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Wild horse

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This article is about the species Equus ferus. For free-roaming horses descended from domesticated ancestry, seeFeral horse.For other uses, seeWild horse (disambiguation).

Wild horse
Top left:Equus ferus caballus(horses)
Top right:Equus ferus przewalskii(Przewalski's horse)

Below left:Equus ferus ferus†(tarpan)
Below right:Equus ferusfossil from 9100 BC

Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Equidae
Genus: Equus
Subgenus: Equus
Species:
E. ferus
Binomial name
Equus ferus
Subspecies

Thewild horse(Equus ferus) is aspeciesof thegenusEquus,which includes assubspeciesthe moderndomesticatedhorse(Equus ferus caballus) as well as theendangeredPrzewalski's horse(Equus ferus przewalskii,sometimes treated as a separate species i.e.Equus przewalskii).[2][3]The European wild horse, also known as thetarpan,that went extinct in the late 19th or early 20th century has previously been treated as the nominate subspecies of wild horse,Equus ferus ferus,but more recent studies have cast doubt on whether tarpans were truly wild or if they actually wereferal horsesor hybrids.[4][5][6]

Other subspecies ofEquus ferusmay have existed and could have been the stock from which domesticated horses are descended.[7]Przewalski's horse had reached the brink ofextinction,but was reintroduced successfully into the wild.[8]The tarpan became extinct in the 19th century, but is theorized to have been present on thesteppesofEurasiaat the time of domestication.[9][10][11][12]Since the extinction of the tarpan, attempts have been made to reconstruct itsphenotypeusing domestic horses, resulting inhorse breedssuch as theHeck horse.[13][14]However, the genetic makeup andfoundation bloodstockof those breeds is substantially derived from domesticated horses, so these breeds possess domesticated traits.

The term "wild horse" is also usedcolloquiallyin reference to free-roaming herds offeral horses;for example, themustangin the United States,[15]and thebrumbyin Australia.[16]These feral horses are untamed members of the domestic horse (Equus caballus), not to be confused with the truly "wild" horse subspecies extant into modern times.

Distribution

[edit]

Evidence supportsE. ferusas having evolved inNorth Americaabout 1.1 - 1.2million years ago.Around 800,000 - 900,000 years ago,E. ferusmigrated west toEurasiavia theBering Land Bridge,and south toSouth Americavia theIsthmus of Panamaas part of theGreat American Interchange.By the mid-latePleistocene,it had an extremely large range across the Americas, Eurasia, and North Africa, across which it was abundant. There have been several fossil horse taxa from throughout this range, such asEquus lambeiandAmerhippus,that were formerly considered distinct species, but genetic and morphological analysis supports them as beingconspecificwithE. ferus.[17][18][19][20]By the end of the Late Pleistocene, wild horses had colonised the far north of theTaimyr Peninsula.[21]

By the latest Pleistocene or earlyHolocene,American populations had disappeared as part of theQuaternary extinction event,leaving only theOld Worldpopulations. It remained widespread there and was ultimately alsodomesticatedaround3600 B.C., but wild populations continued to decline. The last completely wild populations of thetarpanwent extinct inEastern Europeand the southern parts ofRussiaaround the late 19th century, andPrzewalski's horseofCentral Asiabecameextinct in the wildin 1969. However, over the past few centuriesferal horseshave beenintroducedto all continents exceptAntarctica,and Przewalski's horses have beenreintroducedto their former habitats in Mongolia.[17]


Ecology

[edit]

In general, wild horses aregrazersthat prefer to inhabit open areas, such assteppesandgrasslands.They may have seasonal food preferences, as seen in thePrzewalski's subspecies.[22]Horses may fall prey to native predators includingwolves,[23]cougars,[24]andspotted hyenas.[25]

Subspecies and their history

[edit]

