Emakimono

"Emaki" redirects here. Not to be confused withMaki-e.

Detail from theGenji Monogatari Emaki,a classic 12th centuryemakimonoof the imperial court

Detail of calligraphy of theGenji Monogatari Emaki,on richly decorated paper

Illustrated handscrolls,emakimono(Hội quyển vật,lit. 'illustrated scroll',alsoemaki-mono),oremaki(Hội quyển)is an illustrated horizontal narration system of paintedhandscrollsthat dates back toNara-period(710–794 CE)Japan.Initially copying their much older Chinese counterparts in style, during the succeedingHeian(794–1185) andKamakura periods(1185–1333), Japaneseemakimonodeveloped their own distinct style. The term therefore refers only to Japanese painted narrative scrolls.

As in the Chinese and Korean scrolls,emakimonocombinecalligraphyand illustrations and are painted, drawn or stamped on long rolls of paper or silk sometimes measuring several metres. The reader unwinds each scroll little by little, revealing the story as seen fit.Emakimonoare therefore a narrative genre similar to the book, developing romantic or epic stories, or illustrating religious texts and legends. Fully anchored in theyamato-estyle, these Japanese works are above all an everyday art, centered on the human being and the sensations conveyed by the artist.

Although the very first 8th-centuryemakimonowere copies of Chinese works,emakimonoof Japanese taste appeared from the 10th century in theHeian imperial court,especially among aristocratic ladies with refined and reclusive lives, who devoted themselves to the arts, poetry, painting, calligraphy and literature. However, noemakimonoremain from the Heian period, and the oldest masterpieces date back to the "golden age" ofemakimonoin the 12th and 13th centuries. During this period, the techniques of composition became highly accomplished, and the subjects were even more varied than before, dealing with history, religion, romances, and other famous tales. The patrons who sponsored the creation of theseemakimonowere above all the aristocrats and Buddhist temples. From the 14th century, theemakimonogenre became more marginal, giving way to new movements born mainly fromZenBuddhism.

Emakimonopaintings mostly belong to theyamato-estyle, characterized by its subjects from Japanese life and landscapes, the staging of the human, and an emphasis on rich colours and a decorative appearance. The format of theemakimono,long scrolls of limited height, requires the solving of all kinds of composition problems: it is first necessary to make the transitions between the different scenes that accompany the story, to choose a point of view that reflects the narration, and to create a rhythm that best expresses the feelings and emotions of the moment. In general, there are thus two main categories ofemakimono:those which alternate the calligraphy and the image, each new painting illustrating the preceding text, and those which present continuous paintings, not interrupted by the text, where various technical measures allow the fluid transitions between the scenes.

Today,emakimonooffer a unique historical glimpse into the life and customs of Japanese people, of all social classes and all ages, during the early part of medieval times. Few of the scrolls have survived intact, and around 20 are protected asNational Treasures of Japan.

Concept

External media
Images
National Treasures and Important Cultural Properties of National Institutes for Cultural Heritage, Japan:browse the entire seventh scroll of theIppen Shōnin Eden
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston:browse the first scroll of theHeiji Monogatari Emaki
Video
Metropolitan Museum of Art:viewing a Japanese handscroll

The termemakimonoore-makimono,often abbreviated asemaki,is made up of thekanjie(Hội,"painting" ),maki(Quyển,"scroll" or "book" )andmono(Vật,"thing" ).The term refers to long scrolls of painted paper or silk, which range in length from under a metre to several metres long; some are reported as measuring up to 12 metres (40 ft) in length.The scrolls tell a story or a succession of anecdotes (such as literary chronicles or Buddhist parables), combining pictorial and narrative elements, the combination of which characterises the dominant art movements in Japan between the 12th and 14th centuries.

Anemakimonois read, according to the traditional method, sitting on a mat with the scroll placed on a low table or on the floor. The reader then unwinds with one hand while rewinding it with the other hand, from right to left (according to the writing direction of Japanese). In this way, only part of the story can be seen – about 60 centimetres (24 in), though more can be unrolled – and the artist creates a succession of images to construct the story.

Once theemakimonohas been read, the reader must rewind the scroll again in its original reading direction. Theemakimonois kept closed by a cord and stored alone or with other rolls in a box intended for this purpose, and which is sometimes decorated with elaborate patterns. Anemakimonocan consist of several successive scrolls as required of the story – theHōnen Shōnin Edenwas made up of 48 scrolls, although the standard number typically falls between one and three.

Anemakimonois made up of two elements: the sections of calligraphic text known askotoba-gaki,and the sections of paintings referred to ase;their size, arrangement and number vary greatly, depending on the period and the artist. Inemakimonoinspired by literature, the text occupies no less than two-thirds of the space, while other more popular works, such as theChōjū-jinbutsu-giga,favour the image, sometimes to the point of making the text disappear. The scrolls have a limited height (on average between 30 cm (12 in) and 39 cm (15 in)), compared with their length (on average 9 m (30 ft) to 12 m (39 ft)),meaning thatemakimonoare therefore limited to being read alone, historically by the aristocracy and members of the high clergy.

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  Example of a complete scroll of anemakimono,theIppen Shōnin Eden(seventh scroll, 1299,Tokyo National Museum). Reading direction is from right to left. Traditionally, the reader never fully unwinds the roll, but unwinds it with one hand while rewinding it with the other, learning the story piecemeal.

History

Origins

Handscrolls are believed to have been invented inIndiabefore the 4th century CE. They were used for religious texts and entered China by the 1st century. Handscrolls were introduced to Japan centuries later through the spread of Buddhism. The earliest extant Japanese handscroll was created in the 8th century and focuses on the life of the Buddha.

The origins of Japanese handscrolls can be found inChinaand, to a lesser extent, inKorea,the main sources of Japanese artistic inspiration until modern times. Narrative art forms in China can be traced back to between the 3rd century CE under theHan dynastyand the 2nd century CE under theZhou dynasty,the pottery of which was adorned with hunting scenes juxtaposed with movements.Paperwas invented in China in about the 1st century CE, simplifying the writing on scrolls of laws or sutra, sometimes decorated. The first narrative scrolls arrived later; various masters showed interest in this medium, includingGu Kaizhi(345–406), who experimented with new techniques.Genre paintingand Chinese characters, dominant in the scrolls up to the 10th century CE, remain little known to this day, because they were overshadowed by the famous landscape scrolls of theSong dynasty.

Illustrated Sutra of Cause and Effect,8th century

Relations with East Asia (mainly China and Korea) brought Chinese writing (kanji) to Japan by the 4th century, andBuddhismin the 6th century, together with interest in the apparently very effective bureaucracy of the mightyChinese Empire.In theNara period,the Japanese were inspired by theTang dynasty:administration, architecture, dress customs or ceremonies. The exchanges between China and Japan were also fruitful for the arts, mainly religious arts, and the artists of the Japanese archipelago were eager to copy and appropriate continental techniques. In that context, experts assume that the first Chinese painted scrolls arrived on the islands around the 6th century CE, and probably correspond to illustrated sutra. Thus, the oldest known Japanese narrative painted scroll (oremakimono) dates from the 7th century to the Nara period: theIllustrated Sutra of Cause and Effect,which traces the life of theGautama Buddha,founder of the Buddhist religion, until his Illumination.Still naive in style (Six Dynastiesand early Tang dynasty) with the paintings arranged in friezes above the text, it is very likely a copy of an older Chinese model, several versions of which have been identified.Although subsequent classicalemakimonofeature a very different style from that of this work, it foreshadows the golden age of the movement that came four centuries later, from the 12th century CE onwards.

Heian period: genesis of the art

Arts and literature, birth of a national aesthetic

Painting of the court,Nezame Monogatari Emaki,12th century

TheHeian periodappears today as a peak of Japanese civilization via the culture of the emperor's court, although intrigue and disinterest in things of the state resulted in theGenpei War.This perception arises from the aesthetics and the codified and refined art of living that developed at the Heian court, as well as a certain restraint and melancholy born from the feeling of the impermanence of things (a state of mind referred to asmono no awarein Japanese).Furthermore, the rupture of relations with China until the 9th century, due to disorders related to the collapse of the gloriousTang dynasty,promoted what Miyeko Murase has described as the "emergence of national taste" as a truly Japanese culture departed for the first time from Chinese influence since the earlyKofun period.This development was first observed in theliteratureof the Heian women: unlike the men, who studied Chinese writing from a young age, the women adopted a newsyllabary,hiragana,which was simpler and more consistent with the phonetics of Japanese.Heian period novels (monogatari) and diaries (nikki) recorded intimate details about life, love affairs and intrigues at court as they developed; the best known of these is the radicalTale of GenjibyMurasaki Shikibu,lady-in-waiting of the 10th century Imperial Court.

Japanese Minister Kibi in China,Kibi Daijin Nittō Emaki,12th century

The beginnings of the Japanese-inspired Heian period painting technique, retrospectively namedyamato-e,can be found initially in some aspects of Buddhist painting of the new esotericTendaiandShingonsects, then more strongly inPure Land Buddhism(Jodō); after a phase when Chinese techniques were copied, the art of the Japanese archipelago became progressively more delicate, lyrical, decorative with less powerful but more colorful compositions.Nevertheless, it was especially in secular art that the nascentyamato-ewas felt most strongly;its origins went back to thesliding partitionsandscreensof theHeian Imperial Palace,covered with paintings on paper or silk, the themes of which were chosen fromwakacourt poetry, annual rites, seasons or the famous lives and landscapes of the archipelago (meisho-e).

This secular art then spread among the nobles, especially the ladies interested in the illustration of novels, and seems to have become prevalent early in the 10th century. As with religious painting, the themes of Japanese life, appreciated by the nobles, did not fit well with painting of Chinese sensibility, so much so that court artists developed to a certain extent a new national technique which appeared to be fashionable in the 11th century,for example in the seasonal landscapes of the panel paintings in the Phoenix Hall(Phượng hoàng đường,Hōō-dō)orAmidaHall at theByōdō-intemple, a masterpiece of primitiveyamato-eof the early 11th century.

