Wild horse
Wild horse | |
---|---|
![]() | |
Top left:Equus ferus caballus(horses) Top right:Equus ferus przewalskii(Przewalski's horse) Below left:Equus ferus ferus†(tarpan) | |
Scientific classification![]() | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Perissodactyla |
Family: | Equidae |
Genus: | Equus |
Subgenus: | Equus |
Species: | E. ferus
|
Binomial name | |
Equus ferus Boddaert,1785
| |
Subspecies | |
Thewild horse(Equus ferus) is aspeciesof thegenusEquus,which includes assubspeciesthe moderndomesticatedhorse(Equus ferus caballus) as well as theendangeredPrzewalski's horse(Equus ferus przewalskii,sometimes treated as a separate species i.e.Equus przewalskii).[2][3]The European wild horse, also known as thetarpan,that went extinct in the late 19th or early 20th century has previously been treated as the nominate subspecies of wild horse,Equus ferus ferus,but more recent studies have cast doubt on whether tarpans were truly wild or if they actually wereferal horsesor hybrids.[4][5][6]
Other subspecies ofEquus ferusmay have existed and could have been the stock from which domesticated horses are descended.[7]Przewalski's horse had reached the brink ofextinction,but was reintroduced successfully into the wild.[8]The tarpan became extinct in the 19th century, but is theorized to have been present on thesteppesofEurasiaat the time of domestication.[9][10][11][12]Since the extinction of the tarpan, attempts have been made to reconstruct itsphenotypeusing domestic horses, resulting inhorse breedssuch as theHeck horse.[13][14]However, the genetic makeup andfoundation bloodstockof those breeds is substantially derived from domesticated horses, so these breeds possess domesticated traits.
The term "wild horse" is also usedcolloquiallyin reference to free-roaming herds offeral horses;for example, themustangin the United States,[15]and thebrumbyin Australia.[16]These feral horses are untamed members of the domestic horse (Equus caballus), not to be confused with the truly "wild" horse subspecies extant into modern times.
Distribution
[edit]Evidence supportsE. ferusas having evolved inNorth Americaabout 1.1 - 1.2million years ago.Around 800,000 - 900,000 years ago,E. ferusmigrated west toEurasiavia theBering Land Bridge,and south toSouth Americavia theIsthmus of Panamaas part of theGreat American Interchange.By the mid-latePleistocene,it had an extremely large range across the Americas, Eurasia, and North Africa, across which it was abundant. There have been several fossil horse taxa from throughout this range, such asEquus lambeiandAmerhippus,that were formerly considered distinct species, but genetic and morphological analysis supports them as beingconspecificwithE. ferus.[17][18][19][20]By the end of the Late Pleistocene, wild horses had colonised the far north of theTaimyr Peninsula.[21]
By the latest Pleistocene or earlyHolocene,American populations had disappeared as part of theQuaternary extinction event,leaving only theOld Worldpopulations. It remained widespread there and was ultimately alsodomesticatedaround3600 B.C., but wild populations continued to decline. The last completely wild populations of thetarpanwent extinct inEastern Europeand the southern parts ofRussiaaround the late 19th century, andPrzewalski's horseofCentral Asiabecameextinct in the wildin 1969. However, over the past few centuriesferal horseshave beenintroducedto all continents exceptAntarctica,and Przewalski's horses have beenreintroducedto their former habitats in Mongolia.[17]
Ecology
[edit]In general, wild horses aregrazersthat prefer to inhabit open areas, such assteppesandgrasslands.They may have seasonal food preferences, as seen in thePrzewalski's subspecies.[22]Horses may fall prey to native predators includingwolves,[23]cougars,[24]andspotted hyenas.[25]
Subspecies and their history
[edit]E. ferushas had several subspecies, those of which survived into modern times are:[26]
- The domesticated horse (Equus ferus caballus).
