 1960s, followed by Korg drum machines in the 1970s.Kakehashi later left Ace Tone and foundedRoland Corporationin 1972, withRoland synthesizersanddrum machinesbecoming highly influential for the next several decades.The company would go on to have a big impact onpopular music,and do more to shape popular electronic music than any other company.

Direct-drive turntable:TechnicsSL-1200(introduced in 1972)

Turntablismhas origins in the invention ofdirect-drive turntables.Earlybelt-drive turntableswere unsuitable for turntablism, since they had a slow start-up time, and they were prone to wear-and-tear and breakage, as the belt would break from backspin or scratching.The first direct-drive turntable was invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer atMatsushita(nowPanasonic),based inOsaka,Japan. It eliminated belts, and instead employed a motor to directly drive a platter on which a vinyl record rests.In 1969, Matsushita released it as theSP-10,the first direct-drive turntable on the market,and the first in their influentialTechnicsseries of turntables.It was succeeded by the Technics SL-1100 andSL-1200in the early 1970s, and they were widely adopted byhip hop musicians,with the SL-1200 remaining the most widely used turntable in DJ culture for several decades.

Jamaican dub music

Main article:Dub music

See also:Sound system (Jamaican)

In Jamaica,a form of popular electronic music emerged in the 1960s,dub music,rooted insound systemculture. Dub music was pioneered by studio engineers, such as Sylvan Morris,King Tubby,Errol Thompson,Lee "Scratch" Perry,andScientist,producingreggae-influencedexperimental musicwith electronic sound technology, in recording studios and at sound system parties.Their experiments included forms oftape-based compositioncomparable to aspects ofmusique concrète,an emphasis on repetitive rhythmic structures (often stripped of their harmonic elements) comparable tominimalism,the electronic manipulation of spatiality, the sonic electronic manipulation of pre-recorded musical materials from mass media,deejaystoastingover pre-recorded music comparable tolive electronic music,remi xingmusic,turntablism,and the mi xing and scratching of vinyl.

Despite the limited electronic equipment available to dub pioneers such as King Tubby and Lee "Scratch" Perry, their experiments in remix culture were musically cutting-edge.King Tubby, for example, was a sound system proprietor and electronics technician, whose small front-room studio in the Waterhouse ghetto of westernKingstonwas a key site of dub music creation.

Late 1960s to early 1980s

Rise of popular electronic music

Main articles:Electronic rock,Synth-pop,Electropop,Electro music,andHouse music

See also:Progressive rock,Krautrock,Space rock,andContemporary electronic music

In the late 1960s, pop and rock musicians, includingthe Beach Boysandthe Beatles,began to use electronic instruments, like thethereminandMellotron,to supplement and define their sound. The first bands to utilize theMoog synthesizerwould bethe DoorsonStrange Daysas well asthe MonkeesonPisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd.In his bookElectronic and Experimental Music,Thom Holmes recognises the Beatles' 1966 recording "Tomorrow Never Knows"as the song that" ushered in a new era in the use of electronic music in rock and pop music "due to the band's incorporation of tape loops and reversed and speed-manipulated tape sounds.

Also in the late 1960s, the music duosSilver Apples,Beaver and Krause,and experimental rock bands likeWhite Noise,the United States of America,Fifty Foot Hose,andGongare regarded as pioneers in the electronic rock andelectronicagenres for their work in melding psychedelic rock with oscillators and synthesizers.The 1969 instrumental "Popcorn"written by Gershon Kingsley forMusic To Moog Bybecame a worldwide success due to the 1972 version made byHot Butter.

The Moog synthesizer was brought to the mainstream in 1968 bySwitched-On Bach,a bestselling album of Bach compositions arranged for Moog synthesizer by American composerWendy Carlos.The album achieved critical and commercial success, winning the1970 Grammy AwardsforBest Classical Album,Best Classical Performance – Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (With or Without Orchestra),andBest Engineered Classical Recording.

In 1969,David Bordenformed the world's first synthesizer ensemble called theMother Mallard's Portable Masterpiece Companyin Ithaca, New York.