Hungry ghosts(gaki) haunting humans,Gaki Zōshi,12th century

Experts believe thatyamato-eillustrations of novels and painted narrative scrolls, oremakimono,developed in the vein of this secular art, linked to literature and poetry.The painting technique lent itself fully to the artistic tastes of the court in the 11th century, inclined to an emotional, melancholic and refined representation of relations within the palace, and formed a pictorial vector very suited to the narrative.Even though they are mentioned in the antique texts, noemakimonoof the early Heian period (9th and 10th centuries) remains extant today;the oldestemakimonoillustrating a novel mentioned in period sources is that of theYamato Monogatari,offered to the Empress between 872 and 907.

However, the stylistic mastery of later works (from the 12th century) leads most experts to believe that the "classical" art ofemakimonogrew during this period from the 10th century, first appearing in illustrations in novels or diaries produced by the ladies of the court.In addition, the initial themes remained close towakapoetry (seasons, Buddhism, nature and other themes).Therefore, the slow maturation of the movement ofemakimonowas closely linked to the emergence of Japanese culture and literature, as well as to the interest of ladies soon joined by professional painters from palace workshops (e-dokoro) or temples, who created a more "professional" and successful technique.The art historians consider that the composition and painting techniques they see in the masterpieces of the late Heian period (second half of the 12th century) were already very mature.

Fujiwara era: classical masterpieces

If almost allemakimonobelong to the genre ofyamato-e,several sub-genres stand out within this style, including in the Heian periodonna-e( "women's painting" ) andotoko-e( "men's painting" ).Several classic scrolls of each genre perfectly represent these pictorial movements.

Noble playing thebiwafor his beloved whom he betrayed,Genji Monogatari Emaki,12th century

First, theGenji Monogatari Emaki(designed between around 1120 and 1140), illustrating the famous eponymous novel, narrates the political and amorous intrigues of PrinceHikaru Genji;the rich and opaque colors affixed over the entire surface of the paper (tsukuri-emethod), the intimacy and melancholy of the composition and finally the illustration of the emotional peaks of the novel taking place only inside theImperial Palaceare characteristics of theonna-esubgenre ofyamato-e,reserved for court narratives usually written by aristocratic ladies.In that scroll, each painting illustrates a key episode of the novel and is followed by a calligraphic extract on paper richly decorated with gold and silver powder.

TheGenji Monogatari Emakialready presents the composition techniques specific to the art ofemakimono:an oblique point of view, the movement of the eyes guided by long diagonals from the top right to the bottom left, and even the removal of the roofs to represent the interior of buildings (fukinuki yatai).A second notable example of theonna-epaintings in the Heian period is theNezame Monogatari Emaki,which appears to be very similar to theGenji Monogatari Emaki,but presents softer and more decorative paintings giving pride of place to the representation of nature subtly emphasising the feelings of the characters.

In contrast with court paintings inspired by women's novels (onna-e) there are other scrolls inspired by themes such as the daily lives of the people, historical chronicles, and the biographies of famous monks; ultimately, a style ofemakimonodepicting matters outside the palace and calledotoko-e( "men's painting" ).

The stingy merchant asks for forgiveness from the monk Myōren,Shigisan Engi Emaki,12th century

TheShigisan Engi Emaki(middle of the 12th century), with dynamic and free lines, light colors and a decidedly popular and humorous tone, perfectly illustrate this movement, not hesitating to depict the life of the Japanese people in its most insignificant details.Here, the color is applied only in light touches that leave the paper bare, as the supple and free line dominates the composition, unlike the constructed paintings of the court.In addition, the text occupies very limited space, the artist painting rather long scenes without fixed limits.

Two other masterpieces emerged into the light of day during the second half of the 12th century.

Animals frolicking,Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga,12th century

First, theChōjū-jinbutsu-gigaforms a monochrome sketch ininkgently caricaturing the customs of Buddhist monks, where the spontaneity of touch stands out.Secondly, theBan Dainagon Ekotobatells of a political conspiracy in the year866by offering a surprising mixture of the two genresonna-eandotoko-e,with free lines and sometimes light, sometimes rich and opaque colors; this meeting of genres foreshadows the style that dominated a few decades later, during theKamakura period.

Disorderly movements of the crowd during the fire at the Ōtenmon gate,Ban Dainagon Ekotoba,late 12th century

While the authority of the court rapidly declined, the end of the Heian period (in 1185) was marked by the advent of the provincial lords (in particular, theTairaand theMinamoto), who acquired great power at the top of the state.Exploiting the unrest associated with theGenpei War,which provided fertile ground for religious proselytism, thesix realms(ordestinies) Buddhist paintings (rokudō-e) – such as theHell Scrollor the two versions of theGaki Zōshi,otoko-epaintings – aimed to frighten the faithful with horror scenes.

Retracing the evolution ofemakimonoremains difficult, due to the few works that have survived. However, the obvious mastery of the classical scrolls of the end of the Heian period testifies to at least a century of maturation and pictorial research. These foundations permitted theemakimonoartists of the ensuing Kamakura period to engage in sustained production in all of the themes.

Kamakura period: the golden age ofemakimono

The vengeful spirit ofSugawara no Michizaneis unleashed on the palace in the form of a god of thunder,Kitano Tenjin Engi Emaki,13th century

The era covering the end of the Heian period and much of theKamakura period,or the 12th and 13th centuries, is commonly described by art historians as "the golden age" of the art ofemakimono.Under the impetus of the new warrior class in power, and the new Buddhist sects, production was indeed very sustained and the themes and techniques more varied than before.

Theemakimonostyle of the time was characterized by two aspects: the synthesis of the genres ofyamato-e,and realism. Initially, the evolution marked previously by theBan Dainagon Ekotoba(very late Heian era) was spreading very widely due to the importance given both to the freedom of brush strokes and the lightness of the tones (otoko-e), as well as bright colors rendered by thick pigments for certain elements of the scenes (onna-e).However, the very refined appearance of the court paintings later gave way to more dynamic and popular works, at least in relation to the theme, in the manner of theShigisan Engi Emaki.For example, theKitano Tenjin Engi Emakirecounts the life and death ofSugawara no Michizane,Minister in the 9th century and tragic figure in Japanese history, revered in the manner of a god (kami). The rich colours, the tense contours, the search for movement and the very realistic details of the faces well illustrate this mixture of styles,especially as the paintings drew their inspiration from bothBuddhismandShinto.

Attack on the Imperial Palace during theHeiji rebellion;Fujiwara no Nobuyoriharangues his soldiers above, while nobles are hunted down and killed below,Heiji Monogatari Emaki,13th century

The realistic trends that were in vogue in Kamakura art, perfectly embodied bysculpture,were exposed in the majority of the Kamakuraemakimono;indeed, thebakufushogunate system held power over Japan, and the refined and codified art of the court gave way to more fluidity and dynamism.The greater simplicity advocated in the arts led to a more realistic and human representation (anger, pain or size).If the activity related to religion was prolific, then so too were the orders of thebushi(noble warriors). Severalemakimonoof historical or military chronicles are among the most famous, notably theHōgen Monogatari Emaki(no longer extant) and theHeiji Monogatari Emaki;of the latter, the scroll kept at theMuseum of Fine Arts, Bostonremains highly regarded for its mastery of composition (which reaches a crescendo at the dramatic climax of the scroll, i.e. the burning of the palace and the bloody battle between foot soldiers), and for its contribution to present day understanding of Japanese medieval weapons and armour.Akiyama Terukazu describes it as "a masterpiece on the subject of the world's military."In the same spirit, a noble warrior had theMōko Shūrai Ekotobadesigned to recount his military exploits during theMongol invasions of Japan.Kamakura art particularly flourished in relation to realistic portraiture (nise-e); if the characters in theemakimonotherefore evolved towards greater pictorial realism, some, such as theSanjūrokkasen emaki,or theZuijin Teiki Emakiattributed toFujiwara no Nobuzane,directly present portrait galleries according to the iconographic techniques of the time.

A similar change was felt in religion as the esoteric Buddhist sects of the Heian era (TendaiandShingon) gave way toPure Land Buddhism(Jōdo), which primarily addressed the people by preaching simple practices of devotion to theAmida Buddha.These very active sects usedemakimonointensively during the 13th and 14th centuries to illustrate and disseminate their doctrines.

Zenmyō throws herself into the sea,Kegon Engi Emaki,13th century

Several religious practices influenced the Kamakuraemakimono:notably, public sermons and picture explaining sessions (Hội giải,e-toki) led the artists to use scrolls of larger size than usual, and to represent the protagonists of the story in a somewhat disproportionate way compared withemakimonoof the standard sizes, to enable those protagonists to be seen from a distance, in a typically Japanese non-realistic perspective (such as theIppen Shōnin Eden). The religiousemakimonoof the Kamakura period focus on the foundation of the temples, or the lives of famous monks.During that period, many of the religious institutions commissioned the workshops of painters (often monk-painters) to createemakimonorecounting their foundation, or the biography of the founding monk. Among the best-known works on such themes are the illustrated biographies ofIppen,Hōnen,ShinranandXuanzang,as well as theKegon Engi Emakiand theTaima Mandara Engi Emaki.

The departure of Ippen, founder of theJi-shūschool, for his apprenticeship in Buddhism at the age of 13,Ippen Shōnin Eden,13th century

The Ippen biography, painted by a monk, remains remarkable for its influences, so far rare, from theSong dynasty(via thewash technique) and theTang dynasty(theshan shuistyle), as well as by its very precise representations of forts in many Japanese landscapes.As for theSaigyō Monogatari Emaki,it addresses the declining aristocracy in idealising the figure of the monk aestheteSaigyōby the beauty of its landscapes and its calligraphic poetry.

Towards the middle of the Kamakura period, there was a revival of interest in the Heian court, which already appeared to be a peak of Japanese civilization, and its refined culture.Thus theMurasaki Shikibu Nikki Emaki,which traces the life and intrigues ofMurasaki Shikibu,author ofThe Tale of Genji(10th century), largely reflects the painting techniques of the time, notably thetsukuri-e,but in a more decorative and extroverted style.Other works followed that trend, such asIse MonogatariEmaki,theMakura no Sōshi Emakior theSumiyoshi Monogatari Emaki.