- The Eurasian wild horse (Equus ferus ferus), incorrectly listed asEquus caballus ferusin MSW 3; originally considered synonymous with the tarpan, though recent research has cast doubt on this. Horses identified as tarpans were found in Europe andwestern Asiabefore the last surviving animals —possibly hybrids by that time — became effectively extinct in the late 19th century. The last specimen died in 1909 whilst in captivity in an estate inPoltava Governorate,Russian Empire.
- Przewalski's horse(Equus ferus przewalskii), incorrectly listed asEquus caballus przewalskiiin MSW 3; also known as the Mongolian wild horse or takhi, it is native toCentral Asiaand theGobi Desert.It is sometimes considered its own species,Equus przewalskii.
The latter two are the only never-domesticated "wild" groups that survived into historic times. However, other subspecies ofEquus ferusmay have existed.[7]
In theLate Pleistoceneepoch, there were several other subspecies ofE. feruswhich have all since goneextinct.The exact categorization ofEquusremains into species or subspecies is a complex matter and the subject of ongoing work.[27]
Evolutionary history and taxonomy
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Equus_ferus.jpg/220px-Equus_ferus.jpg)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Wild_horse_reconstruction.jpg/220px-Wild_horse_reconstruction.jpg)
The horse familyEquidaeand the genusEquusevolved in North America during thePliocene,before the species migrated acrossBeringiainto theEastern Hemisphere.[29]Studies usingancient DNA,as well as DNA of recent individuals, suggest the presence of two equine species in Late Pleistocene North America, a caballine species, suggested to be conspecific with the wild horse,[30][31]andHaringtonhippus francisci,the "New World stilt-legged horse"; the latter has beentaxonomicallyassigned to various names, and appears to be outside the grouping containing all extant equines.[32]In South America there appear to have been several species of equine,Equus(Amerhippus)neogeus,which had previously thought to represent 5 taxa due to morphological variability,[33]and several species ofHippidion,which also lie outside the group containing all living horses.[34](It had previously been suggested to have been nested withinEquusbased on incomplete sequence data[35])
Currently, three subspecies that lived during recorded human history are recognized.[26]One subspecies is the widespreaddomestic horse(Equus ferus caballus),[26]as well as two wild subspecies: the recently extinct European wild horse (E. f. ferus) and the endangeredPrzewalski's horse(E. f. przewalskii).[10][11][26]
Genetically, the pre-domestication horse,E. ferus,and the domesticated horse,E. caballus,form a single homogeneous group (clade) and are genetically indistinguishable from each other.[30][35][36][37]The genetic variation within this clade shows only a limited regional variation, with the notable exception of Przewalski's horse.[30][35][36][37]Przewalski's horse has several unique genetic differences that distinguish it from the other subspecies, including 66 instead of 64chromosomes,[10][38]uniqueY-chromosomegenehaplotypes,[39]and uniquemtDNAhaplotypes.[40][41]
Besides genetic differences,osteologicalevidence from across the Eurasian wild horse range, based on cranial and metacarpal differences, indicates the presence of only two subspecies in postglacial times, the tarpan and Przewalski's horse.[7][42]
Scientific naming of the species
[edit]In some sources including MSW 3 (2005), the domesticated and wild horses were considered a single species, with the valid scientific name for such a single horse species beingEquus ferus,[43]although MSW erroneously usedE. caballusfor this (enlarged) taxon on account of a mis-interpretation of the then-recent ICZN ruling on the matter,[44]refer Groves & Grubb, 2011.[45]The wild tarpan subspecies isE. f. ferus,Przewalski's horse isE. f. przewalskii,while the domesticated horse is nowadays normally (but not exclusively) treated as a separate speciesE. caballus.The rules for the scientific naming of animal species are determined in theInternational Code of Zoological Nomenclature,which stipulates that the oldest available valid scientific name is used to name the species.[46]Previously, when taxonomists considered domesticated and wild horse two subspecies of the same species, the valid scientific name wasEquus caballusLinnaeus 1758,[47]with the subspecies labeledE. c. caballus(domesticated horse),E. c. ferusBoddaert, 1785 (tarpan) andE. c. przewalskiiPoliakov, 1881 (Przewalski's horse).[48]However, in 2003, theInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclaturedecided that the scientific names of the wild species have priority over the scientific names of domesticated species, therefore mandating the use ofEquus ferusfor both the wild and the domesticated horse if the two taxa are considered conspecific.[49]