Keith Emersonperforming in Saint Petersburg in 2008

By the end of the 1960s, theMoog synthesizertook a leading place in the sound of emergingprogressive rockwith bands includingPink Floyd,Yes,Emerson, Lake & Palmer,andGenesismaking them part of their sound. Instrumental prog rock was particularly significant in continental Europe, allowing bands likeKraftwerk,Tangerine Dream,Cluster,Can,Neu!,andFaustto circumvent the language barrier.Their synthesiser-heavy "krautrock",along with the work ofBrian Eno(for a time the keyboard player withRoxy Music), would be a major influence on subsequentelectronic rock.

Ambient dubwas pioneered by King Tubby and other Jamaicansound artists,using DJ-inspiredambientelectronics, complete with drop-outs, echo, equalization andpsychedelicelectronic effects. It featured layering techniques and incorporated elements ofworld music,deepbasslinesand harmonic sounds.Techniques such as a long echo delay were also used.Other notable artists within the genre includeDreadzone,Higher Intelligence Agency,The Orb,Ott,Loop Guru,WoobandTransglobal Underground.

Dub music influenced electronic musical techniques later adopted byhip hop musicwhen Jamaican immigrantDJ Kool Hercin the early 1970s introduced Jamaica's sound system culture and dub music techniques to America. One such technique that became popular inhip hopculture was playing two copies of the same record on two turntables in alternation, extending theb-dancers' favorite section.The turntable eventually went on to become the most visible electronic musical instrument, and occasionally the mostvirtuosic,in the 1980s and 1990s.

Electronic rock was also produced by several Japanese musicians, includingIsao Tomita'sElectric Samurai: Switched on Rock(1972), which featured Moog synthesizer renditions of contemporary pop and rock songs,andOsamu Kitajima's progressive rock albumBenzaiten(1974).The mid-1970s saw the rise of electronic art music musicians such asJean Michel Jarre,Vangelis,TomitaandKlaus Schulzewho were significant influences on the development ofnew-age music.Thehi-techappeal of these works created for some years the trend of listing the electronic musical equipment employed in the album sleeves, as a distinctive feature. Electronic music began to enter regularly in radio programming and top-sellers charts, as the French bandSpacewith their debut studio albumMagic Flyor Jarre withOxygène.Between 1977 and 1981, Kraftwerk released albums such asTrans-Europe Express,The Man-MachineorComputer World,which influenced subgenres of electronic music.

In this era, the sound of rock musicians likeMike OldfieldandThe Alan Parsons Project(who is credited the first rock song to feature a digitalvocoderin 1975,The Raven) used to be arranged and blended with electronic effects and/or music as well, which became much more prominent in the mid-1980s.Jeff Wayneachieved a long-lasting successwith his 1978 electronic rock musical version ofThe War of the Worlds.

Film scoresalso benefit from the electronic sound. During the 1970s and 1980s, Wendy Carlos composed the score forA Clockwork Orange,The ShiningandTron.In 1977,Gene Pagerecorded a disco version of the hit theme byJohn WilliamsfromSteven SpielbergfilmClose Encounters of the Third Kind.Page's version peaked on theR&Bchart at #30.The score of 1978 filmMidnight Expresscomposed by Italian synth-pioneerGiorgio Moroderwon theAcademy Award for Best Original Scorein1979,as did it again in1981the score byVangelisforChariots of Fire.After the arrival ofpunk rock,a form of basic electronic rock emerged, increasingly using new digital technology to replace other instruments. The American duoSuicide,who arose from the punk scene in New York, utilized drum machines and synthesizers in a hybrid between electronics and punk on theireponymous 1977 album.

Synth-poppioneering bands which enjoyed success for years includedUltravoxwith their 1977 track "Hiroshima Mon Amour" onHa!-Ha!-Ha!,Yellow Magic Orchestrawith theirself-titled album(1978),The Buggleswith their prominent 1979 debut singleVideo Killed the Radio Star,Gary Numanwith his solo debut albumThe Pleasure Principleand singleCarsin 1979,Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Darkwith their 1979 singleElectricityfeatured on theireponymous debut album,Depeche Modewith their first singleDreaming of Merecorded in 1980 and released in 1981 albumSpeak & Spell,A Flock of Seagullswith their 1981 singleTalking,New OrderwithCeremonyin 1981, andThe Human Leaguewith their 1981 hitDon't You Want Mefrom their third albumDare.