Muromachi period: decline andotogi-zōshi

Kiyomizu-dera Engi Emaki,Tosa Mitsunobu,1517

By the end of the Kamakura period, the art ofemakimonowas already losing its importance. Experts note that, on the one hand,emakimonohad become less inspired, marked by an extreme aesthetic mannerism (such as the exaggerated use of gold and silver powder) with a composition more technical than creative; the tendency to multiply the scenes in a fixed style can be seen in theHōnen Shōnin Eden(the longest knownemakimono,with 48 scrolls, completed in 1307), theKasuga Gongen Genki E(1309) and theDōjō-ji Engi Emaki(16th century).On the other hand, the innovative and more spiritual influences ofChinese Song art,deeply rooted in spirituality andZenBuddhism, initiated the dominant artistic movement ofwash(ink or monochromatic painting in water,sumi-eorsuiboku-gain Japanese) in the ensuingMuromachi period,guided by such famous artists asTenshō ShūbunorSesshū Tōyō.

A professional current was nevertheless maintained by theTosa school:the only one still to claim theyamato-e,it produced manyemakimonoto the order of the court or the temples (this school of painters led the imperialedokorountil the 18th century). Tosa Mitsunobu notably produced several works on the foundation of temples: theKiyomizu-dera Engi Emaki(1517), a scroll of theIshiyama-dera Engi Emaki(1497), theSeikō-ji Engi emaki(1487) or a version of theKitano Tenjin Engi Emaki(1503); he paid great attention to details and colours, despite a common composition.In a more general way, the illustration of novels in the classicyamato-estyle (such as the many versions of theGenji Monogatari EmakiorThe Tales of IseEmaki) persisted during late medieval times.

Ishiyama-dera Engi Emaki,recent work byTani Bunchō,early 19th century

Ifemakimonotherefore ceased to be the dominant artistic media in Japan since the end of the Kamakura period, it is in the illustration movement ofOtogi-zōshi(otogimeaning "to tell stories" ) thatemakimonodeveloped a new popular vigour in the 15th and 16th centuries (the Muromachi period); the termnara-ehon(literally, "the book of illustrations ofNara") sometimes designated them in a controversial way (because they were anachronistic and combined books with scrolls), or more precisely asotogi-zōshi emakiornara-emaki.These are small, symbolic and funny tales, intended to pass the time focusing on mythology, folklore, legends, religious beliefs or even contemporary society.This particular form ofemakimonodates back to Heian times, but it was under Muromachi that it gained real popularity.

Japanese folk spirits typical ofotogi,Hyakki Yagyō Emaki,Muromachi period

The relative popularity ofotogi-zōshiseems to have stemmed from a burgeoning lack of enthusiasm for hectic or religious stories; the people had become more responsive to themes of dreams, laughter and the supernatural (a number ofotogi-zōshi emakidepict all sorts ofyōkaiand folk creatures), as well as social caricatures and popular novels. Among the preserved examples aregenre paintingssuch asBuncho no sasshiandSazare-ichi,or supernatural Buddhist tales such as theTsuchigumo Sōshior theHyakki Yagyō Emaki.From the point of view of art historians, the creativity of classical scrolls is felt even less inotogi-zōshi,because even though the composition is similar, the lack of harmony of colors and the overloaded appearance are detrimental; it seems that the production is often the work of amateurs.However, a field of study ofnara-ehonand thenara-epictorial style exists on the fringes and stands out from the framework ofemakimono.

Various other artists, notablyTawaraya SōtatsuandYosa Buson,were still interested in the narrative scroll until around the 17th century.TheKanō schoolused narrative scrolls in the same way;Kanō Tan'yūrealised several scrolls on theTokugawabattles, particularly that ofSekigaharain hisTōshō Daigongen Engi,where he was inspired in places by theHeiji Monogatari Emaki(13th century).

Features and production

Themes and genres

In essence, anemakimonois a narrative system (like a book) that requires the construction of a story, so the composition must be based on the transitions from scene to scene until the final denouement.

Illustrated Sutra of Cause and Effect,8th century

Emakimonowere initially strongly influenced by China, as were the Japanese arts of the time; theIllustrated Sutra of Cause and Effectincorporates many of the naive, simple styles of theTang dynasty,although dissonances can be discerned, especially in relation to colours.From the Heian period onwards,emakimonocame to be dissociated from China, mainly in their themes. Chinese scrolls were intended mainly to illustrate the transcendent principles of Buddhism and the serenity of the landscapes, suggesting the grandeur and the spirituality. The Japanese, on the other hand, had refocused their scrolls on everyday life and man, conveying drama, humour and feelings. Thus,emakimonobegan to be inspired by literature, poetry, nature and especially everyday life; in short, they formed an intimate art, sometimes in opposition to the search for Chinese spiritual greatness.

The first Japanese themes in the Heian period were very closely linked towakaliterature and poetry: paintings of the seasons, the annual calendar of ceremonies, the countryside and finally the famous landscapes of the Japanese archipelago (meisho-e).Subsequently, the Kamakura warriors and the newPure Land Buddhistsects diversified the subjects even more widely. Despite the wide range ofemakimonothemes, specialists like to categorise them, both in substance and in form. An effective method of differentiatingemakimonocomes back to the study of the subjects by referring to the canons of the time. The categorisation proposed by Okudaira and Fukui thus distinguishes between secular and religious paintings:

Secular paintings

Saigyō Monogatari Emaki,Edo period

• Court novels and diaries (monogatari,nikki) dealing with romantic tales, life at court or historical chronicles;
• Popular legends (setsuwa monogatari);
• Military accounts (kassen);
• Scrolls onwakapoets;
• Reports on the rites and ceremonies celebrated in a very codified and rigid way throughout the year;
• Realistic paintings and portraits (nise-e);
• Otogi-zōshi,traditional or fantastic tales popular in the 14th century.

Religious paintings

Ippen Shōnin Eden,13th century

• Illustrations of sutras or religious doctrines (kyu-ten);
• Illustrated biography of a prominent Buddhist monk or priest (shōnin,kōsōden-eoreden);
• Paintings of the antecedents of a temple (engi);
• TheZōshi,a collection of Buddhist anecdotes.

A third category covers more heterogeneous works, mi xing religion and narration or religion and popular humour.

The artists and their audience

External images
Tokyo National Museum:theSumiyoshi Monogatari Emakirolled up and placed in its box,colophonvisible, 13th century
Tokyo National Museum:the start of a scroll, with the reverse side of the cover and the cord visible

The authors ofemakimonoare most often unknown nowadays and it remains risky to speculate as to the names of the "masters" ofemakimono.Moreover, a scroll can be the fruit of collaboration by several artists; some techniques such astsukuri-eeven naturally incline to such collaboration. Art historians are more interested in determining the social and artistic environment of painters: amateurs or professionals, at court or in temples, aristocrats or of modest birth.

In the first place, amateur painters, perhaps the initiators of the classicalemakimono,are to be found at the emperor's court in Heian, among the aristocrats versed in the various arts. Period sources mention in particular painting competitions (e-awase) where the nobles competed around a common theme from a poem, as described by Murasaki Shikibu inThe Tale of Genji.Their work seems to focus more on the illustration of novels (monogatari) and diaries (nikki), rather feminine literature of the court. Monks were also able to produce paintings without any patronage.

Secondly, in medieval Japan there wereprofessional painters' workshops(Hội sở,literally 'painting office');during the Kamakura period, professional production dominated greatly, and several categories of workshops were distinguished: those officially attached to the palace (kyūtei edokoro), those attached to the great temples and shrines (jiin edokoro), or finally those hosted by a few senior figures.The study of certaincolophonsand period texts makes it possible to associate manyemakimonowith these professional workshops, and even sometimes to understand how they function.

When produced by the temple workshops,emakimonowere intended mainly as proselytism, or to disseminate a doctrine, or even as an act of faith, because copying illustrated sutras must allow communion with the deities (a theory even accredits the idea that theKitano Tenjin Engi Emakiwould have aimed to pacify evil spirits).Proselytising, favoured by the emergence of the Pure Land Buddhist sects during the Kamakura era, changed the methods ofemakimonoproduction, because works of proselytism were intended to be copied and disseminated widely in many associated temples, explaining the large number of more or less similar copies on the lives of great monks and the founding of the important temples.

Various historians emphasise the use ofemakimonoin sessions of picture explaining(Hội giải,e-toki),during which a learned monk detailed the contents of the scrolls to a popular audience. Specialists thus explicate the unusually large dimensions of the different versions of theKitano Tenjin Engi Emakior theIppen Shōnin Eden.As for the workshops of the court, they satisfied the orders of the palace, whether for the illustration of novels or historical chronicles, such as theHeiji Monogatari Emaki.A form of exploitation of the story could also motivate the sponsor: for example,Heiji Monogatari Emakiwere produced for theMinamoto clan(winner of theGenpei War), and theMōko Shūrai Ekotobawas created to extol the deeds of a samurai in search of recognition from theshōgun.These works were, it seems, intended to be read by nobles. Nevertheless, Seckel and Hasé assert that the separation between the secular and the religious remains unclear and undoubtedly does not correspond to an explicit practice: thus, the aristocrats regularly orderedemakimonoto offer them to a temple, and the religious scrolls do not refrain from representing popular things. So, for example, theHōnen Shōnin Edenpresents a rich overview of medieval civilization.

Copyist monks at work,Kiyomizu-dera Engi Emaki,1517

Colophons and comparative studies sometimes allow for the deduction of the name of the artist of anemakimono:for example, the monkEn'isigned theIppen Shōnin Eden,historians designateTokiwa Mitsunagaas the author of theBan Dainagon Ekotobaand theNenjū Gyōji Emaki,orEnichibō Jōninfor part of theKegon Engi Emaki.Nevertheless, the life of these artists remains poorly known, at most they seem to be of noble extraction.Such a background is particularly implied by the always very precise depictions inemakimonoof the imperial palace (interior architecture, clothing and rituals) or official bodies (notably the imperial police(Kiểm phi vi sử,kebiishi)). TheShigisan Engi Emakiillustrates that point well, as the precision of both religious and aristocratic motifs suggests that the painter is close to those two worlds.