Przewalski's horse
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Eurasian_wild_horse.jpg/220px-Eurasian_wild_horse.jpg)
Przewalski's horseoccupied the easternEurasian Steppes,perhaps from theUral MountainstoMongolia,although the ancient border between tarpan and Przewalski's distributions has not been clearly defined.[50]Przewalski's horse was limited toDzungariaand westernMongoliain the same period, and becameextinct in the wildduring the 1960s, but was reintroduced in the late 1980s to two preserves inMongolia.[51]Although earlier researchers such asMarija Gimbutastheorized that the horses of theChalcolithicperiod were Przewalski's, a 2003 study indicated that the Przewalski's horse is not an ancestor to modern domesticated horses.[52][53] A 2015 study determined that the Przewalski and domesticated horse lineages diverged from a common ancestor about 45,000 years ago.[54]
In 2018, a DNA study revealed that the horses raised for meat and milk[55]by theBotai culture5500 years ago were Przewalski's horses. The paper claims specifically that modern Przewalski's horses are the feral descendents of the domesticated[56][57]Botai horse, although it is also possible both groups could have descended separately from the same ancient wild Przewalski's horses.[58][59]
Przewalski's horse is still found today, though it is anendangered speciesand for a time was considered extinct in the wild.[41]Roughly 2000 Przewalski's horses are inzoosaround the world.[60]A small breeding population has been reintroduced in Mongolia.[61][62]As of 2005, a cooperative venture between theZoological Society of Londonand Mongolian scientists has resulted in a population of 248 animals in the wild.[63]
Przewalski's horse has some biological differences from the domestichorse;unlikedomesticatedhorses and the tarpan, which both have 64chromosomes,Przewalski's horse has 66 chromosomes due to aRobertsonian translocation.[64]However, the offspring of Przewalski and domestic horses are fertile, possessing 65 chromosomes.[65]
Feral horses
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Exmoor_ponies1.jpg/220px-Exmoor_ponies1.jpg)
Horses that live in an untamed state but have ancestors that have beendomesticatedare called "feral horses".[66]For instance, when the Spanish reintroduced the horse to the Americas, beginning in the late 15th century,[67]some horses escaped, formingferalherds; the best-known being themustang.[68]Similarly, thebrumbydescended from horses strayed or let loose in Australia by English settlers.[69]Isolated populations offeral horsesoccur in a number of places, includingBosnia,Croatia,New Zealand,Portugal,Scotlandand a number ofbarrier islandsalong the Atlantic coast of North America fromSable IslandoffNova Scotia,toCumberland Island,off the coast ofGeorgia.[70]Even though these are often referred to as "wild" horses, they are not truly "wild" if wildness is defined as having no domesticated ancestors.[66]
In 1995, British and French explorers encountered a new population of horses in theRiwoche ValleyofTibet,unknown to the rest of the world, but apparently used by the localKhambapeople.[71]It was speculated that theRiwoche horsemight be arelictpopulation of wild horses,[72]but testing did not reveal genetic differences with domesticated horses,[73]which is in line with news reports indicating that they are used as pack and riding animals by the local villagers.[74]These horses only stand 12hands(48 inches, 122 cm) tall and are said to resemble the images known as "horse no 2" depicted in cave paintings alongside images of Przewalski's horse.[73]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]Citations
[edit]- ^King, S.R.B.; Boyd, L.; Zimmermann, W. & Kendall, B.E. (2016) [errata version of 2015 assessment]."Equus ferus".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2015:e.T41763A97204950.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T41763A45172856.en.Retrieved17 February2022.
- ^Grubb, P.(2005)."Order Perissodactyla".InWilson, D.E.;Reeder, D.M (eds.).Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference(3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 630–631.ISBN978-0-8018-8221-0.OCLC62265494.