New Order performing in Chile in 2019

The definition ofMIDIand the development ofdigital audiomade the development of purely electronic sounds much easier,withaudio engineers,producers and composers exploring frequently the possibilities of virtually every new model of electronic sound equipment launched by manufacturers. Synth-pop sometimes used synthesizers to replace all other instruments, but it was more common that bands had one or more keyboardists in their line-ups along with guitarists, bassists, and/or drummers. These developments led to the growth of synth-pop, which after it was adopted by theNew Romanticmovement, allowed synthesizers to dominate the pop and rock music of the early 1980s until the style began to fall from popularity in the mid-to-end of the decade.Along with the aforementioned successful pioneers, key acts includedYazoo,Duran Duran,Spandau Ballet,Culture Club,Talk Talk,Japan,andEurythmics.

Synth-pop was taken up across the world, with international hits for acts includingMen Without Hats,Trans-XandLimefrom Canada,Telexfrom Belgium,Peter Schilling,Sandra,Modern Talking,PropagandaandAlphavillefrom Germany,Yellofrom Switzerland andAzul y Negrofrom Spain. Also, the synth sound is a key feature ofItalo-disco.

Some synth-pop bands created futuristic visual styles of themselves to reinforce the idea of electronic sounds were linked primarily with technology, as AmericansDevoand SpaniardsAviador Dro.

Keyboard synthesizers became so common that evenheavy metalrock bands, a genre often regarded as theoppositein aesthetics, sound and lifestyle from that of electronic pop artists by fans of both sides, achieved worldwide success with themes as 1983JumpbyVan Halenand 1986The Final CountdownbyEurope,which feature synths prominently.

Proliferation of electronic music research institutions

Elektronmusikstudion(EMS), formerly known as Electroacoustic Music in Sweden, is the Swedish national centre for electronic music andsound art.The research organisation started in 1964 and is based in Stockholm.

IRCAM at the Place Igor Stravinsky, Paris

STEIM(1969-2021) was a center forresearch and development of new musical instrumentsin the electronic performing arts, located in Amsterdam, Netherlands. It was founded byMisha Mengelberg,Louis Andriessen,Peter Schat,Dick Raaymakers,Jan van Vlijmen,Reinbert de Leeuw,andKonrad Boehmer.This group of Dutch composers had fought for the reformation of Amsterdam's feudal music structures; they insisted on Bruno Maderna's appointment as musical director of the Concertgebouw Orchestra and enforced the first public fundings for experimental and improvised electronic music in the Netherlands. From 1981-2008,Michel Waisviszwas artistic director, and his live-electronic instruments like theCrackleboxor The Hands inspired international artists to work at STEIM which entertained a residency program since 1992.

IRCAMin Paris became a major center for computer music research and realization and development of theSogitec 4Xcomputer system,featuring then revolutionary real-time digital signal processing.Pierre Boulez'sRépons(1981) for 24 musicians and 6 soloists used the 4X to transform and route soloists to a loudspeaker system.

Barry Vercoedescribes one of his experiences with early computer sounds:

Sogitec 4X(c. 1983)at IRCAM machine room in 1989

At IRCAM in Paris in 1982, flutistLarry Beauregardhad connected his flute to DiGiugno's4Xaudio processor, enabling real-time pitch-following. On aGuggenheimat the time, I extended this concept to real-time score-following with automatic synchronized accompaniment, and over the next two years Larry and I gave numerous demonstrations of the computer as a chamber musician, playingHandelflute sonatas,Boulez'sSonatinefor flute and piano and by 1984 my ownSynapse IIfor flute and computer—the first piece ever composed expressly for such a setup. A major challenge was finding the right software constructs to support highly sensitive and responsive accompaniment. All of this was pre-MIDI, but the results were impressive even though heavy doses of tempo rubato would continually surprise mySynthetic Performer.In 1985 we solved the tempo rubato problem by incorporatinglearning from rehearsals(each time you played this way the machine would get better). We were also now tracking violin, since our brilliant, young flautist had contracted a fatal cancer. Moreover, this version used a new standard called MIDI, and here I was ably assisted by former student Miller Puckette, whose initial concepts for this task he later expanded into a program calledMAX.