Perhaps a more famous artist isFujiwara no Nobuzane,aristocrat of theFujiwara clanand author of theZuijin Teiki Emaki,as well as various suites of realistic portraits ( "likeness pictures"(Tựa hội,nise-e),a school he founded in honour of his fatherFujiwara no Takanobu). Among the temple workshops, it is known that theKōzan-jiworkshop was particularly prolific, under the leadership of the monkMyōe,a great scholar who brought in many works fromSong dynastyChina. Thus, the Jōnin brushstrokes on theKegon Engi Emakior the portrait of Myōe reveal the first Song influences in Japanese painting. However, the crucial lack of information and documents on these rare known artists leads Japanese art historians rather to identify styles, workshops, and schools of production.

From the 14th century, the Imperial Court Painting Bureau(Cung đình hội sở,Kyūtei edokoro),and even for a time theedokoroof theshōgun,were headed by theTosa school,which, as mentioned above, continuedYamato-epainting and the manufacture ofemakimonodespite the decline of the genre. The Tosa school artists are much better known;Tosa Mitsunobu,for example, produced a large number of works commissioned by temples (including theKiyomizu-dera Engi Emaki) or nobles (including theGonssamen kassen emaki). The competingKanō schoolalso offered a such few pieces, on command: art historians have shown strong similarities between theHeiji Monogatari Emaki(12th century) and theTōshō Daigongen Engi(17th century) byKanō Tan'yūof the Kanō school, probably to suggest a link between theMinamotoandTokugawaclans, members of which were, respectively, the first and last shoguns who ruled all of Japan.

Materials and manufacture

Format of anemakimono

The preferred support medium foremakimonoispaper,and to a lesser extentsilk;both originate from China, although Japanese paper (washi) is generally of a more solid texture and less delicate than Chinese paper, as the fibres are longer). The paper is traditionally made with the help of women of the Japanese archipelago.

The most famous colors are taken from mineral pigments: for exampleazuritefor blue,vermilionfor red,realgarfor yellow,malachitefor green, amongst others. These thick pigments, namediwa-enoguin Japanese, are not soluble in water and require a thick binder, generally an animal glue;the amount of glue required depends on how finely the pigments have been ground.

Asemakimonoare intended to be rolled up, the colours must be applied to them in a thin, flat layer in order to avoid any cracking in the medium term, which limits the use of patterns (reliefs) predominant in Western painting.As for theink,also invented in China around the 1st century CE, it results from a simple mixture of binder and wood smoke, the dosage of which depends on the manufacturer. Essential for calligraphy, it is also important in Asian pictorial arts where the line often takes precedence; Japanese artists apply it with a brush, varying the thickness of the line and the dilution of the ink to produce a colour from a dark black to a pale gray strongly absorbed by the paper.

Scrolls of paper or tissue remain relatively fragile, in particular after the application of paint.Emakimonoare therefore lined with one or more layers of strong paper, in a very similar way tokakemono(Japanese hanging scrolls): the painted paper or silk is stretched, glued onto the lining, and then dried and brushed, normally by a specialized craftsman, known as akyōshi(literally, 'master in sutra').The long format ofemakimonoposes specific problems: generally, sheets of painted paper or silk 2–3 metres (6 ft 7 in – 9 ft 10 in) long are lined separately, then assembled using strips of long-fibre Japanese paper, known for its strength.The lining process simply requires the application of an animal glue which, as it dries, also allows the painted paper or silk to be properly stretched. Assembly of theemakimonois finalised by the selection of the wooden rod(Trục,jiku),which is quite thin, and the connection of the cover(Biểu giấy,hyōshi),which protects the work once it is rolled up with a cord(Nữu,himo);for the most precious pieces painted with gold and silver powder, a further protective blanket(Thấy phản し,mikaeshi,literally, 'inside cover')is often made of silk and decorated on the inside.

Artistic characteristics

General

Main article:Yamato-e

The currents and techniques ofemakimonoart are intimately linked and most often part of theyamato-emovement,readily opposed at the beginning to Chinese-style paintings, known askara-e.Yamato-e,a colorful and decorative everyday art, strongly typifies the output of the time.Initially,yamato-emainly designated works with Japanese themes, notably court life, ceremonies or archipelago landscapes, in opposition to the hitherto dominant Chinese scholarly themes, especially during theNara period.The documents of the 9th century mention, for example, the paintings on sliding walls and screens of thethen Imperial Palace,which illustratewakapoems.Subsequently, the termyamato-ereferred more generally to all of the Japanese style paintings created in the 9th century that expressed the sensitivity and character of the people of the archipelago, including those extending beyond the earlier themes.Miyeko Murase thus speaks of "the emergence of national taste".

Different currents of paintings are part of theyamato-eaccording to the times (about the 10th and 14th centuries), and are found inemakimono.The style, composition and technique vary greatly, but it is possible to identify major principles. Thus, in relation to style, theHeian periodproduced a contrast between refined court painting and dynamic painting of subjects outside the court, while theKamakura periodsaw a synthesis of the two approaches and the contribution of new realistic influences of the Chinese wash paintings of the Song dynasty. In relation to composition, the artists could alternate calligraphy and painting so as to illustrate only the most striking moments of the story, or else create long painted sections where several scenes blended together and flowed smoothly. Finally, in relation to technique, the classification ofemakimono,although complex, allows for two approaches to be identified: paintings favoring colour, and those favoring line for the purpose of dynamism.

The particular format of theemakimono,long strips of paintings without fixed limits, requires solving a number of compositional problems in order to maintain the ease and clarity of the narrative, and which have given rise to a coherent art form over several centuries. In summary, according to E. Saint-Marc: "We had to build a vocabulary, a syntax, solve a whole series of technical problems, invent a discipline that is both literary and plastic, an aesthetic mode which finds its conventions [...] in turn invented and modelled, frozen by use, then remodelled, to make it an instrument of refined expression."

Styles and techniques

Overview of the Heian periodyamato-estyles

Specialists like to distinguish between two currents in theyamato-e,and thus in theemakimono,of the Heian period, namely theonna-e( "painting of woman",onnameaning "woman" ), andotoko-e( "painting of man",otokomeaning "man" ). In the Heian period, these two currents ofyamato-ealso echoed the mysteries and the seclusion of the Imperial Court: theonna-estyle thus told what happened inside the court, and theotoko-estyle spoke of happenings in the populace outside.

Court style:onna-e

Onna-efully transcribed the lyrical and refined aesthetic of the court, which was characterized by a certain restraint, introspection and the expression of feelings, bringing together above all works inspired by "romantic" literature such as theGenji Monogatari Emaki.The dominant impression of this genre is expressed in Japanese by the termmono no aware,a kind of fleeting melancholy born from the feeling of the impermanence of things. These works mainly adopted the so-calledtsukuri-e(constructed painting) technique, with rich and opaque colours. Inemakimonoof the 13th century, in which theonna-estyle was brought up-to-date, the same technique was used but in a sometimes less complete manner, the colours more directly expressing feelings and the artists using a more decorative aesthetic, such as with the very important use of gold dust in theMurasaki Shikibu Nikki Emaki.

A characteristic element of theonna-eresides in the drawing of the faces, very impersonal, that specialists often compare toNohmasks. Indeed, according to thehikime kagibanatechnique, two or three lines were enough to represent the eyes and the nose in a stylized way;E. Grilli notes the melancholy of this approach.The desired effect is still uncertain, but probably reflects the great restraint of feelings and personalities in the palace, or even allows readers to identify more easily with the characters.In somemonogatariof the Heian period, the artists rather expressed the feelings or the passions in the positions as well as in the pleats and folds of the clothes, in harmony with the mood of the moment.

• Onna-epaintings
• 
  Tsukuri-epainting, with vivid tones typical of primaryyamato-e,Genji Monogatari Emaki,12th century
• 
  Tsukiri-epainting in lighter tones,Murasaki Shikibu Nikki Emaki,13th century
• 
  Tsukiri-epainting,Ise Monogatari Emaki,14th century
• 
  Court scene illustratinghikime kagibana,a technique of inexpressive and impersonal representation of faces,Genji Monogatari Emaki,12th century

Popular style:otoko-e

The current of theotoko-estyle was freer and more lively thanonna-e,representing battles, historical chronicles, epics and religious legends by favouring long illustrations over calligraphy, as in theShigisan Engi Emakior theHeiji Monogatari Emaki.The style was based on soft lines drawn freely by the artist in ink, unliketsukuri-econstructed paintings, to favour the impression of movement.The colours generally appeared more muted and left the paper bare in places.

If the termonna-eis well attested in the texts of the time, and seems to come from the illustrations of novels by the ladies of the court from the 10th century, the origins of theotoko-eare more obscure: they arisea priorifrom the interest of the nobles in Japanese provincial life from the 11th century, as well as from local folk legends; moreover, several very detailed scenes from theShigisan Engi Emakiclearly show that its author can only have been a palace regular, aristocrat or monk.In any case, there are still several collections of these folk tales of the time, such as theKonjaku Monogatarishū.

Unlike the court paintings, the more spontaneous scrolls such as theShigisan Engi Emakior theBan Dainagon Ekotobadisplay much more realism in the drawing of the characters, and depict, amongst other themes, humour and burlesque, with people's feelings (such as anger, joy and fear) expressed more spontaneously and directly.