- ^"Explore the Database".mammaldiversity.org.Retrieved20 August2021.
- ^Tadeusz Jezierski, Zbigniew Jaworski:Das Polnische Konik. Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei Bd. 658,Westarp Wissenschaften, Hohenwarsleben 2008,ISBN3-89432-913-0
- ^"Tarpan".Britannica.Retrieved7 March2023.
- ^"The Przewalskii and Tarpan Horses".Retrieved7 March2023.
- ^abcColin Groves, 1986, "The taxonomy, distribution, and adaptations of recent Equids", In Richard H. Meadow and Hans-Peter Uerpmann, eds.,Equids in the Ancient World, volume I,pp. 11-65, Wiesbaden: Ludwig Reichert Verlag.
- ^Goldman, Jason G."10 Things You Didn't Know About Przewalski's Horses".Scientific American Blog Network.
- ^"The First Horses: The Przewalskii and Tarpan Horses",The legacy of the horse,International Museum of the Horse, archived fromthe originalon 30 October 2007,retrieved18 February2009
- ^abcGroves, Colin P. (1994). Boyd, Lee and Katherine A. Houpt (ed.).The Przewalski Horse: Morphology, Habitat and Taxonomy.Vol. Przewalski's Horse: The History and Biology of an Endangered Species. Albany, New YorkColin P. Groves:State University of New York Press.
- ^abKavar, Tatjana; Peter Dovč (2008). "Domestication of the horse: Genetic relationships between domestic and wild horses".Livestock Science.116(1–3): 1–14.doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2008.03.002.
- ^Bowling, Ann T.; Anatoly Ruvinsky (2000). "Genetic Aspects of Domestication, Breeds and Their Origin". InAnn T. Bowling;Anatoly Ruvinsky (eds.).The Genetics of the Horse.CABI Publishing.ISBN978-0-85199-429-1.
- ^"Tarpan or Heck Horse".horsehints.org.
- ^"Rare horse breed proves crucial to delicate ecosystem - Features".Horsetalk.co.nz.1 June 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 9 November 2020.Retrieved28 May2017.
- ^"Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary".Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary.
- ^"The Brumbies – Australian Wild Horses › Wild Horses and Mustangs".wildhorsesandmustangs.
- ^abNaundrup, Pernille Johansen; Svenning, Jens-Christian (15 July 2015)."A Geographic Assessment of the Global Scope for Rewilding with Wild-Living Horses (Equus ferus)".PLOS ONE.10(7): e0132359.Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1032359N.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0132359.ISSN1932-6203.PMC4503665.PMID26177104.
- ^Kirkpatrick, Jay F.; Fazio, Patricia M. (24 July 2008)."The Surprising History of America's Wild Horses".Live Science.Retrieved11 October2020.
- ^Villavicencio, Natalia A.; Corcoran, Derek; Marquet, Pablo A. (2019)."Assessing the Causes Behind the Late Quaternary Extinction of Horses in South America Using Species Distribution Models".Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution.7.doi:10.3389/fevo.2019.00226.ISSN2296-701X.S2CID195656032.
- ^Orlando, Ludovic; Male, Dean; Alberdi, Maria Teresa; Prado, Jose Luis; Prieto, Alfredo; Cooper, Alan; Hänni, Catherine (1 May 2008). "Ancient DNA Clarifies the Evolutionary History of American Late Pleistocene Equids".Journal of Molecular Evolution.66(5): 533–538.Bibcode:2008JMolE..66..533O.doi:10.1007/s00239-008-9100-x.ISSN1432-1432.PMID18398561.S2CID19069554.
- ^Vershinina, Alisa O.; Kapp, Joshua D.; Baryshnikov, Gennady F.; Shapiro, Beth Alison (23 December 2019)."The case of an arctic wild ass highlights the utility of ancient DNA for validating problematic identifications in museum collections".Molecular Ecology Resources.20(5): 1182–1190.doi:10.1111/1755-0998.13130.ISSN1755-098X.Retrieved17 August2024– via Wiley Online Library.