Keyboard synthesizers

Mini-Moog synthesizer

See also:Modular synthesizer,Buchla,Electronic Music Studios,andKorg

Released in 1970 byMoog Music,theMini-Moogwas among the first widely available, portable, and relatively affordable synthesizers. It became once the most widely used synthesizer at that time in both popular and electronic art music. Patrick Gleeson,playing live withHerbie Hancockat the beginning of the 1970s, pioneered the use of synthesizers in a touring context, where they were subject to stresses the early machines were not designed for.

In 1974, theWDRstudio in Cologne acquired anEMS Synthi 100synthesizer, which many composers used to produce notable electronic works—includingRolf Gehlhaar'sFünf deutsche Tänze(1975), Karlheinz Stockhausen'sSirius(1975–1976), andJohn McGuire'sPulse Music III(1978).

Thanks tominiaturization of electronicsin the 1970s, by the start of the 1980s keyboard synthesizers, became lighter and affordable, integrating into a single slim unit all the necessary audio synthesis electronics and the piano-style keyboard itself, in sharp contrast with the bulky machinery and "cable spaguetty"employed along with the 1960s and 1970s. First, with analog synthesizers, the trend followed with digital synthesizers and samplers as well (see below).

Digital synthesizers

See also:Digital synthesizer,Digitally controlled oscillator,Additive synthesis § Implementations,Subtractive synthesis,Phase distortion synthesis,andBell Labs Digital Synthesizer

In 1975, the Japanese companyYamahalicensed the algorithms forfrequency modulation synthesis(FM synthesis) fromJohn Chowning,who had experimented with it atStanford Universitysince 1971.Yamaha's engineers began adapting Chowning's algorithm for use in a digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the "key scaling" method to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems duringfrequency modulation.

In 1980, Yamaha eventually released the first FM digital synthesizer, the Yamaha GS-1, but at an expensive price.In 1983, Yamaha introduced the first stand-alone digital synthesizer, theDX7,which also used FM synthesis and would become one of the best-selling synthesizers of all time.The DX7 was known for its recognizable bright tonalities that was partly due to anoverachievingsampling rateof 57 kHz.

Yamaha DX7,a model for many digital synthesizers of the 1980s

TheKorg Poly-800is a synthesizer released byKorgin 1983. Its initial list price of $795 made it the first fully programmable synthesizer that sold for less than $1000. It had 8-voicepolyphonywith oneDigitally controlled oscillator(DCO) per voice.

TheCasio CZ-101was the first and best-sellingphase distortionsynthesizer in theCasioCZline. Released in November 1984, it was one of the first (if not the first) fully programmable polyphonic synthesizers that was available for under $500.

TheRoland D-50is a digital synthesizer produced byRolandand released in April 1987. Its features includesubtractive synthesis,on-board effects, a joystick for data manipulation, and an analogue synthesis-styled layout design. The external Roland PG-1000 (1987–1990) programmer could also be attached to the D-50 for more complex manipulation of its sounds.

Samplers

See also:Sampling (music),Fairlight CMI,andSynclavier

Asampleris an electronic or digitalmusical instrumentwhich usessound recordings(or "samples") of real instrument sounds (e.g., a piano, violin or trumpet), excerpts from recorded songs (e.g., a five-second bass guitarrifffrom afunksong) orfound sounds(e.g., sirens and ocean waves). The samples are loaded or recorded by the user or by a manufacturer. These sounds are then played back using the sampler program itself, aMIDI keyboard,sequenceror another triggering device (e.g.,electronic drums) to perform or compose music. Because these samples are usually stored in digital memory, the information can be quickly accessed. A single sample may often bepitch-shiftedto different pitches to produce musicalscalesandchords.