E. ferushas had several subspecies, those of which survived into modern times are:[26]

  • The domesticated horse (Equus ferus caballus).
  • The Eurasian wild horse (Equus ferus ferus), incorrectly listed asEquus caballus ferusin MSW 3; originally considered synonymous with the tarpan, though recent research has cast doubt on this. Horses identified as tarpans were found in Europe andwestern Asiabefore the last surviving animals —possibly hybrids by that time — became effectively extinct in the late 19th century. The last specimen died in 1909 whilst in captivity in an estate inPoltava Governorate,Russian Empire.
  • Przewalski's horse(Equus ferus przewalskii), incorrectly listed asEquus caballus przewalskiiin MSW 3; also known as the Mongolian wild horse or takhi, it is native toCentral Asiaand theGobi Desert.It is sometimes considered its own species,Equus przewalskii.

The latter two are the only never-domesticated "wild" groups that survived into historic times. However, other subspecies ofEquus ferusmay have existed.[7]

In theLate Pleistoceneepoch, there were several other subspecies ofE. feruswhich have all since goneextinct.The exact categorization ofEquusremains into species or subspecies is a complex matter and the subject of ongoing work.[27]

Evolutionary history and taxonomy

[edit]
Equus ferusfossil from 9100 BC found nearOdense,at the Zoological Museum in Copenhagen
Probable European wild horse coat colors[28]
Main article:Evolution of the horse

The horse familyEquidaeand the genusEquusevolved in North America during thePliocene,before the species migrated acrossBeringiainto theEastern Hemisphere.[29]Studies usingancient DNA,as well as DNA of recent individuals, suggest the presence of two equine species in Late Pleistocene North America, a caballine species, suggested to be conspecific with the wild horse,[30][31]andHaringtonhippus francisci,the "New World stilt-legged horse"; the latter has beentaxonomicallyassigned to various names, and appears to be outside the grouping containing all extant equines.[32]In South America there appear to have been several species of equine,Equus(Amerhippus)neogeus,which had previously thought to represent 5 taxa due to morphological variability,[33]and several species ofHippidion,which also lie outside the group containing all living horses.[34](It had previously been suggested to have been nested withinEquusbased on incomplete sequence data[35])

Currently, three subspecies that lived during recorded human history are recognized.[26]One subspecies is the widespreaddomestic horse(Equus ferus caballus),[26]as well as two wild subspecies: the recently extinct European wild horse (E. f. ferus) and the endangeredPrzewalski's horse(E. f. przewalskii).[10][11][26]

Genetically, the pre-domestication horse,E. ferus,and the domesticated horse,E. caballus,form a single homogeneous group (clade) and are genetically indistinguishable from each other.[30][35][36][37]The genetic variation within this clade shows only a limited regional variation, with the notable exception of Przewalski's horse.[30][35][36][37]Przewalski's horse has several unique genetic differences that distinguish it from the other subspecies, including 66 instead of 64chromosomes,[10][38]uniqueY-chromosomegenehaplotypes,[39]and uniquemtDNAhaplotypes.[40][41]

Besides genetic differences,osteologicalevidence from across the Eurasian wild horse range, based on cranial and metacarpal differences, indicates the presence of only two subspecies in postglacial times, the tarpan and Przewalski's horse.[7][42]

Scientific naming of the species

[edit]

In some sources including MSW 3 (2005), the domesticated and wild horses were considered a single species, with the valid scientific name for such a single horse species beingEquus ferus,[43]although MSW erroneously usedE. caballusfor this (enlarged) taxon on account of a mis-interpretation of the then-recent ICZN ruling on the matter,[44]refer Groves & Grubb, 2011.[45]The wild tarpan subspecies isE. f. ferus,Przewalski's horse isE. f. przewalskii,while the domesticated horse is nowadays normally (but not exclusively) treated as a separate speciesE. caballus.The rules for the scientific naming of animal species are determined in theInternational Code of Zoological Nomenclature,which stipulates that the oldest available valid scientific name is used to name the species.[46]Previously, when taxonomists considered domesticated and wild horse two subspecies of the same species, the valid scientific name wasEquus caballusLinnaeus 1758,[47]with the subspecies labeledE. c. caballus(domesticated horse),E. c. ferusBoddaert, 1785 (tarpan) andE. c. przewalskiiPoliakov, 1881 (Przewalski's horse).[48]However, in 2003, theInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclaturedecided that the scientific names of the wild species have priority over the scientific names of domesticated species, therefore mandating the use ofEquus ferusfor both the wild and the domesticated horse if the two taxa are considered conspecific.[49]