- ^Kateryna Slivinska; Grzegorz Kopij (2011)."Diet of the Przewalski's horse Equus przewalskii in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone"(PDF).Polish Journal of Ecology.59(4): 841–847. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 29 October 2013.Retrieved29 October2013.
- ^Usukhjargal, Dorj; Henkens, RenéJ H. G.; Boer, Willem F. de; Vos, Anneleen E. W. de; Ras, Erica; Duyne, Caroline van (28 August 2009). "Wolf Predation Among Reintroduced Przewalski Horses in Hustai National Park, Mongolia".Journal of Wildlife Management.73(6): 836–843.doi:10.2193/2008-027.S2CID85877321.
- ^Philipps, Dave (12 May 2018)."Let Mountain Lions Eat Horses".The New York Times.
- ^"Brown Hyena Research Project - The Spotted Hyena".8 August 2013. Archived fromthe originalon 8 August 2013.
- ^abcdDon E. Wilson; DeeAnn M. Reeder, eds. (2005)."Equus caballus".Mammal Species of the World. A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference(3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press.Retrieved12 February2009.
- ^Boulbes, Nicolas; van Asperen, Eline N. (2019)."Biostratigraphy and Palaeoecology of European Equus".Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution.7:301.doi:10.3389/fevo.2019.00301.ISSN2296-701X.
- ^Pruvost, Melanie; Bellone, Rebecca; Benecke, Norbert; Sandoval-Castellanos, Edson; Cieslak, Michael; Kuznetsova, Tatyana; Morales-Muñiz, Arturo; O'Connor, Terry; Reissmann, Monika; Hofreiter, Michael; Ludwig, Arne (15 November 2011)."Genotypes of predomestic horses match phenotypes painted in Paleolithic works of cave art".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.108(46): 18626–18630.Bibcode:2011PNAS..10818626P.doi:10.1073/pnas.1108982108.PMC3219153.PMID22065780.
- ^"Equus caballus [ISC] (horse)".cabi.org.
- ^abcWeinstock, J.; et al. (2005)."Evolution, systematics, and phylogeography of Pleistocene horses in the New World: a molecular perspective".PLOS Biology.3(8): e241.doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030241.PMC1159165.PMID15974804.
- ^Barrón-Ortiz, Christina I.; Rodrigues, Antonia T.; Theodor, Jessica M.; Kooyman, Brian P.; Yang, Dongya Y.; Speller, Camilla F.; Orlando, Ludovic (17 August 2017)."Cheek tooth morphology and ancient mitochondrial DNA of late Pleistocene horses from the western interior of North America: Implications for the taxonomy of North American Late Pleistocene Equus".PLOS ONE.12(8): e0183045.Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1283045B.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0183045.PMC5560644.PMID28817644.
- ^Heintzman, P.D.; Zazula, G.D.; MacPhee, R.D.E; Scott, E.; Cahill, J.A.; McHorse, B.K.; Kapp, J.D.; Stiller, M.; Wooller, M.J.; Orlando, L.; Southon, J.; Froese, D.G.; Shapiro, B. (2017)."A new genus of horse from Pleistocene North America".eLife.6.doi:10.7554/eLife.29944.PMC5705217.PMID29182148.
- ^Machado, Helena; Avilla, Leonardo (3 July 2019)."The Diversity of South American Equus: Did Size Really Matter?".Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution.7.doi:10.3389/fevo.2019.00235.
- ^Der Sarkissian, Clio; Vilstrup, Julia T.; Schubert, Mikkel; Seguin-Orlando, Andaine; Eme, David; Weinstock, Jacobo; Alberdi, Maria Teresa; Martin, Fabiana; Lopez, Patricio M.; Prado, Jose L.; Prieto, Alfredo; Douady, Christophe J.; Stafford, Tom W.; Willerslev, Eske; Orlando, Ludovic (March 2015)."Mitochondrial genomes reveal the extinct as an outgroup to all living equids".Biology Letters.11(3): 20141058.doi:10.1098/rsbl.2014.1058.PMC4387498.PMID25762573.