• Otoko-epaintings
• 
  Popular scene in which the lines take precedence over very light colors,Shigisan Engi Emaki,12th century
• 
  Another painting of a popular subject favouring the lines,Kokawa-dera Engi Emaki,12th century
• 
  Expressive painting of a communal crowd,Ban Dainagon Ekotoba,late 12th century
• 
  Humorous scene depicting a doctor's mistake,Yamai no Sōshi,12th century
• 
  Battle scene depicting one of theMongol invasions of Japan,Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba,13th century

Kamakura period realist painting

During theKamakura period,the two currents ofyamato-e(onna-eandotoko-e) mingled and gave birth to works that are both dynamic and vividly coloured, in the manner of theKitano Tenjin Engi Emaki.Furthermore, the majority ofemakimonoalso transcribed the realistic tendencies of the time, according to the tastes of the warriors in power. TheHeiji Monogatari Emakithus shows in great detail the weapons, armour and uniforms of the soldiers, and theBan Dainagon Ekotobaindividually portrays the more than two hundred panicked figures who appear on the section depicting the fire at the door.

Realistic painting is best displayed in the portraits known asnise-e,a movement initiated byFujiwara no Takanobuand his sonFujiwara no Nobuzane.These two artists and their descendants produced a number ofemakimonoof a particular genre: they were suites of portraits of famous people made in a rather similar style, with almost geometric simplicity of clothing, and extreme realism of the face.The essence of thenise-ewas really to capture the intimate personality of the subject with great economy.

Among the most famousnise-escrolls are theTennō Sekkan Daijin Eizukan,composed of 131 portraits of emperors, governors, ministers and senior courtiers (byFujiwara no TamenobuandFujiwara no Gōshin,14th century), and theZuijin Teiki Emakiby Nobuzane, whose ink painting (hakubyō) enhanced with very discreet colour illustrates perfectly thenise-elines.Additionally, there is theSanjūrokkasen Emaki,a work of a more idealized than realistic style, which forms a portrait gallery of theThirty-Six Immortals of Poetry.More generally, humans are one of the elementary subjects ofemakimono,and many works of the Kamakura period incorporatenise-etechniques, such as theHeiji Monogatari Emakior theMōko Shūrai Ekotoba.

• Realist paintings
• 
  Colours and dynamism,Kitano Tenjin Engi Emaki,13th century
• 
  Landscape ofMount Kōya,similar to the Chineseshan shuistyle,Ippen Shōnin Eden,1299
• 
  Detail of painting of very realistic warriors in faces, weapons and armor,Heiji Monogatari Emaki,13th century
• 
  Realist portrait, ornise-e,byTaira no Kiyomori,Tennō Sekkan Daijin Eizukan,14th century
• 
  Nise-eportrait of thewakapoet Saigū Nyōgo,Sanjūrokkasen Emaki,13th century

Chinese landscape and Song dynasty wash paintings

Theyamato-estyle therefore characterised almost allemakimono,and Chinese painting no longer provided the themes and techniques. However, influences were still noticeable in certain works of the Kamakura period, in particular the art, so famous today, of theSong dynastywash paintings, which was fully demonstrated in the grandiose and deep landscapes sketched in ink, by Ienaga. Borrowings also remained visible in religious scrolls such as theKegon Engi Emakior theIppen Shōnin Eden.This last work presents many landscapes typical of Japan according to a perspective and a rigorous realism, with a great economy of colors; various Song pictorial techniques are used to suggest depth, such as birds' flights disappearing on the horizon or the background gradually fading.

• Chinese-inspired paintings
• 
  Sinistically composed landscape of theItsukushima ShrineinMiyajimaand the famous floatingtorii,Ippen Shōnin Eden,1299
• 
  Steep mountain landscape and hermitage,Kiyomizu-dera Engi Emaki,1517
• 
  Zenmyō, a young Chinese woman, confesses her love to the monk Gishō during his stay in China,Kegon Engi Emaki,13th century

Pictorial techniques

Tsukuri-etechnique

The classicemakimonopainting technique is calledtsukuri-e(Làm り hội,lit. 'constructed painting'),used especially in most of the works of theonna-estyle. A sketch of the outlines was first made in ink before applying the colours flat over the entire surface of the paper using vivid and opaquepigments.The outlines, partly masked by the paint, were finally revived in ink and the small details (such as the hair of the ladies) were enhanced.However, the first sketch was often modified, in particular when the mineral pigments were insoluble in water and therefore required the use of thick glue.Colour appears to be a very important element in Japanese painting, much more so than in China, because it gives meaning to the feelings expressed; in theGenji Monogatari Emaki,the dominant tone of each scene illustrating a key moment of the original novel reveals the deep feelings of the characters.

During the Kamakura period, the different stages oftsukuri-ewere still widely observed, despite variations (lighter colours, lines more similar to Song dynasty wash paintings, etc.).

• Tsukuri-etechnique (see alsoCourt style:onna-eabove)
• 
  Emperor callsKaoruto playGo,Genji Monogatari Emaki,12th century
• 
  Wailing women atTomo no Yoshiohouse,Ban Dainagon Ekotoba,12th century
• 
  Drunk and disorderly court nobles interacting with court ladies,Murasaki Shikibu Nikki Emaki,13th century
• 
  Kubo version (usingTsukuri-etechnique),Ise MonogatariEmaki,14th century

Ink line and monochrome painting

Even though colouredemakimonooften occupy a preponderant place, one finds in contrast monochrome paintings in India ink (hakubyōorshira-e), according to two approaches. First, ink lines can be extremely free, with the artist laying on paper unconstrained soft gestures that are especially dynamic, as it is mainly the sense of movement that emerges in these works.The painter also plays on the thickness of the brush to accentuate the dynamism, as well as on the dilution of the ink to exploit a wider palette of grey.Among such scrolls, theChōjū-jinbutsu-giga,formerly probably wrongly attributed toToba Sōjō,remains the best known; Grilli describes the trait as a "continual outpouring".

The second approach to monochrome paintings is more constructed, with fine, regular strokes sketching a complete and coherent scene, very similar to the first sketch in thetsukuri-eworks before the application of the colours; according to some art historians, it is also possible that theseemakimonoare simply unfinished.TheMakura no Sōshi Emakifits perfectly with this approach, accepting only a few fine touches of red, as do theTakafusa-kyō Tsuyakotoba Emakiand theToyo no Akari Ezōshi.Several somewhat amateurishhakubyōillustrations of classic novels remain from late medieval times and the decline of theemakimono.

By contrast with Western painting, lines and contours in ink play an essential role inemakimono,monochrome or not.Sometimes, however, contours are not drawn as usual: thus, in theKitano Tenjin Engi Emaki,the absence of contours is used by the artist to evoke the Shinto spirit in Japanese landscapes. Originally from China, this pictorial technique is now calledmokkotsu('boneless painting').

• Ink line and monochrome painting (see alsoPopular style:otoko-eabove)
• 
  Free ink painting,Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga,12th century
• 
  Free ink painting,Shōgun-zuka Emaki,13th century
• 
  Very constructed ink painting, similar totsukuri-ewithout colour; the line is fine and uniform.Makura no Sōshi Emaki,13th century
• 
  Landscape inwash.Monochrome version ofSaigyō Monogatari Emaki,15th century
• 
  Constructed ink painting,Hakubyō Genji Monogatari Emaki,monochrome version ofThe Tale of Genji,16th century

Spatial and temporal composition

Transitions between scenes

The juxtaposition of the text and the painting constitutes a key point of the narrative aspect ofemakimono.Originally, in the illustrated sutras, the image was organized in a long, continuous frieze at the top of the scroll, above the texts. That approach, however, was quickly abandoned for a more open layout, of which there are three types:

• Alternation between texts and paintings (danraku-shiki), the former endeavouring to transcribe the illustrations chosen by the artist. Court style paintings (onna-e) often opted for this approach, as paintings more readily focused on important moments or conveyed a narrative.
• Intermittence, where the texts appeared only at the beginning or at the end of the scroll, giving pride of place to continuous illustrations (rusōgata-shikiorrenzoku-shiki). This type was often used in epic and historical chronicles; the best-known examples are theShigisan Engi Emakiand theHeiji Monogatari Emaki.Sometimes, the texts were even hosted by a separate handscroll.
• Paintings interspersed with text, i.e. the text was placed above the people who were speaking, as in the Buddhist accounts of theDōjō-ji Engi Emaki,theKegon Gojūgo-sho Emakior theTengu Zōshi Emaki.

The balance between texts and images thus varied greatly from one work to another. The author had a broad "syntax of movement and time" which allowed him to adapt the form to the story and to the feelings conveyed.The scrolls with continuous illustrations (rusōgata-shiki) naturally made the transitions more ambiguous, because each reader can reveal a larger or smaller portion of the paintings, more or less quickly. In the absence of clear separation between scenes, the mode of reading must be suggested in the paintings in order to maintain a certain coherence.

Two kinds of links between scenes were used by the artists. First, there were links by separation using elements of the scenery (traditionally, river, countryside, mist, buildings) were very common. Secondly, the artists used a palette of transitional elements suggested by the figures or the arrangement of objects. Thus, it was not uncommon for characters to point the finger at the following painting or for them to be represented travelling to create the link between two cities, or for the buildings to be oriented to the left to suggest departure and to the right to suggest the arrival. More generally, Bauer identifies the notion of off-screen (the part of painting not yet visible) that the painter must bring without losing coherence.

• Transitions between texts and paintings: extracts
• 
  Painting in frieze above the text, a form of Chinese origin that was quickly abandoned,Illustrated Sutra of Cause and Effect,8th century
• 
  Text before the painting,Obusuma Saburo Emaki,8th century
• 
  Text located in a box at the top of the scroll,Kegon Gojūgo-sho Emaki,12th century
• 
  Scene in which the characters' words are written directly in the painting, above them,Kegon Engi Emaki,13th century

• Transitions between texts and paintings: complete scrolls
• 
  Alternation between text and painting –Hell Scrollof Nara National Museum, 12th century
• 
  Succession of painted scenes without textual demarcation –Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga,12th century
• 
  Succession of painted scenes, with only two sections of text at the beginning and at the end –Heiji Monogatari Emaki,13th century

Perspective and point of view

The space in the composition of anemakimonoconstitutes a second important instance of the narration over time. As the scroll is usually read from right to left and top to bottom, the authors mainly adopt plunging points of view (chōkan,'bird's-eye perspective'). However, the low height of theemakimonoforces the artist to set up tricks such as the use of long diagonal vanishing lines or sinuous curves suggesting depth.Indoors, it is the architectural elements (beams, partitions, doors) that are used to set up these diagonals; outdoors, the diagonals are set up by the roofs, walls, roads and rivers, arranged on several planes. Inemakimonopainting there is no real perspective in the Western sense – one that faithfully represents what the eye perceives – but, rather, aparalleloroblique projection.