Fairlight CMI (1979–)

Before computer memory-based samplers, musicians used tape replay keyboards, which store recordings on analog tape. When a key is pressed the tape head contacts the moving tape and plays a sound. TheMellotronwas the most notable model, used by many groups in the late 1960s and the 1970s, but such systems were expensive and heavy due to the multiple tape mechanisms involved, and the range of the instrument was limited to three octaves at the most. To change sounds a new set of tapes had to be installed in the instrument. The emergence of thedigitalsampler made sampling far more practical.

The earliest digital sampling was done on theEMSMusys system, developed by Peter Grogono (software), David Cockerell (hardware and interfacing), andPeter Zinovieff(system design and operation) at their London (Putney) Studio c. 1969.

The first commercially available sampling synthesizer was theComputer Music MelodianbyHarry Mendell(1976).

First released in 1977–1978,theSynclavier IusingFM synthesis,re-licensed fromYamaha,and sold mostly to universities, proved to be highly influential among both electronic music composers and music producers, includingMike Thorne,an early adopter from the commercial world, due to its versatility, its cutting-edge technology, and distinctive sounds.

The first polyphonic digital sampling synthesizer was the Australian-producedFairlight CMI,first available in 1979. These early sampling synthesizers used wavetablesample-based synthesis.

Birth of MIDI

Main article:MIDI

In 1980, a group of musicians and music merchants met to standardize an interface that new instruments could use to communicate control instructions with other instruments and computers. This standard was dubbed Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) and resulted from a collaboration between leading manufacturers, initiallySequential Circuits,Oberheim,Roland—and later, other participants that includedYamaha,Korg,andKawai.A paper was authored byDave Smithof Sequential Circuits and proposed to theAudio Engineering Societyin 1981. Then, in August 1983, the MIDI Specification 1.0 was finalized.

MIDI technology allows a single keystroke, control wheel motion, pedal movement, or command from a microcomputer to activate every device in the studio remotely and synchrony, with each device responding according to conditions predetermined by the composer.

MIDI instruments and software made powerful control of sophisticated instruments easily affordable by many studios and individuals. Acoustic sounds became reintegrated into studios viasamplingand sampled-ROM-based instruments.

Miller Puckettedeveloped graphic signal-processing software for4XcalledMax(afterMax Mathews) and later ported it toMacintosh(with Dave Zicarelli extending it forOpcode)for real-time MIDI control, bringing algorithmic composition availability to most composers with modest computer programming background.

Sequencers and drum machines

Main articles:Music sequencerandDrum machine

The early 1980s saw the rise ofbass synthesizers,the most influential being theRoland TB-303,a bass synthesizer andsequencerreleased in late 1981 that later became a fixture inelectronic dance music,particularlyacid house.One of the first to use it wasCharanjit Singhin 1982, though it would not be popularized untilPhuture's "Acid Tracks"in 1987.Music sequencersbegan being used around the mid 20th century, and Tomita's albums in mid-1970s being later examples.In 1978, Yellow Magic Orchestra were using computer-based technology in conjunction with a synthesiser to produce popular music,making their early use of themicroprocessor-basedRoland MC-8 Microcomposersequencer.

Drum machines,also known as rhythm machines, also began being used around the late-1950s, with a later example beingOsamu Kitajima's progressive rock albumBenzaiten(1974), which used a rhythm machine along withelectronic drumsand a synthesizer.In 1977,Ultravox's "Hiroshima Mon Amour"was one of the first singles to use themetronome-like percussion of aRoland TR-77drum machine.In 1980,Roland Corporationreleased theTR-808,one of the first and most popular programmabledrum machines.The first band to use it was Yellow Magic Orchestra in 1980, and it would later gain widespread popularity with the release ofMarvin Gaye's "Sexual Healing"andAfrika Bambaataa's "Planet Rock"in 1982.The TR-808 was a fundamental tool in the later Detroit techno scene of the late 1980s, and was the drum machine of choice forDerrick MayandJuan Atkins.

Chiptunes

Main article:Chiptune

See also:Video game music

The characteristic lo-fi sound of chip music was initially the result of early computer'ssound chipsandsound cards' technical limitations; however, the sound has since become sought after in its own right.