- ^abcOrlando, Ludovic; Male, Dean; Alberdi, Maria Teresa; Prado, Jose Luis; Prieto, Alfredo; Cooper, Alan; Hänni, Catherine (9 April 2008). "Ancient DNA Clarifies the Evolutionary History of American Late Pleistocene Equids".Journal of Molecular Evolution.66(5): 533–538.Bibcode:2008JMolE..66..533O.doi:10.1007/s00239-008-9100-x.PMID18398561.S2CID19069554.
- ^abCai, Dawei; Zhuowei Tang; Lu Han; Camilla F. Speller; Dongya Y. Yang; Xiaolin Ma; Jian'en Cao; Hong Zhu; Hui Zhou (2009). "Ancient DNA provides new insights into the origin of the Chinese domestic horse".Journal of Archaeological Science.36(3): 835–842.Bibcode:2009JArSc..36..835C.doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.11.006.
- ^abVilà, Carles; Jennifer A. Leonard; Anders Götherström; Stefan Marklund; Kaj Sandberg; Kerstin Lidén; Robert K. Wayne; Hans Ellegren (2001)."Widespread Origins of Domestic Horse Lineages"(PDF).Science.291(5503): 474–477.Bibcode:2001Sci...291..474V.doi:10.1126/science.291.5503.474.PMID11161199.S2CID15514589.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 5 July 2020.
- ^Benirschke, Poliakoff K.; N. Malouf; R. J. Low; H. Heck (16 April 1965). "Chromosome Complement: Differences betweenEquus caballusandEquus przewalskii".Science.148(3668): 382–383.doi:10.1126/science.148.3668.382.PMID14261533.S2CID21562513.
- ^Lau, Allison; Lei Peng; Hiroki Goto; Leona Chemnick; Oliver A. Ryder; Kateryna D. Makova (2009)."Horse Domestication and Conservation Genetics of Przewalski's Horse Inferred from Sex Chromosomal and Autosomal Sequences".Mol. Biol. Evol.26(1): 199–208.doi:10.1093/molbev/msn239.PMID18931383.
- ^Jansen, Thomas; Forster, Peter; Levine, Marsha A.; Oelke, Hardy; Hurles, Matthew; Renfrew, Colin; Weber, Jürgen; Olek, Klaus (6 August 2002)."Mitochondrial DNA and the origins of the domestic horse".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.99(16): 10905–10910.Bibcode:2002PNAS...9910905J.doi:10.1073/pnas.152330099.PMC125071.PMID12130666.
- ^ab"Equus ferus ssp. przewalskii (Asian Wild Horse, Mongolian Wild Horse, Przewalski's Horse)".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
- ^Eisenmann, Vera (1998). "Quaternary Horses: possible candidates to domestication".The Horse: its domestication, diffusion and role in past communities.Proceedings of the XIII International Congress of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences, Forli, Italia, 8–14 September 1996. Vol. 1. ABACO Edizioni. pp. 27–36.
- ^Mills, Daniel S.; Nankervis, Kathryn J. (20 May 2013).Equine Behaviour: Principles and Practice.John Wiley & Sons.ISBN978-1-118-70806-4.
- ^International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (2003). "Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved. Opinion 2027 (Case 3010)".Bull. Zool. Nomencl.60(1): 81–84.
- ^Groves, C.; Grubb, P. (2011). Ungulate Taxonomy. Baltimore, USA: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 179.ISBN978-1-4214-0093-8
- ^"Principles of nomenclature of zoological taxa".insecta.bio.spbu.ru.Archived fromthe originalon 29 July 2017.Retrieved28 May2017.
- ^Linnaeus, Carolus(1758).Systema naturae per regna tria naturae:secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis.Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii). p. 73.Retrieved30 January2009.
- ^Bunzel-Drüke, Margret."Ecological substitutes for Wild horse and Aurochs"(PDF).Natur- und Kulturlandschaft, Höxter/Jena 2001, Band 4:10. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 3 March 2016.Retrieved28 May2017.