The arrangement of the elements in anemakimonoscene is based on the point of view, including the technique known asfukinuki yatai.As mentioned above, scenes are most commonly painted when viewed from above (bird's eye view) in order to maximize the space available for painting, despite the reduced height of the scrolls, while leaving part of the background visible.

In the interior scenes, the simplest technique was developed by from the ChineseTangartists: only three walls of the room are drawn, in parallel perspective; the point of view is located in the place of the fourth wall, a little higher up. When the need to draw several planes – for example the back of the room or a door open to the next one – arose, the artists proceeded by reducing the size (of thescale).The more general scenes in which the story evolves, such as landscapes, can be rendered from a very distant point of view (as in theIppen Shōnin Edenor theSumiyoshi Monogatari Emaki).In theEshi no Soshi Emakiand theKokawa-dera Engi Emaki,the painter opted mainly for a side view, and the development of the story depends on a succession of communicating planes.

However, the Japanese artists imagined a new arrangement foremakimonowhich quickly became the norm for portraying interiors. It was calledfukinuki yatai(literally, 'roof removed'), and involves not representing the roofs of buildings, and possibly the walls in the foreground if necessary, to enable a depiction of the interior.Unlike the previous arrangement, the point of view located outside the buildings, still high up, because the primary purpose offukinuki yataiis to represent two separate narrative spaces – for example two adjoining rooms, or else inside and outside.The genesis of this technique is still little known (it already appears in the biography on wooden panel ofPrince Shōtoku),but it already appeared with great mastery on the Court style paintings (onna-e) in the 12th century.

At the Heian court, Kaoru visits Ukifune, with whom he is in love. The composition is based firstly on the long diagonals, materialized by the veranda, which create the parallel perspective; secondly on thefukinuki yataiwhich makes it possible to represent in a painting the two narrative spaces (interior and exterior) by omitting the roof and the front wall.Genji Monogatari Emaki,12th century

In theGenji Monogatari Emaki,the composition is closely linked to the text and indirectly suggests the mood of the scene. When Kaoru visits Ukifune, while their love is emerging, the artist shows the reader two narrative spaces thanks to thefukinuki yatai:on the veranda, Kaoru is calm, posed in a peaceful space; inside the building, by contrast, Ukifune and herladies-in-waiting,are painted on a smaller surface, in turmoil, in a confused composition which reinforces their agitation.More generally, an unrealistic composition (for example from two points of view) makes it possible to suggest strong or sad feelings.

Thefukinuki yataitechnique was also used in a variety of other ways, for example with a very high point of view to reinforce the partitioning of spaces, even in a single room, or by giving the landscape a more important place. Ultimately, the primary goal remained to render two narrative stages, and therefore two distinct spaces, in the same painting.Fukinuki yataiwas therefore used extensively, sometimes even as a simple stylistic instance unrelated to feelings or text, unlike in theGenji Monogatari Emaki.

Finally, the scale of anemakimonoalso makes it possible to suggest depth and guide the arrangement of the elements. In Japanese painting, the scale depends not only on the depth of the scene, but also often on the importance of the elements in the composition or in the story, unlike the realistic renderings in Chinese landscape scrolls. Thus, the main character can be enlarged compared with the others, depending on what the artist wants to express: in theIppen Shōnin Eden,Ippen is sometimes depicted in the background in a landscape the same size as trees or buildings, so that the reader can clearly identify it. Changes in scale can also convey the mood of the moment, such as the strength of will and distress ofSugawara no Michizanein theKitano Tenjin Engi Emaki.For Saint-Marc, "each element takes [more generally] the importance it has in itself in the painter's mind", freeing itself from the rules of realistic composition.

• Perspective techniques
• 
  Long vanishing line guiding eye movement,Shigisan Engi Emaki,12th century
• 
  Scene in which depth is carried by parallel diagonals (here architecture), without perspective,Genji Monogatari Emaki,12th century
• 
  Example of a simple transition using a watercourse,Illustrated Sutra of Cause and Effect,8th century
• 
  Interior view, in which the roof is not shown (fukinuki yatai).Ban Dainagon Ekotoba,12th century
• 
  Interior view ofTaima-dera,where the spaces are set aside to show several stages of the story, thanks to thefukinuki yatai.Taima Mandala Engi,13th century
• 
  Scale variation, where the main character appears very tall compared with the mountain; opaque mists are also characteristic of Asian art.Kitano Tenjin Engi Emaki,1219

Narrative rhythm

The narrative rhythm ofemakimonoarises mainly from the arrangement between texts and images, which constitutes an essential marker of the evolution of the story. In Court style paintings (onna-e), the artist could suggest calm and melancholy via successions of fixed and contemplative shots, as, for example, in theGenji Monogatari Emaki,in which the scenes seem to be out of time, punctuating moments of extreme sensibilities.By contrast, more dynamic stories play on the alternation between close-ups and wide panoramas, elisions, transitions and exaggeration.In such stories, the narrative rhythm is devoted entirely to the construction of the scroll leading to the dramatic or epic summit, with continuously painted scrolls allowing the action to be revealed as it goes by intensifying the rhythm, and therefore the suspense.Theburning of Sanjō Palacein theHeiji Monogatari Emakiillustrates this aspect well, as the artist, by using a very opaque red spreading over almost the entire height of the paper, depicts a gradual intensification of the bloody battles and the pursuit ofEmperor Go-Shirakawauntil the palace catches fire.Another famous fire, theŌtenmon Incidentin theBan Dainagon Ekotoba,adopts the same approach, by portraying the movements of the crowd, more and more dense and disorderly, until the revelation of the drama.

Japanese artists also use other composition techniques to energize a story and set the rhythm: the same characters are represented in a series of varied sets (typically outdoors), a technique known as repetition (hampuku byōsha).In theGosannen Kassen Ekotoba,a composition centered onKanazawa Castlegradually shows the capture of the castle by the troops ofMinamoto no Yoshiie,creating a gradual and dramatic effect.In theKibi Daijin Nittō Emaki,the tower to whichKibi no Makibi(or Kibi Daijin) is assigned is painted to depict each challenge won by the protagonist.

Another narrative technique characteristic ofemakimonois callediji-dō-zu:it consists of representing the same character several times in a single scene, in order to suggest a sequence of actions (fights, discussions, trips) with great space savings.The movement of the eye is then most often circular, and the scenes portray different moments.Iji-dō-zucan equally suggest either a long moment in one scene, such as the nun in theShigisan Engi Emakiwho remains in retreat inTōdai-jifor several hours, or a series of brief but intense actions, such as the fights in theBan Dainagon Ekotobaand theIppen Shōnin Eden.In theKegon Engi Emaki,the artist offers a succession of almost "cinematographic" shots alternately showing the distress of Zenmyō, a young Chinese girl, and the boat carrying her beloved away on the horizon.

• Narrative techniques
• 
  Scene using theiji-dō-zu technique:the group of demons is first depicted burning below, then listening to the sermons of the historical Buddha in the middle, and finally drinking and reaching the heavens above.Gaki Zōshi,12th century
• 
  Iji-dō-zu:the nun is depicted alternately praying and sleeping to suggest the length of her retreat.Shigisan Engi Emaki,12th century
• 
  Iji-dō-zu:two children fight in the centre under the amused eyes of the crowd, then the father of one of them runs up to the left, and unceremoniously expels his son's rival.Ban Dainagon Ekotoba,12th century

Calligraphy

Calligraphy on paper decorated with gold powder,Murasaki Shikibu Nikki Emaki,13th century

Calligraphy on plain paper,Heiji Monogatari Emaki,13th century

As noted in thehistory sectionabove, the emergence of thekanasyllabarycontributed to the development of women's court literature and, by extension, the illustration of novels on scrolls.Kanawere therefore used onemakimono,although the Chinese characters remained very much also in use. In some particular scrolls, other Alpha bets can be found, notablySanskriton theHakubyō Ise Monogatari Emaki.

InEast Asia,calligraphy is a predominant art that aristocrats learn to master from childhood, and styles and arrangements of characters are widely codified, although varied. In the context ofemakimono,calligraphic texts can have several purposes: to introduce the story, to describe the painted scenes, to convey religious teachings or to be presented in the form of poems (wakapoetry remains the most representative of ancient Japan). For the richly decorated court-style paintings (onna-e), like theGenji Monogatari Emaki,the papers were carefully prepared and decorated with gold and silver dust.

The text of anemakimonohad more than merely a function of decoration and narration; it could also influence the composition of the paintings. TheGenji Monogatari Emakihave been widely studied on this point: art historians have shown a link between the feeling conveyed by a text and the dominant colour of the accompanying paint, a colour which is also used for the decorated paper.In addition, the composition of the paintings may make it possible to understand them in accordance with the text: for example, the characters in the story may have been painted on a scene in a palace in the order of their appearance in the text. Other specialists in turn have insisted on the importance of the text in the positioning of the paintings, an important point in the Buddhistemakimono,in which the transmission of dogmas and religious teachings remained an essential goal of the artist.

A Japanese art

According to Peter C. Swann, the production ofemakimonowas Japan's first truly original artistic movement since the arrival of foreign influences.China's influence inemakimonoand pictorial techniques remained tangible at the beginning, so much so that historians have worked to formalise what really constitutesemakimonoart as Japanese art. In addition to theyamato-estyle, specialists often put forward several elements of answers: the very typical diagonal composition, the perspective depending on the subject, the process ofizi-dō-zu,the sensitivity of colours (essential inyamato-e), the stereotypical faces of the characters (impersonal, realistic or caricatured), and finally the hazy atmosphere.K. Chino and K. Nishi also noted the technique offukinuki yatai(literally, 'roof removed'), unprecedented in all Asian art.Saint-Marc commented that some of these elements actually existed previously in Chinese painting, and that the originality ofemakimonowas in the overall approach and themes established by the Japanese artists.