Common cheap popular sound chips of the firsthome computersof the 1980s include theSIDof theCommodore 64andGeneral Instrument AYseries and clones (like the Yamaha YM2149) used in theZX Spectrum,Amstrad CPC,MSXcompatibles andAtari STmodels, among others.

Late 1980s to 1990s

Rise of dance music

Main article:Electronic dance music

Synth-pop continued into the late 1980s, with a format that moved closer to dance music, including the work of acts such as British duosPet Shop Boys,ErasureandThe Communards,achieving success along much of the 1990s.

The trend has continued to the present day with modern nightclubs worldwide regularly playing electronic dance music (EDM). Today, electronic dance music has radio stations,websites,and publications likeMixmagdedicated solely to the genre. Despite the industry's attempt to create a specific EDM brand, the initialism remains in use as an umbrella term for multiple genres, includingdance-pop,house,techno,electro,andtrance,as well as their respective subgenres.Moreover, the genre has found commercial and cultural significance in the United States and North America, thanks to the wildly popularbig room house/EDM sound that has been incorporated into the U.S. pop musicand the rise of large-scale commercialravessuch asElectric Daisy Carnival,TomorrowlandandUltra Music Festival.

Electronica

On the other hand, a broad group of electronic-based music styles intended for listening rather than strictly for dancing became known under the "electronica"umbrellawhich was also a music scene in the early 1990s in the United Kingdom.According to a 1997Billboardarticle, "the union of theclubcommunity andindependent labels"provided the experimental and trend-setting environment in which electronica acts developed and eventually reached the mainstream, citing American labels such asAstralwerks(the Chemical Brothers,Fatboy Slim,the Future Sound of London,Fluke),Moonshine(DJ Keoki),Sims,Daft Punkand City of Angels (the Crystal Method) for popularizing the latest version of electronic music.

Indie electronic

See also:Indie music

The category "indie electronic" (or "indietronica" )has been used to refer to a wave of groups with roots inindependent rockwho embraced electronic elements (such as synthesizers, samplers, drum machines, and computer programs) and influences such as early electronic composition, krautrock, synth-pop, and dance music.Recordings are commonly made onlaptopsusingdigital audio workstations.

The first wave of indie electronic artists began in the 1990s with acts such asStereolab(who used vintage gear) andDisco Inferno(who embraced modern sampling technology), and the genre expanded in the 2000s ashome recordingandsoftware synthesizerscame into common use.Other acts includedBroadcast,Lali Puna,Múm,the Postal Service,Skeletons,andSchool of Seven Bells.Independent labels associated with the style includeWarp,Morr Music,Sub Pop,andGhostly International.

2000s and 2010s

Weekend Festival,an electronic music event inPärnu,Estonia,in 2016

As computer technology has become more accessible andmusic softwarehas advanced, interacting with music production technology is now possible using means that bear no relationship to traditionalmusical performancepractices:for instance,laptopperformance (laptronica),live codingandAlgorave.In general, the termLive PArefers to any live performance of electronic music, whether with laptops, synthesizers, or other devices.

Beginning around the year 2000, some software-based virtual studio environments emerged, with products such as Propellerhead'sReasonandAbleton Livefinding popular appeal.Such tools provide viable and cost-effective alternatives to typical hardware-based production studios, and thanks to advances inmicroprocessortechnology, it is now possible to create high-quality music using little more than a single laptop computer. Such advances have democratized music creation,leading to a massive increase in the amount of home-produced electronic music available to the general public via the internet. Software-based instruments and effect units (so-called "plugins" ) can be incorporated in a computer-based studio using the VST platform. Some of these instruments are more or less exact replicas of existing hardware (such as the Roland D-50, ARP Odyssey, Yamaha DX7, or Korg M1).

Circuit bending

Circuit bendingis the modification of battery-powered toys and synthesizers to create new unintended sound effects. It was pioneered by Reed Ghazala in the 1960s and Reed coined the name "circuit bending" in 1992.

Modular synth revival

Following the circuit bending culture, musicians also began to build their own modular synthesizers, causing a renewed interest in the early 1960s designs.Eurorackbecame a popular system.