- ^Gentry, Anthea; Clutton-Brock, Juliet; Groves, Colin (May 2004)."The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivates (PDF Download Available)".Journal of Archaeological Science.31:645–651.doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006.
- ^Bunker, Emma C.; Watt, James C. Y.; Sun, Zhixin; N.Y.), Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York (2002).Nomadic Art of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes: The Eugene V. Thaw and Other New York Collections.Metropolitan Museum of Art.ISBN978-0-300-09688-0.
- ^WAZA."Overview: WAZA: World Association of Zoos and Aquariums".waza.org.Archived fromthe originalon 3 June 2017.Retrieved28 May2017.
- ^Wallner, B.; Brem, G.; Müller, M.; Achmann, R. (2003)."Fixed nucleotide differences on the Y chromosome indicate clear divergence between Equus przewalskii and Equus caballus"(PDF).Animal Genetics.34(6): 453–456.doi:10.1046/j.0268-9146.2003.01044.x.PMID14687077.S2CID11932020.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 6 July 2020.
- ^Lindgren, G.; Backström, N.; Swinburne, J.; Hellborg, L.; Einarsson, A.; Sandberg, K.; Cothran, G.; Vilà, C.; Binns, M.; Ellegren, H. (2004)."Limited number of patrilines in horse domestication".Nature Genetics.36(4): 335–336.doi:10.1038/ng1326.PMID15034578.
- ^Der Sarkissian, Clio; Ermini, Luca; Schubert, Mikkel; Yang, Melinda A.; Librado, Pablo; Fumagalli, Matteo; Jónsson, Hákon; Bar-Gal, Gila Kahila; Albrechtsen, Anders; Vieira, Filipe G.; Petersen, Bent; Ginolhac, Aurélien; Seguin-Orlando, Andaine; Magnussen, Kim; Fages, Antoine; Gamba, Cristina; Lorente-Galdos, Belen; Polani, Sagi; Steiner, Cynthia; Neuditschko, Markus; Jagannathan, Vidhya; Feh, Claudia; Greenblatt, Charles L.; Ludwig, Arne; Abramson, Natalia I.; Zimmermann, Waltraut; Schafberg, Renate; Tikhonov, Alexei; Sicheritz-Ponten, Thomas; Willerslev, Eske; Marques-Bonet, Tomas; Ryder, Oliver A.; McCue, Molly; Rieder, Stefan; Leeb, Tosso; Slatkin, Montgomery; Orlando, Ludovic (October 2015). "Evolutionary Genomics and Conservation of the Endangered Przewalski's Horse".Current Biology.25(19): 2577–2583.Bibcode:2015CBio...25.2577D.doi:10.1016/j.cub.2015.08.032.hdl:10230/33065.
- ^Outram, A.K.; Stear, N.A.; Bendrey, R.; Olsen, S.; Kasparov, A.; et al. (2009). "The earliest horse harnessing and milking".Science.323(5919): 1332–1335.Bibcode:2009Sci...323.1332O.doi:10.1126/science.1168594.PMID19265018.S2CID5126719.
- ^"Rebuttal of Taylor and Barrón-Ortiz 2021 Rethinking the evidence for early horse domestication at Botai"(PDF).Retrieved26 April2024.
- ^Outram, Alan K. (2023)."Horse domestication as a multi-centered, multi-stage process: Botai and the role of specialized Eneolithic horse pastoralism in the development of human-equine relationships".Frontiers in Environmental Archaeology.2.doi:10.3389/fearc.2023.1134068.hdl:10871/133044.