The originality of art is also to be sought in its spirit, "the life of an era translated into formal language".The court style paintings (onna-e) are part of the aesthetic ofmono no aware(literally 'thepathosof things'), a state of mind that is difficult to express, but which can be regarded as a penchant for sad beauty, the melancholy born of the feeling that everything beautiful is impermanent. D. and V. Elisseeff define this aspect ofemakimonoas theoko,the feeling of inadequacy, often materialized by a properly Japanese humour. But outside the court, the popular styleemakimono(otoko-e), the art of everyday life, come closer to the human and universal state of mind.

Historiographical value

Depiction of everyday Japanese life

Children's games riding bamboo trees in a yard; one of the children is the monkHōnen.Hōnen Shōnin Eden,14th century

Sustained production ofemakimonothrough theHeian,KamakuraandMuromachiperiods (about 12th–14th centuries) created an invaluable source of information on the then-contemporary Japanese civilization.Emakimonohave been greatly studied in that respect by historians;no other form of Japanese art has been so intimately linked to the life and culture of the Japanese people.

A large project of theKanagawa Universitymade a very exhaustive study of the most interesting paintings across fifteen major categories of elements, including dwellings, elements of domestic life and elements of life outside the home, according to ages (children, workers, old people) and social class.Although the main characters are most often nobles, famous monks or warriors, the presence of ordinary people is more or less tangible in an immense majority of works, allowing a study of a very wide variety of daily activities: peasants, craftsmen, merchants, beggars, women, old people and children can appear in turn.In theShigisan Engi Emaki,the activity of women is particularly interesting, the artist showing them preparing meals, washing clothes or breastfeeding.TheSanjūni-ban Shokunin Uta-awase Emakipresents 142 artisans from the Muromachi period, ranging from a blacksmith to asakemaker.

The clothing of the characters inemakimonoare typically true-to-life and accurately depict contemporary clothing and its relationship to the social categories of the time.In military-themed scrolls, the weapons and armour of the warriors are also depicted with accuracy; theHeiji Monogatari Emaki,for instance, depicts many details, in particular the armour and harnesses of horses,whilst theMōko Shūrai Ekotobadepicts the fighting styles of the Japanese during theMongol invasions of Japan,whose tactics were still dominated by the use of the bow.Finally, theBan Dainagon Ekotobaoffers a unique insight into certain details of the uniforms of police officers (known askebiishi).

Rich scene of popular life inŌtsu:Ippen, a Buddhist monk, practises thenenbutsudance with his disciples in the center. In the same scene, but on different planes, the painting shows peasants, beggars, destitute people, itinerant monks, pilgrims and townspeople.Ippen Shōnin Eden,13th century

The aesthetics, alongside the rendering of people's emotions and expressions of feelings, also show a distinct cleavage between the common people and the aristocracy. Foremakimonodepicting commoners, emotions such as fear, anguish, excitement and joy are rendered directly and with clarity, whereas aristocraticemakimonoinstead emphasise refined, but less direct, themes such as classical romance, the holding of ceremonies, and nostalgia for the Heian period.

Historical, cultural and religious reflection

Depending on the subjects addressed,emakimonoalso form an important historiographical source of information about more than just everyday life, including historical events, culture and religion. Among these kinds ofemakimono,theNenjū Gyōji Emakicomes in the form of a calendar of several annual ceremonies and rites celebrated at court. By their symbolic importance and the complexity of their codes, these events, as well as some more popular festivals, absorbed much of the energy of the Heian period aristocracy. During the subsequent Kamakura period, the forty-eight scrolls of theHōnen Shōnin Edenformed an unpublished catalogue of the culture and the society of the time, while recounting, in a proselytising way, the establishment of the firstPure Landschool in Japan.

The architecture of the places used as a setting for anemakimonocan present a great level of visual detail in relation to period structures. TheMurasaki Shikibu Nikki Emakithus offers an insight into theshinden-zukuriarchitectural style, marked by a mixture of influence fromTang Chinaand traditional Japan, such as bark roofs.More interesting still, theIppen Shōnin Edendetails a wide variety of buildings (temples, shrines, palaces, dwellings) taken from life with an unprecedented realism by the painter monkEn'i,so that the buildings preserved today are easily recognizable.Emakimonocan also include various elements of life in the city or in the country, such as the market in the shopping district ofOsaka.Another notable example, theShigisan Engi Emakigives a unique sketch of the great Buddha original ofTōdai-ji,which burned in 1180.

Emakimonovery often take historical or religious events as a source of inspiration: the narrative value of the story (the true story) informs contemporary historians as much about the story as about the way of perceiving this story at the time (there is sometimes a gap of several centuries between the time of the story and the time of the painter). Amongst the most interesting information in anemakimonomay be details of the construction of ancient temples, of religious practicesand finally of the unfolding of battles and major historical events, such as theMongol invasions,theGenpei Waror even theŌtenmon political conspiracy.

• Historical, cultural and religious reflection
• 
  Large original Buddha ofTōdai-ji:this is the only iconographic document on this monumental work, which was burned in 1180.Shigisan Engi Emaki,12th century
• 
  Entertainment of the aristocrats on the lake of the palace; the fat man on the veranda is none other than the mightyFujiwara no Michinaga.Murasaki Shikibu Nikki Emaki,13th century
• 
  War in all its brutality: armed samurai slaughtering the nobles amid thenight attack on Sanjō Palaceduring theHeiji rebellion.Heiji Monogatari Emaki,13th century

Notable examples

Art historians, in their writings, have repeatedly emphasized the specific techniques ofemakimonoart through some characteristic scrolls.

Genji Monogatari Emaki

Genji Monogatari Emaki

TheGenji Monogatari Emaki,dated approximately between the years 1120 and 1140, illustrateThe Tale of Genjiin the refined and intimate style of the court (onna-e), but only a few fragments of four scrolls remain today.The scene shown here depicts Prince Genji's final visit to his dying beloved, Lady Murasaki. In the composition, the diagonals reveal the emotion of the characters. First, Lady Murasaki appears at the top right, then the lines guide the eye to the prince in the lower centre, who appears to be crushed by sorrow. Then, the reading continues, and, at left, several months have passed, showing the garden of lovers devastated by time, echoing the loved one lost.The colors are darker than usual. In this scene, all of the classic pictorial elements of theemakimonoof theonna-egenre are visible: the diagonals that guide the eye, thefukinuki yatai,thehikime kagibana,and the colours affixed evenly over the entire surface, with thetsukuri-etechnique.

Shigisan Engi Emaki

Shigisan Engi Emaki

TheShigisan Engi Emakiprovides a popular and humorous narrative of three episodes from the life of the Buddhist monk Myōren (founder ofChōgosonshi-ji), emphasizing the line and light colors of theotoko-e.The most precise estimates place it between 1157 and 1180, and the quality of the descriptions of the temples and the palace suggests that the artist is familiar with both ecclesiastical and aristocratic circles.Myōren, who lived as a hermit in the mountains of Kyoto, used to send a magic bowl by air to the nearby village, in order to receive his offering of rice. One day, a rich merchant became tired of this ritual and locked the bowl in his attic. To punish him, Myōren blew up the whole granary containing the village harvest, as painted in the scene shown here;in that scene, known as the flying granary, the artist fully represents the popular feelings, fear and panic at seeing the harvest disappear. The movements of the crowd and the expressive, almost burlesque faces of the landscapes contrast with the tangible restraint in theGenji Monogatari Emaki.So, thisemakimonofits into theotoko-egenre, marked by dynamic ink lines, light colors revealing the paper, and themes of everyday life.

Heiji Monogatari Emaki

Heiji Monogatari Emaki

TheHeiji Monogatari Emakirecounts the historical events of theHeiji rebellion,an episode in the civil war between theTairaandMinamotoclans at the end of the Heian era. Of the numerous original scrolls, formed in the second half of the 13th century, probably over several decades, only three remain, together with various fragments.The first scroll, which depicts theSiege of Sanjō Palace,is one of the most renowned in the art ofemakimono,due to its mastery of movement and setting up of the narrative to the climax: the fire, which spreads over almost the entire height of the scroll in the scene shown here. At the seat of the fire, extremely realistically represented soldiers, equipped with weapons and armor, fight violently, while the aristocrats who try to flee are savagely massacred (here, one is slaughtered by a shaggy soldier).The palace fire echoes that in another, older, scroll, theBan Dainagon Ekotoba,which is renowned for its mix of colorful and refined scenes.

Ippen Shōnin Eden

Ippen Shōnin Eden

The twelve scrolls of theIppen Shōnin Edennarrate the biography of the holy monkIppen,founder of theJi-shūschool ofPure Land Buddhism.They were painted in 1299 by the monk-painterEn'i,disciple of Ippen, on silk, probably because of the importance of the character. Ippen, cantor of salvation for all souls and dancing prayers (nenbutsuodori), travelled throughout Japan to transmit his doctrine to men, peasants, townspeople and nobles. Theemakimonois renowned for its many strong scenes of landscapes typical of Japan, so realistic that they can still be recognised perfectly today.The scene shown here, in which Ippen and his disciples arrive at Kyoto by the bridge over theKamo River,illustrates the uniqueemakimonostyle, which draws its inspiration from both the classicyamato-erealism of Kamakura art and thewash paintingof theSong dynasty.The result, so admired by specialists, appears very close to deep and spiritual Chinese landscapes with rough ink strokes, while retaining a Japanese iconography through the freedom taken with perspective (the characters in particular are disproportionate) and the elements of daily life.