See also

• Clavioline
• Electronic sackbut
• List of electronic music genres
• New Interfaces for Musical Expression
• Ondioline
• Spectral music
• Tracker music
• Timeline of electronic music genres

Live electronic music

• List of electronic music festivals
• Live electronic music

Footnotes

Sources

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Further reading

• Ankeny, Jason (2010),Kraftwerk: Biography,Allmusic
• Ankeny, Jason (2020),Yellow Magic Orchestra: Biography,Allmusic
• Anonymous (2001),"Theremin",BBCh2g2encyclopaedia project,retrieved20 May2008.Guide ID: A520831 (Edited).
• Anonymous (2007),"Inventing the Wire Recorder",recording-history.org,Recording History: The History of Recording Technology, archived fromthe originalon 14 May 2013,retrieved5 June2011
• Bassingthwaighte, Sarah Louise (2002),"Electroacoustic Music for the Flute",DMA dissertation,Seattle:University of Washington,retrieved29 December2011
• Blumröder, Christoph von(2017).Die elektroakustische Musik: Eine kompositorische Revolution und ihre Folgen.Signale aus Köln. Beiträge zur Musik der Zeit (in German). Vol. 22. Vienna: Verlag Der Apfel.ISBN978-3-85450-422-1.
• Bogdanov, Vladimir (2001), Chris Woodstra; Stephen Thomas Erlewine; John Bush (eds.),The All Music Guide to Electronica: The Definitive Guide to Electronic Music,AMG Allmusic Series, San Francisco: Backbeat Books,ISBN0-87930-628-9
• Brick, Howard (2000),Age of Contradiction: American Thought and Culture in the 1960s,Ithaca:Cornell University Press.,ISBN0-8014-8700-5(Originally published: New York: Twayne, 1998)
• Bush, John,"Tomita: Biography",billboard,archived fromthe originalon 14 November 2011,retrieved5 June2011
• Bush, John,Snowflakes Are Dancing: Electronic Performances of Debussy's Tone Paintings, Isao Tomita,Allmusic
• Bush, John (2009),Song Review: 'Blue Monday',Allmusic website
• Chadabe, Joel(1997),Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of Electronic Music,Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:Prentice Hall
• Chekalin, Mikhael (n.d.). "A. Patterson Light & Sound",itunes.apple Best of Electronic Music
• Crab, Simon (2005),"The Hammond Novachord (1939)",120years.net,120 Years of Electronic Music, archived fromthe originalon 22 July 2011,retrieved5 June2011
• Cummins, James (2008),Ambrosia: About a Culture—An Investigation of Electronica Music and Party Culture,Toronto, Ontario: Clark-Nova Books,ISBN978-0-9784892-1-2
• Donhauser, Peter (2007),Elektrische Klangmaschinen,Vienna: Boehlau
• Dorschel, Andreas, Gerhard Eckel, and Deniz Peters (eds.) (2012).Bodily Expression in Electronic Music: Perspectives on Reclaiming Performativity.Routledge Research in Music 2. London and New York: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-89080-9.
• Emmerson, Simon (1986).The Language of Electroacoustic Music.London: Macmillan.
• Emmerson, Simon, ed. (2000),Music, Electronic Media, and Culture,Aldershot, Hampshire; Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate,ISBN0-7546-0109-9
• Griffiths, Paul(1995),Modern Music and After: Directions Since 1945,Oxford and New York:Oxford University Press,ISBN0-19-816578-1
• Hammar, Peter (1999),"John T. Mullin: The Man Who Put Bing Crosby on Tape",Mix Online,no. 1 October, archived fromthe originalon 31 January 2010,retrieved13 January2010
• Heifetz, Robin J., ed. (1989),On The Wires of Our Nerves: The Art of Electroacoustic Music,Cranbury, New Jersey: Associated University Presses,ISBN0-8387-5155-5
• Kahn, Douglas(1999),Noise, Water, Meat: A History of Sound in the Arts,Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,ISBN0-262-11243-4,New edition 2001
• Kettlewell, Ben (2001),Electronic Music Pioneers,[N.p.]: Course Technology, Inc.,ISBN1-931140-17-0