- ^Gaunitz, Charleen; Fages, Antoine; Hanghøj, Kristian; Albrechtsen, Anders; Khan, Naveed; Schubert, Mikkel; Seguin-Orlando, Andaine; Owens, Ivy J.; Felkel, Sabine; Bignon-Lau, Olivier; de Barros Damgaard, Peter; Mittnik, Alissa; Mohaseb, Azadeh F.; Davoudi, Hossein; Alquraishi, Saleh; Alfarhan, Ahmed H.; Al-Rasheid, Khaled A. S.; Crubézy, Eric; Benecke, Norbert; Olsen, Sandra; Brown, Dorcas; Anthony, David; Massy, Ken; Pitulko, Vladimir; Kasparov, Aleksei; Brem, Gottfried; Hofreiter, Michael; Mukhtarova, Gulmira; Baimukhanov, Nurbol; Lõugas, Lembi; Onar, Vedat; Stockhammer, Philipp W.; Krause, Johannes; Boldgiv, Bazartseren; Undrakhbold, Sainbileg; Erdenebaatar, Diimaajav; Lepetz, Sébastien; Mashkour, Marjan; Ludwig, Arne; Wallner, Barbara; Merz, Victor; Merz, Ilja; Zaibert, Viktor; Willerslev, Eske; Librado, Pablo; Outram, Alan K.; Orlando, Ludovic (6 April 2018)."Ancient genomes revisit the ancestry of domestic and Przewalski's horses".Science.360(6384): 111–114.Bibcode:2018Sci...360..111G.doi:10.1126/science.aao3297.hdl:10871/31710.PMID29472442.
- ^"Ancient DNA rules out archeologists' best bet for horse domestication".ArsTechnica.25 February 2018.Retrieved24 June2020.
- ^Williams, Paige."The Remarkable Comeback of Przewalski's Horse".Smithsonian.
- ^"Przewalski's Horse".si.edu.Retrieved8 June2015.
- ^"Endangered Przewalski's Horses Back On Russian Steppe".RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty.
- ^"An extraordinary return from the brink of extinction for worlds last wild horse"Archived2006-07-22 at theWayback MachineZSL Living Conservation,December 19, 2005.
- ^Chowdhary, Bhanu P. (22 January 2013).Equine Genomics.John Wiley & Sons.ISBN978-1-118-52212-7.
- ^The American Museum of Natural HistoryWhen Is a Wild Horse Actually a Feral Horse?
- ^ab"Are There Still Wild Horses?".
- ^Luís, Cristina; et al. (2006)."Iberian Origins of New World Horse Breeds".Journal of Heredity.97(2): 107–113.doi:10.1093/jhered/esj020.PMID16489143.
- ^Rittman, Paul."Spanish Colonial Horse and the Plains Indian Culture"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 12 April 2019.Retrieved18 January2015.
- ^Nimmo, D. G.; Miller, K. K. (2007)."Ecological and human dimensions of management of feral horses in Australia: A review"(PDF).Wildlife Research.34(5): 408–417.doi:10.1071/WR06102.S2CID26285264.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 5 July 2020.
- ^"Wildlife".Cumberland Island.Retrieved20 November2015.
- ^Simons, Marlise (12 November 1995)."A Stone-Age Horse Still Roams a Tibetan Plateau".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.
- ^Dohner, Janet Vorwald (2001). "Equines: Natural History". In Dohner, Janet Vorwald (ed.).Historic and Endangered Livestock and Poultry Breeds.Topeka, KS: Yale University Press. pp. 400–401.ISBN978-0-300-08880-9.
- ^abPeissel, Michel (2002).Tibet: the secret continent.Macmillan. p. 36.ISBN978-0-312-30953-4.
- ^Humi, Peter (17 November 1995)."Tibetan discovery is 'horse of a different color'".CNN. Archived fromthe originalon 3 December 2014.Retrieved9 September2009.
Bibliography
[edit]- King, S.R.B.; Boyd, L.; Zimmermann, W.; Kendall, B.E. (2016) [errata version of 2015 assessment]."Equus ferus".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2015:e.T41763A97204950.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T41763A45172856.en.Retrieved6 July2024.
- Moelman, P.D. 2002. Equids. Zebras, Asses and Horses. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Equid Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
- Ronald M. Nowak (1999).Walker's Mammals of the World(6th ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN0-8018-5789-9.LCCN98023686.