Kegon Engi Emaki

Kegon Engi Emaki

TheKegon Engi Emaki,painted around 1218–1230, illustrates the legend of two Korean monks who founded theKegonsect in their country in the 12th century.One of them, Gishō, made a pilgrimage to China in his youth to complete his Buddhist education. There, he met a young Chinese girl, Zenmyō, who fell in love with him. Alas, on the day he was due to depart, the latter arrived late at the port and, in despair, rushed into the water, swearing to protect her beloved forever. She then transformed into a dragon and became a protective deity of the Kegon school, according to legend. The well-known scene shown here, in which Zenmyō, transformed into a dragon, carries Gishō's ship on her back, features supple and fine lines as well as discreet colors that do not mask the brushstrokes; this style also seems inspired by the wash painting of the Song dynasty to which the very Japanese sensitivity for colors has been added. In fact, the sponsor of the roll, the monkMyōeofKōzan-ji,appreciated the art of the Asian continent and brought to Japan several contemporary Chinese works, which probably inspired the artists of his painting workshop.

Kitano Tenjin Engi Emaki

Kitano Tenjin Engi Emaki

The original scrolls of theKitano Tenjin Engi Emaki,reporting the facts about the life and death ofSugawara no Michizane,scholarly minister to the Emperor during his lifetime, and deified according to legend as akamiof studies and letters, demonstrate a sensitivity in mi xing Buddhism and, above all, Shinto. The scrolls were actually intended for the Shinto shrine ofKitano Tenmangūin Kyoto; the last two of eight scrolls narrate the foundation and miracles.However, the thematic division of the work appears unfinished, the sketch of a ninth scroll having been brought to light. In the scene shown here, Michizane, unjustly condemned to exile, calls out to the gods in his misfortune. The composition of the painting testifies to a very Japanese sensitivity; Michizane is disproportionately depicted to underline his grandeur and determination in the face of dishonour, while the vividly colored and almost contourless (mokkotsu) landscape is imbued with Shinto animism.The mists resembling long opaque ribbons are further features ofemakimono,although also present in a different form in Chinese art.

See also

• Cantastoria
• Kamishibai
• Kasuga Gongen Genki E
• Moving panorama
• Wayang beber
• List of National Treasures of Japan (paintings)

References

Bibliography

Journal articles and conference proceedings

• Armbruster, Gisela (1972)."Cassoni-Emaki: A Comparative Study".Artibus Asiae.34(1): 29–61+63–70.doi:10.2307/3249637.JSTOR3249637.
• Kaufman, Laura S. (1983).Lyrical Imagery and Religious Content in Japanese Art: The Pictorial Biography of Ippen the Holy Man.Traditions in Contact and Change: XIVth Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions (1980). pp. 201–230.ISBN0889201420.
• Milone, Marco (August 2020)."Pittura a rotoli".Linus(in Italian): 68–70.ISBN978-8893886901.
• Murase, Miyeko (1993)."The" Taiheiki Emaki ": The Use of the Past".Artibus Asiae.53(1/2): 262–289.doi:10.2307/3250519.JSTOR3250519.
• Saint-Marc, Elsa (2001)."Techniques de composition de l'espace dans l'Ippen hijiri-e".Arts Asiatiques(in French).56:91–109.doi:10.3406/arasi.2001.1466.
• Sayre, Charles Franklin (1982)."Japanese Court-Style Narrative Painting of the Late Middle Ages".Archives of Asian Art.35.Duke University Press:71–81.JSTOR20111127.
• Shibusawa, Keizō;et al. (2008)."Shigisan engi"(PDF).Multilingual Version of Pictopedia of Everyday Life in Medieval Japan, compiled from picture scrolls(PDF).Vol. 1. Yokohama:Kanagawa University 21st Century COE Program.pp. 82–115.ISBN9784990301750.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 10 March 2018.
• Strauch-Nelson, Wendy (May 2008)."Emaki: Japanese Picture Scrolls".Art Education.61(3).National Art Education Association:25–32.doi:10.1080/00043125.2008.11652057.JSTOR27696294.S2CID158869725.
• Sumpter, Sara L. (December 2009)."The Shôkyû Version of the Kitano Tenjin Engi Emaki: A brief introduction to its content and function"(PDF).Eras Journal.11.ISSN1445-5218.
• Terukazu, Akiyama[in Japanese](1971). "New Buddhist Sects and Emakimono (Handscroll Painting) in the Kamakura Period".Acta Artistica.2:62–76.
• Terukazu, Akiyama(1985)."Expression et technique dans le rouleau enluminé de l'Histoire de Gengi".Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres(in French).129(4): 565–571.doi:10.3406/crai.1985.14304.
• Tomita, Kojiro (1925). "The Burning of the Sanjō Palace (Heiji Monogatari): A Japanese Scroll Painting of the Thirteenth Century".Museum of Fine Arts Bulletin.23(139).Museum of Fine Arts, Boston:49–55.
• Watanabe, Masako (1998)."Narrative Framing in the" Tale of Genji Scroll ": Interior Space in the Compartmentalized Emaki".Artibus Asiae.58(1/2): 115–145.doi:10.2307/3249997.JSTOR3249997.
• Waters, Virginia Skord (1997). "Sex, Lies, and the Illustrated Scroll: The Dojoji Engi Emaki".Monumenta Nipponica.52(1).Sophia University:59–84.doi:10.2307/2385487.JSTOR2385487.

Works specialising inemakimono

• Department of Asian Art (October 2002)."Heian Period (794–1185)".Metropolitan Museum of Art.Timeline of Art History.Retrieved9 December2020.
• Grilli, Elise (1962).Rouleaux peints japonais(in French). Translated by Requien, Marcel.Arthaud.
• Milone, Marco (5 June 2020).Per un introduzione sugli emaki(in Italian). Mimesis edizioni.ISBN978-8857565521.
• Murase, Miyeko (1983).Emaki, Narrative Scrolls from Japan.Asia Society.ISBN978-0-87848-060-9.
• Okudaira, Hideo (1962).Emaki: Japanese picture scrolls.C. E. Tuttle Co.
• Okudaira, Hideo (1973).Narrative Picture Scrolls.Arts of Japan series. Vol. 5. Translated by Ten Grotenhuis, Elizabeth. Weatherhill.ISBN978-0-8348-2710-3.
• Seckel, Dietrich;Hasé, Akihisa (1959).Emaki: L'art classique des rouleaux peints japonais[Emaki: the classic art of Japanese painted scrolls]. Translated by Guerne, Armel. Delpire.
• Terukazu, Akiyama (1968).Hội cuốn vật[Emakimono]. Genshoku Nihon no bijutsu series (in Japanese). Vol. 8. Shōgakkan.
• Toda, Kenji (1969).Japanese Scroll Painting.Greenwood Press.
• Willmann, Anna (April 2012)."Yamato-ePainting ".Metropolitan Museum of Art.Timeline of Art History.Retrieved9 December2020.
• Willmann, Anna (November 2012n)."Japanese Illustrated Handscrolls".Metropolitan Museum of Art.Timeline of Art History.Retrieved9 December2020.

Works focusing on a specificemaki

• Chan, Yuk-yue (2006).Dream, pilgrimage and dragons in the Kegon Engi Emaki (illustrated legends of the Kegon patriarchs): reading ideology in Kamakura Buddhist narrative scrolls(M Phil).University of Hong Kong.doi:10.5353/th_b3585305(inactive 2024-04-12).OCLC71882614.{{cite thesis}}:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (link)
• Kaufman, Laura S. (1980).Ippen Hijiri-e: Artistic and Literary Sources in a Buddhist Handscroll Painting of Thirteenth-Century Japan(Thesis).New York University.
• Mason, Penelope E. (1977).A Reconstruction of the Hōgen-Heiji Monogatari Emaki(Thesis).Garland Science/New York University.
• Murase, Miyeko (1962).The Tenjin Engi Scrolls: A study of their genealogical relationship(Thesis).Columbia University.
• Saint-Marc, Elsa Alocco (2000).L'Ippen hijiri-e (rouleaux peints du renonçant Ippen): la mise en image d'une biographie[The Ippen hijiri-e (painted scrolls of the monk Ippen): the imaging of a biography] (PhD). Paris:Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales.
• Shirane, Haruo (2008).Envisioning the Tale of Genji: Media, gender, and cultural production.Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-14237-3.

General books on the art of Japan

• Elisseeff, Danielle;Elisseeff, Vadime(1980).L'Art de l'ancien Japon(in French). Paris: Éditions Mazenod. p. 680.ISBN2-85088-010-8.
• Ienaga, Saburō(1973).Painting in the Yamato Style.The Heibonsha Survey of Japanese Art series. Vol. 10. Weatherhill. p. 162.ISBN978-0-8348-1016-7.
• Illouz, Claire (1985).Les Sept Trésors du lettré: les matériaux de la peinture chinoise et japonaise.Les trésors de l'Asie series (in French). éditions Erec. p. 136.ISBN978-2-905519-03-0.
• Iwao, Seiichi; Iyanaga, Teizo (2002).Dictionnaire historique du Japon(in French). Vol. 1–2.Maisonneuve et Larose.ISBN978-2-7068-1633-8.
• Lésoualc'h, Théo(1967).La Peinture japonaise.Histoire générale de la peinture (in French). Vol. 25. Lausanne:Éditions Rencontre.
• Mason, Penelope E.; Dinwiddie, Donald (2005).History of Japanese Art.Pearson-Prentice Hall.ISBN978-0-13-117601-0.
• Murase, Miyeko (1996).L'Art du Japon.La Pochothèque series (in French). Paris: Éditions LGF -Livre de Poche.ISBN2-253-13054-0.
• Shimizu, Christine(2001).L'Art japonais[Japanese Art]. Tout l'art series (in French).Flammarion.ISBN978-2-08-013701-2.
• Stanley-Baker, Joan (2014).Japanese Art.World of Art series (3rd ed.). London:Thames & Hudson.ISBN9780500204252.
• Swann, Peter Charles (1967).Japon: de l'époque Jomon à l'époque des Tokugawa.L'art dans le monde series (in French). Translated by Tadié, Marie. Paris:Albin Michel.
• Terukazu, Akiyama (1961).La Peinture japonaise.Les trésors de l'Asie series (in French). Genève: éditionsAlbert Skira.p. 217.

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