• Licata, Thomas, ed. (2002),Electroacoustic Music: Analytical Perspectives,Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press,ISBN0-313-31420-9
• Ortonng, Otto(1964), "Some Random Remarks About Electronic Music",Journal of Music Theory,8(1 (Spring)): 89–98,JSTOR842974
• Macan, Edward L. (1997),Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture,Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press,ISBN0-19-509887-0
• Orton, Richard;Davies, Hugh(2001),"Ondes martenot",Grove Music Online,Oxford Music Online,retrieved2 February2011(subscription required)
• Peyser, Joan(1995),The Music of My Time,White Plains, New York: Pro/AM Music Resources; London: Kahn and Averill,ISBN978-0-912483-99-3
• Prendergast, Mark (2001),The Ambient Century: From Mahler to Trance: The Evolution of Sound in the Electronic Age,Forward [sic] by Brian Eno., New York: Bloomsbury,ISBN978-0-7475-4213-1,(hardcover eds.) (paper)
• Rappaport, Scott (2007),"Digital Arts and New Media Grad Students Collaborate Musically across Three Time Zones",UC Santa Cruz Currents Online,no. 2 April
• Reid, Gordon (2004),"The History Of Roland Part 1: 1930–1978",Sound on Sound(November),retrieved19 June2011
• Reynolds, Simon(1998),Energy Flash: A Journey Through Rave Music and Dance Culture,London: Pan Macmillan,ISBN0-330-35056-0(US title:Generation Ecstasy: Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture,Boston: Little, Brown, 1998,ISBN0-316-74111-6;New York: Routledge, 1999ISBN0-415-92373-5)
• Rosen, Jody (27 March 2008),"Researchers Play Tune Recorded before Edison",The New York Times
• Russolo, Luigi(1913), "L'arte dei rumori: manifesto futurista",Manifesti del movimento futurista 14,Milan: Direzione del movimento futurista.English version asRussolo (1967), "The Art of Noise: Futurist Manifesto 1913",A Great Bear Pamphlet 18,translated by Robert Filliou, New York: Something Else Press.Second English version asRussolo (1986), "The Art of Noises",Monographs in Musicology no. 6,translated from the Italian with an introduction by Barclay Brown, New York: Pendragon Press,ISBN0-918728-57-6
• Schaefer, John (1987),New Sounds: A Listener's Guide to New Music,New York: Harper Collins,ISBN0-06-097081-2
• Shanken, Edward A.(2009),Art and Electronic Media,London: Phaidon,ISBN978-0-7148-4782-5
• Shapiro, Peter, ed. (2000),Modulations: a History of Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound,New York: Caipirinha Productions,ISBN1-891024-06-X
• Sicko, Dan (1999),Techno Rebels: The Renegades of Electronic Funk,New York: Billboard Books,ISBN0-8230-8428-0
• Stevenson, Joseph (2004),Tomita: Biography,AllMusic
• Strange, Allen (1983),Electronic Music: Systems, Technics, and Controls,second ed. Dubuque, Iowa: W.C. Brown Co.ISBN978-0-697-03602-5.
• Tyson, Jeff (n.d.),How Movie Sound Works,Entertainment.howstuffworks,retrieved28 March2010
• Verboven, Jos (2014),"The Music Sequencer: What Is It and What Can It Do?",Electronic Music of Brainvoyager,Brainvoyager,retrieved17 April2016
• Watson, Scott (2005),"A Return to Modernism",Music Education Technology Magazine(February), archived fromthe originalon 10 January 2008
• Wells, Thomas(1981),The Technique of Electronic Music,New York: Schirmer Books; London: Collier Macmillan,ISBN978-0-02-872830-8
• Zimmer, Dave (2000),Crosby, Stills and Nash: The Authorized Biography,Photography by Henry Diltz, New York: Da Capo Press,ISBN0-306-80974-5

External links

• Media related toElectronic musicat Wikimedia Commons
• History of Electroacoustic Music – TimelineArchived26 June 2010 at theWayback Machine
• Electronic Music Foundation
• History and Development of Electronic MusicArchived24 October 2020 at theWayback Machine