Przewalski's horse

[edit]
Przewalski's horse in Hungary

Przewalski's horseoccupied the easternEurasian Steppes,perhaps from theUral MountainstoMongolia,although the ancient border between tarpan and Przewalski's distributions has not been clearly defined.[50]Przewalski's horse was limited toDzungariaand westernMongoliain the same period, and becameextinct in the wildduring the 1960s, but was reintroduced in the late 1980s to two preserves inMongolia.[51]Although earlier researchers such asMarija Gimbutastheorized that the horses of theChalcolithicperiod were Przewalski's, a 2003 study indicated that the Przewalski's horse is not an ancestor to modern domesticated horses.[52][53] A 2015 study determined that the Przewalski and domesticated horse lineages diverged from a common ancestor about 45,000 years ago.[54]

In 2018, a DNA study revealed that the horses raised for meat and milk[55]by theBotai culture5500 years ago were Przewalski's horses. The paper claims specifically that modern Przewalski's horses are the feral descendents of the domesticated[56][57]Botai horse, although it is also possible both groups could have descended separately from the same ancient wild Przewalski's horses.[58][59]

Przewalski's horse is still found today, though it is anendangered speciesand for a time was considered extinct in the wild.[41]Roughly 2000 Przewalski's horses are inzoosaround the world.[60]A small breeding population has been reintroduced in Mongolia.[61][62]As of 2005, a cooperative venture between theZoological Society of Londonand Mongolian scientists has resulted in a population of 248 animals in the wild.[63]

Przewalski's horse has some biological differences from the domestichorse;unlikedomesticatedhorses and the tarpan, which both have 64chromosomes,Przewalski's horse has 66 chromosomes due to aRobertsonian translocation.[64]However, the offspring of Przewalski and domestic horses are fertile, possessing 65 chromosomes.[65]

Feral horses

[edit]
Main articles:Feral horse,semi-feral,andferal
See also:List of megafauna discovered in modern times § Status unclear
Semi-feralExmoor ponies.Though popularly called "wild" horses, feral and semi-feral horses had ancestors that were domesticated.

Horses that live in an untamed state but have ancestors that have beendomesticatedare called "feral horses".[66]For instance, when the Spanish reintroduced the horse to the Americas, beginning in the late 15th century,[67]some horses escaped, formingferalherds; the best-known being themustang.[68]Similarly, thebrumbydescended from horses strayed or let loose in Australia by English settlers.[69]Isolated populations offeral horsesoccur in a number of places, includingBosnia,Croatia,New Zealand,Portugal,Scotlandand a number ofbarrier islandsalong the Atlantic coast of North America fromSable IslandoffNova Scotia,toCumberland Island,off the coast ofGeorgia.[70]Even though these are often referred to as "wild" horses, they are not truly "wild" if wildness is defined as having no domesticated ancestors.[66]

In 1995, British and French explorers encountered a new population of horses in theRiwoche ValleyofTibet,unknown to the rest of the world, but apparently used by the localKhambapeople.[71]It was speculated that theRiwoche horsemight be arelictpopulation of wild horses,[72]but testing did not reveal genetic differences with domesticated horses,[73]which is in line with news reports indicating that they are used as pack and riding animals by the local villagers.[74]These horses only stand 12hands(48 inches, 122 cm) tall and are said to resemble the images known as "horse no 2" depicted in cave paintings alongside images of Przewalski's horse.[73]

See also

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References

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Citations

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Bibliography

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